transcribers note: mis-spelled words in the original left as is. below is a list of all known mis-spelled words kept from the original: table of contents classification of plates bowels should be bowls chapter ii speed of the lathe centrificial should be centrifugal chapter ix methods of fastening stock epecially should be especially chapter xi spiral turning modelling should be modeling chapter xi plates b-v--2-b, b´ midde should be middle] a course in wood turning by archie s. milton otto k. wohlers [illustration: bruce milwaukee (publishers stamp)] the bruce publishing company milwaukee, wisconsin copyright 1919 archie s. milton otto k. wohlers preface this book is the outgrowth of problems given to high school pupils by the writers, and has been compiled in logical sequence. stress is laid upon the proper use of tools, and the problems are presented in such a way that each exercise, or project, depends somewhat on the one preceding. it is not the idea of the writers that all problems shown should be made, but that the instructor select only such as will give the pupils enough preliminary work in the use of the tools to prepare them for other models following. the related matter on the care of the lathe and tools, the grinding of chisels, the polishing of projects, and the specific directions and cautions for working out the various exercises and projects with the drawings, make the book not only valuable for reference, but also as a class text to be studied in connection with the making of projects. the drawings show exact dimensions and are tabulated in the upper right-hand corner in such a way that they may be used in a filing case if desired. at least two designs are shown for each model, and these may be used as suggestions from which students, with the aid of the instructor, may work out their own designs. the book has been divided into two parts: (a) spindle turning, and (b) face-plate turning. the same order is followed in each part; the related information is supplied where required as the pupil progresses. part a takes up the following: (i) exercises; (ii) models, involving the same tool processes, only in a somewhat different degree; (iii) oval turning, explaining the use of two centers; (iv) duplicate turning, where identical pieces are turned. part b is arranged as follows: (i) exercises; (ii) models, which are an application of cuts in exercises that involve only face-plate work; (iii) models, which require chucking; (iv) assembling exercises, involving spindle turning, face-plate work and chucking; (v) spiral turning, showing the method of turning a spiral on the lathe. the ultimate aim of this book is to give, through the exercises and problems, a thorough understanding of the principles of wood turning by gradually developing the confidence of the pupil in the complete control of his tools, at the same time suggesting harmonious lines in design which will lead to other ideas in designing problems. table of contents pages chapter i. introductory --commercial and educational values of wood turning --elements of success 9-10 chapter ii. the lathe --care of the lathe --speed of the lathe --method of figuring the diameter of pulleys --rules for finding the speeds and sizes of pulleys --points on setting up the lathe and shafting 11-14 chapter iii. wood turning tools --grinding and whetting turning tools --the gouge --the parting tool --scraping tools 15-18 chapter iv. spindle turning --centering stock --clamping stock in the lathe --adjusting the tool rest --position of the operator at the lathe --holding the tools --use of the tools in spindle turning 19-21 chapter v. tool processes in spindle turning --the roughing cut --the sizing cut --the smoothing cut --testing for smoothness --measuring for length --squaring ends --cutting off --shoulder cuts --taper cuts --v cuts-concave cuts --convex cuts --combination cuts --chisel handles --mallets and handles --vise handles 22-32 chapter vi. oval turning --tool operations 33-34 chapter vii. duplicate turning --use of measuring stick --use of templets 35 chapter viii. finishing and polishing --ordinary cabinet finishing --french polishing --method of applying french polish 36-38 chapter ix. face-plate and chuck turning --methods of fastening stock --small single screw face-plate --large surface screw face-plate --gluing to waste stock --lathe adjustments --position of tool rest 39-40 chapter x. tool processes in face-plate and chuck turning --straight cuts --roughing off corners --calipering for diameter --smoothing cut --roughing cut on the face --smoothing the face --laying off measurements --external shoulders --internal shoulders --taper cuts --v cuts --concave cuts --convex cuts --combination cuts --use of scraping tools --internal boring --turning a sphere 41-48 chapter xi. spiral turning --single spiral, straight shaft --tapered shaft --double spiral, tapered shaft --double spiral, straight shaft --double groove spiral, straight shaft 49-55 plates--spindle turning. straight cuts, 57 shoulder cuts, 59-65 taper cuts, 67-77 v cuts, 79-81 concave cuts, 83-87 convex cuts, 89-95 combination cuts, 97-101 chisel handles, 103-107 cabinet file handle, 109 scratch awl handle, 111 carving tool handle, 113 turning chisel handle, 115 mallets, 117-119 gavels, 121-127 darning eggs, 129-133 stocking darner, 131 potato masher, 135 rolling pins, 139-141 vise handle, 143 screw driver handles, 145-147 pene hammer handle, 149 claw hammer handle, 151 indian clubs, 153-155 dumb bells, 157-159 ten pins, 161 plates--chuck turning. straight cuts, 167-169 shoulder cuts, 171-173 taper cuts, 175-177 v cuts, 179-181 concave cuts, 183-185 convex cuts, 187-189 combination cuts, 191-195 match boxes, 197-201 pin trays, 203-205 hair pin receivers, 207-209 hat pin receivers, 211-213 ornamental vases, 215-219 spinnet, 221 towel rings, 223-227 card trays, 229-235 picture frames, 237-243 nut bowls, 245-251 napkin rings, 253-257 jewel boxes, 259-273 collar boxes, 275-279 sphere, 281 checker men, 283 candle sticks, 285-293 shaving stands, 295-301 reading lamp stands, 303-307 pedestal, 309 smokers' stands, 311-313 pin cushion and spoon holder, 315 chess men, 317-319 pedestals, 321-325 electric reading lamps, 327-335 magazine holders, 337-339 classification of plates a. spindle turning i. exercises 1. straight cuts, a 2. shoulder cuts, a-b-c-d 3. taper cuts, a-b-c-d-e-f 4. v cuts, a-b 5. concave cuts, a-b-c 6. convex cuts, a-b-c-d 7. combination cuts, a-b-c ii. models 1. chisel handles, a-b-c-d-e-f-g 2. mallets, a-b 3. gavels, a-b-c-d 4. stocking darners, a-b-c 5. potato mashers, a-b 6. rolling pins, a-b 7. vise handles, a iii. oval turning 1. screw-driver handles, a-b 2. hammer handles, a-b iv. duplicate turning 1. indian clubs, a-b 2. dumb-bells, a-b 3. tenpins, a 4. drawer pulls, a-b b. face-plate and chuck turning i. exercises 1. straight cuts, a-b 2. shoulder cuts, a-b 3. taper cuts, a-b 4. v cuts, a-b 5. concave cuts, a-b 6. convex cuts, a-b 7. combination cuts, a-b-c ii. face-plate models 1. match boxes, a-b-c 2. pin trays, a-b 3. hair pin receivers, a-b 4. hat pin receivers, a-b 5. ornamental vases, a-b-c 6. spinnet, (game) a iii. chuck models 1. towel rings, a-b-c 2. card trays, a-b-c-d 3. picture frames, a-b-c-d 4. nut bowels, a-b-c-d 5. napkin rings, a-b-c 6. jewel boxes, a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h 7. collar boxes, a-b-c 8. spheres, a 9. checker men, a iv. assembling exercises 1. candle sticks, a-b-c-d-e 2. shaving stands, a-a´-b-b´ 3. reading lamp stands, a-b-c 4. pedestals, a 5. smoking stands, a-b 6. pin cushions and spool holder, a 7. chess men, a-a´ v. spiral turning 1. pedestal, (single) a-a´, (double) b 2. reading lamps, (single) a-a´-a´´ (double) b-b´ 3. magazine holder, a-a´ chapter i introductory wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for a great many years. it is used in various forms in making furniture and furniture parts, building trim, tool parts, toys, athletic paraphernalia and many other useful and beautiful articles in common use. when properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable types of instruction. it appeals to pupils more than any other type of manual work, as it embodies both the play and work elements. it is very interesting and fascinating and, in the hands of a skilled instructor, is readily correlated with other work. wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in pattern making and machine shop work. it brings into play the scientific element by demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies. in bringing the chisel into contact with the revolving surface, the mathematical principle of the "point of tangency" is illustrated. excellent tool technique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of every movement depends the success of the operator, and any slight variation will spoil a piece of work. this brings in a very close correlation of the mental and motor activities and also gives the student an opportunity for observing and thinking while at work. when his tool makes a "run" he must determine the reason and figure out why a certain result is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position. certain cuts must be fully mastered, and it takes a good deal of experience and absolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it is possible to attempt skilful work. if scraping is allowed the educational value of the work is lost. in wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened, and art and architecture can be correlated. the pupil will see for himself the need of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determining curves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blend together. if properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecture can be brought out in the making of the bead, fillet, scotia, cove, etc. a feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his hands shaping materials into objects of pleasing form. wood turning properly taught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for the beautiful. the boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves and clean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effects which are characteristic in cheap commercial work, made only to sell. success in turning depends on the following: 1. care of lathe, tools, selection of materials. 2. study of the scientific elements of- a. revolving bodies. b. points of tangency. c. study of results by reasoning and observing. 3. development of technique and exactness. 4. correlation of mental and motor activities. chapter ii the lathe the sizes of turning lathes are given as 10", 12", etc. these figures denote the diameter, or size, of the largest piece of work that can be turned on them. the measurement is taken from the center point of the live center to the bed of the lathe (usually 5" or 6") and is one-half the diameter of the entire circle. the length of a lathe is determined by the length of a piece of work that can be turned. this measurement is taken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stock is drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed. fig. 1 shows a turning lathe with sixteen principal parts named. the student should learn the names of these parts and familiarize himself with the particular function of each. care of the lathe the lathe should be oiled every day before starting. at the end of the period the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings, after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth to remove all surplus oil. all tools should be wiped clean and put in their proper places. if a student finds that his lathe is not running as it should, he should first call the attention of the instructor to that fact before attempting to adjust it; and then only such adjustments should be made as the instructor directs. speed of the lathe the speed of the lathe should range from 2400 to 3000 revolutions per minute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley. at this speed stock up to 3" in diameter can be turned with safety. stock from 3" to 6" in diameter should be turned on the second or third step, and all stock over 6" on the last step. the speed at which a lathe should run depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kind of material used. pieces that cannot be centered accurately and all glued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all corners are taken off and the stock runs true. at high speed the centrificial force on such pieces is very great, causing the lathe to vibrate, and there is a possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thus endangering the worker as well as those around him. after the stock is running true the speed may be increased. [illustration: fig. 1. wood turning lathe] to figure the diameter of pulleys suppose a motor runs 1500 r.p.m. and is fitted with a 4" pulley. suppose also, a main shaft should run 300 r.p.m. then, 1500 : 300 :: x : 4; or, 300x = 6000, x = 20, or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft. suppose again that a line shaft runs 300 r.p.m., and a counter shaft 600 r.p.m. the counter shaft has a pulley 4" in diameter. the pulley on the line shaft must then have a diameter of 8". 300 : 600 :: 4 : x; or, 300x = 2400, x = 8" suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs 600 r.p.m.; a lathe spindle runs 2200 r.p.m., when connected with the small cone pulley which has a diameter of 3". the large cone pulley has then a diameter of 11". 600 : 2200 :: 3 : x or, 600x = 6600; x = 11" rules for finding the speeds and sizes of pulleys 1. to find the diameter of the driving pulley: multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it should make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driver. (20 x 300 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 1500 = 4"--diameter of motor pulley.) 2. to find the diameter of the driven pulley: multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 300 = 20"--diameter of the driven pulley.) 3. to find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley: multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide by the diameter of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 20 = 300--revolutions of driven pulley.) points on setting up lathe and shafting the counter shaft should be about 7' above the lathe. a distance of 6' from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient. in setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that both be level. the counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft. when the counter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the counter shaft cone to the spindle cone; the lathe should be adjusted so that the belt will track between the two cone pulleys. the axis of the lathe must be parallel to that of the counter shaft. the lathe, however, need not be directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angle as well as perpendicular. chapter iii wood turning tools a wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools. fig. 2 shows the general shape of these tools. 1-1/4" gouge 3/4" gouge 1/2" gouge 1/4" gouge 1-1/4" skew 3/4" skew 1/2" skew 1/4" skew 1/8" parting tool 1/2" round nose 1/4" round nose 1/2" square nose 1/4" square nose 1/2" spear point 1/2" right skew 1/2" left skew slip stone with round edges 6" outside calipers 6" inside calipers 8" dividers 12" rule 1/2 pt. oil can bench brush grinding and whetting turning tools skew chisel the skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides on this tool the cutting edge should form an angle of about 20° with one of the edges. the skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left, and therefore, must be beveled on both sides. the length of the bevel should equal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it is sharpened. in grinding the bevel, the chisel must be held so that the cutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel. the wheel should be about 6" in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightly hollow ground. cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dry emery. otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel, taking out the temper; the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up. care should be exercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformly hollow ground. the rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whetted off with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of the stone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact with it. rub first on one side and then on the other. the wire edge is thus worn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle of the bevels. the chisel is sharp when the edge, which may be tested by drawing it over the thumb nail, is smooth and will take hold evenly along its entire length. if any wire edge remains it should be whetted again. [illustration: fig. 2. lathe tools] gouge the gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is ground so that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape. the tool is a combination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge. the bevel should extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extends to each side. this is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which would be present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinary wood-working gouge. in making shearing cuts the round nose permits the tool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work. the length of the bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the point where the sharpening begins. the sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for the average student. the ordinary gouge which has a square nose may be beveled by merely turning it half way around and back again. in working out the round nose of a gouge for wood turning, it is necessary that the handle be swung from one side to the other while, at the same time, the chisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly. it is sometimes necessary to allow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening the gouge. this kind of grinding, however, does not leave the tool hollow ground as when the face of the wheel is used. to complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slip stone, the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of which are rounded. the toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge are brought into contact with the flat side of the stone. as the sharpening proceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge. the rounded edge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back and forth until the rough edge disappears. great care must be taken not to bevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of the stone, as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel or plane bit. parting tool the parting tool is sharpened on both sides. this tool differs from the ordinary chisel in that it is between 5/8" and 3/4" thick and only about 1/8" wide at the widest point, which is in the center of its entire length. the bevels must meet exactly at the center, or the widest point, and should make an angle of about 50° with each other. if the bevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear, and the sides will rub against the revolving stock; the tool will be burned and will thus lose its temper. the bevel should be hollow ground slightly as then comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting. scraping tools the round nose, square nose, spear point, right skew and left skew are scraping tools, used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-plate work. they are sharpened on one side only, and the bevel is about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened. these tools should be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting. scraping tools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with the wood almost at right angles. after sharpening, the edges of these tools may be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in the same manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though not nearly to so great a degree. this will help to keep the tool sharp for, as the edge wears off, the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent. the chisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will not stand a great amount of turning over on the edge. small pieces will be broken out, unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a more acute angle than was used in the whetting. if a narrow burnisher is used, pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge and thus make the tool useless. chapter iv spindle turning spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in which the stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and dead centers. there are two methods in common use in wood turning: first, the scraping or pattern-makers' method; and second, the cutting method. each has its advantages and disadvantages, but it is necessary that both be learned in order to develop a well rounded turner. care should be exercised, however, that each method be used in its proper place. the first is slower, harder on the cutting edge of tools, and less skill is required to obtain accurate work; the second is faster, easier on the cutting edge of tools, and the accuracy of results obtained depends upon the skill acquired. as skill is the one thing most sought for in high school work, the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for all spindle turning and, with but few exceptions, for face-plate and chuck turning. to center stock if the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best way to locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock. the point of intersection locates the center. clamping stock in the lathe take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive the spur deep into the wood. never drive the wood onto the live center while in the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by such practice. when extremely hard wood is being used, it is a good practice to make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at the intersection, thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely. oil the other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position, and give the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood. then replace the live center by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle by a sudden push of the hand. the tail stock is then moved about 1/2" to 1" from the end of the piece to be turned, having the tail spindle well back in the tail stock. the tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed. turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly. work the cone pulley by hand at the same time, so that the cup or dead center will be forced deeply into the wood, so deeply that the live center will not continue to turn. now turn the dead spindle back until the live spindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast. [illustration: fig. 3] adjusting the tool rest horizontally the tool rest should be set about 1/8" from the farthest projecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally as the stock diminishes in size. the vertical height varies slightly according to the height of the operator. it is even with the center of the spindle for a short person; 1/8" above for a medium person; and 1/4" above for a tall person. so long as the stock is in its square form the tool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion as there is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stock from the machine. also see that everything is clamped tight before starting the lathe. position of the operator the operator stands firmly on the floor back far enough from the lathe to allow him to pass the tools from right to left in front of his body without changing the position of the feet. it may be found convenient to turn slightly, bringing the left side of the body a little closer to the lathe. in no case, however, should the tools be brought in contact with the body as the cutting operation from right to left should be accomplished by a movement of the arms alone and not the swaying of the body. (fig. 3.) holding the tools all tools should be held firmly but not rigidly. the right hand should grasp the handle at the extreme end for two reasons: first, to give as much leverage as possible so that the tool will not be thrown from the hands in case it should catch in the wood; second, a slight wavering of the hand will not cause as much variance in the cuts as when held closer up to the rest. the left hand should act as a guide and should be held over the tool near the cutting edge. the little finger and the back part of the palm of the hand should touch the tool rest thus assuring a steady movement. the left hand should not grasp the tool at any time. (fig. 3.) use of the tools in spindle turning the correct use of the various tools used in spindle turning will be explained in detail as the steps are worked out in the sequence of operations on the exercises in section a-i. chapter v tool processes in spindle turning exercise a-i--1-a. straight cuts 1. the roughing cut (large gouge). fig. 4. place the gouge on the rest so that the level is above the wood and the cutting edge is tangent to the circle or surface of the cylinder. the handle should be held well down. [illustration: fig. 4.] roll the gouge over slightly to the right so that it will make a shearing cut instead of a scraping cut. this rolling of the tool will also throw the chips from the operator. then lift the handle slowly, forcing the cutting edge deep enough into the wood to remove all or nearly all of the corners, at the end of the work which is being turned. this cut is begun about 3/4" from the dead center end. work back another 3/4", moving toward the live center and make a second cut, and so on until the entire length of the cylinder is gone over. this method of removing corners should always be followed to avoid any possibility of breaking a large sliver from the stock, with consequent danger to the worker. the tool may then be worked from one end to the other, getting a fairly-smooth, regular surface, slightly above the diameter required. however, do not begin on the very edge of the cylinder end. it is better to begin about 2" from one end and work to the other, and then reverse and work back. the tool should also be held at a slight angle to the axis of the cylinder, with the cutting point always in advance of the handle. [illustration: fig. 5.] 2. the sizing cut (small gouge). fig. 5. set the calipers to the required diameter of the cylinder. with a small gouge held in the right hand scrape grooves about 1" apart, holding the calipers in the left hand perpendicular to the cylinder and measuring the cuts as they are made. the scraping should continue until the calipers will pass easily over the cylinder. it will be well while scraping to work the handle of the gouge a little from side to side so that the nose has more clearance. this will prevent the piece which is being turned from chattering or vibrating. the calipers will be slightly sprung by coming in contact with the revolving stock but this error in diameter will be removed by the finishing cut which removes these marks from the finished cylinder. 3. the smoothing cut (large skew). fig. 6. lay the skew chisel on the rest with the cutting edge above the cylinder and at an angle of about 60° to the surface. slowly draw the chisel back and at the same time raise the handle until the chisel begins to cut about 1/4" to 3/8" from the heel. the first cut is begun from 1" to 2" from either end and is pushed toward the near end. then begin at the first starting point and cut toward the other end. one should never start at the end to make a cut as there is danger that the chisel will catch and cause the wood to split or that the chisel will be torn from the hands. the first cut takes off the bumps and rings left by the gouge, and takes the stock down so one can just see where the scraping to size was done. then take the last cut and remove all traces of these, leaving the cylinder perfectly smooth and of the required diameter at each end. test the cylinder for accuracy with a straight edge. [illustration: fig. 6.] 4. testing for smoothness. in testing for smoothness place the palm of the hand, with the fingers extended straight, lightly on the back of the cylinder opposite the tool rest. this position will avoid any possibility of the hand being drawn in between the cylinder and the rest. [illustration: fig. 7.] 5. measuring for length (rule and pencil). fig. 7. hold the back edge of the rule in the left hand and place it on the tool rest so that the front edge is almost in contact with the revolving cylinder. with a sharp pencil mark off the required length, starting from the dead center end. the first mark should be just far enough in on the cylinder to insure cutting past the point of the dead center. this will leave all surplus stock at the live center end where it is needed, because, if not enough stock is left at this end, there is danger of striking the live center spur with the tool and of injuring the chisel and perhaps the work. in case several measurements are to be made, as in some of the following exercises, the rule should not be moved until all are marked. this will insure more accurate work than if the rule be changed several times. 6. squaring ends (small skew and parting tool). fig. 8. this operation is done with the toe or acute angle of the 1/2" or 1/4" skew chisel. place the chisel square on the tool rest. swing the handle out from the cylinder so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, next to the stock is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. the heel of the chisel is then tipped slightly from the cylinder in order to give clearness. raise the handle and push the toe of the chisel into the stock about 1/8" outside the line indicating the end of the cylinder. swing the handle still farther from the cylinder and cut a half v. this will give clearance for the chisel point and will prevent burning. continue this operation on both ends until the cylinder is cut to about 3/16" in diameter. the remaining 1/8" is then removed by taking very thin cuts (about 1/32") holding the chisel as first stated. after each cut is made the end should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel over the end of the cylinder. [illustration: fig. 8.] this is an easy cut after it is mastered, but is one of the hardest to learn. should the operator lose control of the tool and allow any part other than the point to touch the cylinder, a run or gashing of the wood will be caused. in large cylinders where considerable stock has to be cut away in order to square the ends, time will be saved by sizing the ends down with the parting tool to within 1/8" of the desired line, leaving enough stock at the base of the cuts to still hold the cylinder rigid while cutting on the ends. [illustration: fig. 9.] for this operation hold the parting tool on the rest with the cutting edge parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to the cylinder. lift the handle and force the cutting edge into the wood; at the same time push the chisel forward to keep it at the proper tangency. 7. cutting off (small skew). fig. 9. after both ends have been squared cut away stock, at both ends, to leave just enough to hold the cylinder from separating from the waste ends. with the chisel held in the right hand in the same position as in squaring the ends, and the fingers of the left hand around the stock to catch it, slowly force the point of the chisel into the stock at the live center end, until it is cut free and the cylinder stops in the operator's hand. too much pressure should not be used in this operation or it will cause the cylinder to twist off instead of being cut, and will leave a ragged hole in the end. the dead center end, which has been scored heavily before cutting off at the live center, is then removed by holding the grind of the chisel flat on the end of the cylinder. the latter is revolved by hand until the stock is cut away. exercise a-i--2-a. shoulder cuts 1. turn a cylinder to the largest diameter required. 2. lay off measurements with rule and pencil. 3. with the gouge (where space permits) or the parting tool (in narrow spaces) rough out surplus stock, keeping 1/16" away from the lines indicating shoulders. 4. caliper to the diameter of the second step. 5. the shoulders are cut down as described in "squaring ends, step 6, straight cuts." 6. the new diameter or step is then trued up with a skew chisel in the same manner as a cylinder; except that in nearing the shoulder the chisel is pushed up on the cylinder until the heel, which is the only part that can be worked into the corner, becomes the cutting point. fig. 10. in very narrow steps it will be advisable to use the heel entirely as a cutting point. in spaces between shoulders, too narrow to permit the use of the skew chisel, very effective work can be accomplished by slightly tipping the parting tool sideways to allow a shearing cut to be taken with the cutting edge. 7. where several steps are required on the same cylinder, each successive one is worked out as above described. note:--all preliminary steps in working stock to size, laying of dimensions, etc., in preparation for the exercise in hand, will be omitted in the following exercises: exercise a-i--3-a. taper cuts [illustration: fig. 10.] calipering for new diameters. for all diameters on tapers the calipers should be set 1/16" larger than the desired measurement in order to avoid working under size in the finishing cut which removes all caliper marks. if the taper runs to the extreme end of the cylinder, as in plate a-i--3-a, a parting tool should be used, instead of a gouge, to take off a very thin shoulder. if the taper forms an internal angle as in plate a-i--3-b, a gouge is used as in step 2--sizing cut--plate a-i--1-a. in other cases where tapers connect with straight cylindrical shoulders it is best to turn the shoulders to size before working the tapers. in cutting a long straight taper the skew chisel is used, much in the same manner as in ordinary cylinder work, except that at the start of each cut the heel must be the cutting point. this will avoid any chance of the chisel catching and drawing back and thus gouging the wood beyond the starting point. as soon as the cut is well under way the chisel may be pushed up on the cylinder so that the cutting point is a little above the heel. all cuts should be made from the highest point on the cylinder to the lowest and thus cut across the grain of the wood. in making the cut, care should be taken to see that the chisel is not tipped to a greater angle than that of the taper wanted. should that be done a hollow, or dished out, taper is sure to be the result instead of a straight one. exercise a-i--4-a. v cutting in cutting v's a small skew is almost always used and the cutting is done with the heel. place the chisel square on the tool rest so that the cutting edge is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. draw the chisel back and raise the handle so that the heel is driven into the wood, thus scoring it. this cut should not be too deep or the chisel will burn. this scoring should be at the exact center of the v cut. swing the handle a little to the right and at the same time tip the chisel so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, is at an angle of about 45° with the axis of the cylinder. the handle is then raised at an angle of 45° bringing the heel down to make a good cut. the chisel is then swung to the other side and a similar cut is taken. these cuts are continued, together with the center scoring, until quite close to the pencil marks. test the angle before the finishing cut is taken. it will be found best to have the v slightly greater than 90° at the base until the final cut is made, at which time it can be trued up. the v should be tested with the square end of a rule. the cylinder should not be in motion while testing. when angles other than 45° are cut, the cutting edge of the chisel should be tipped so that it is parallel or nearly so to the side of the cut desired. a-i--5-a. concave cuts the concave cuts as a rule will give the pupil considerable trouble at first owing to the fact that the grind, which forms the cutting edge and which must be held perpendicular to the cylinder at the start, is on the under side of the tool and cannot be seen. however, as soon as the correct angle of the tool is located, the cut will be found as easy as any. concaves are usually made with a medium sized gouge either the 1/2" or 3/4". place the gouge on the rest with the grind or cutting edge well above the wood. the tool is then rolled on its side so that the grind at the cutting point, which is on the lip of the gouge well below the center, is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. fig. 11. slowly raise the handle to force the gouge into the wood. as soon as the gouge has taken hold, the tool is forced forward and upward by a slight lowering of the handle, while at the same time it is rolled back toward its first position. care should be taken not to roll the chisel too fast or a perfect arc will not be cut. [illustration: fig. 11.] by this triple action the grind, which comes in contact with the surface of the curve, forces the lip sidewise and cuts one quarter of a circle. reverse the position of the gouge and cut from the other side in the same manner to form the other half of the semi-circle. the cutting should always stop at the base of the cut as there is danger that the tool will catch when cutting against the grain of the wood on the other side. repeat this operation until within about 1/16" of the required size. at the end of each successive cut the tool should have been forced far enough forward and upward to bring the grind or nose of the chisel well out on top of the cut. fig. 12. the exact depth of the concave is then calipered in the usual manner as described before. a finishing cut is then taken after the cut has been tested with a templet. [illustration: fig. 12.] a-i--6-a. convex cuts the convex cut, or bead as it is usually called, is generally considered the hardest cut to make.--the cut is made with the heel of a small skew chisel, usually the 1/4" or 1/8". after the cylinder has been marked off, rough out all stock between the beads with a parting tool. the base of the cuts is finished the same as described in plate a-i--1-a, for shoulder cutting. with a sharp pencil mark the center of each bead to be made. this line is the starting point for all cutting. place the chisel on the rest, with the cutting edge above the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to it. draw the chisel back and raise the handle to bring the heel of the chisel in contact with the cylinder at the line indicating the center of the bead. the chisel is then moved to the right (if cutting the right side of the bead); at the same time the chisel is continually tipped to keep the lower grind tangent to the revolving cylinder and also to the bead at the point of contact. fig. 13. this cut is continued until the bottom of the bead is reached. it is well in turning a series of beads to work the same side of all before reversing to the other side. note:--the same principles employed in this exercise are also used in working out long convex curves such as are found in chisel handles, mallet handles, etc. the only exception is that in most cases the point of contact need not be the heel of the chisel but higher up as in ordinary straight work. a-i--7-a--combination cuts these exercises are so designed as to include one or more of each of the foregoing cuts. the student here is given an opportunity of combining these cuts into one finished product. [illustration: fig. 13.] an analysis of the exercise chosen should be made to determine which of the various cuts should be made first, second, etc., in order to produce the exercise in the shortest time and with the least amount of tool manipulation. after the student has mastered these cuts with a certain degree of skill and accuracy, he is ready to apply them in working out various models in section ii. a-ii--1-a. chisel handles at this point it is well to state that the small end of all work should be turned at the dead center. in the case of chisel handles the socket or ferrule end is at the dead center where the stock can safely be cut away to permit the fitting of the ferrule or the socket. after the stock is turned to a cylinder of the largest dimension desired, the taper, for the socket chisel, should be turned first and fitted to the chisel in which it is to be used. then the rest of the handle is worked out. ferrules should also be fitted in the same manner. a drive fit should be used for all ferrules. a-ii--2 and 3. mallets and gavels the biggest source of trouble in these models is getting the handles to fit true. this is caused by not getting the hole in the head straight. turn the head to a cylinder 3/16" larger than the finished dimension. then bore the hole perpendicular to the axis as near as possible, either by leaving it between the lathe centers or by placing it in a vise. the handle is then fitted into the head. a snug fit is necessary. if one side "hangs" or is lower than the other the centers are moved sufficiently to correct it. the head is then turned to exact size and finished. a-ii--7. vise handles. turn the spindle with the solid head to dimensions. bore a hole through a 1-1/4" square block and fit the block snugly to the end of the spindle. turn this block to the same dimensions as the other head. this method will save chucking the second head and is much quicker. chapter vi oval turning oval work as a problem in turning will be found to be a very good one as well as interesting to the pupil. it brings in the principle of the oval as used in ordinary shop practice; (arcs from points on the major and minor axes). for thick heavy ovals the off-centering is very slight, while for long, thin ones the off-centering is greater. the measurements given on plates a-iii--1-a, b and a-iii--2-a, b will give a good idea of approximate distances to be used. while the tool operations are much the same as in other spindle turning there is one notable difference. the design must be worked out by eye, because of the nature of the work no caliper measurements can be made for depth of cuts. to get the best results the stock of oval turning should be cut square or slightly rectangular in cross-section and about 3" longer than the model to be made. the thickness of the stock should be about 1/8" greater than the major axis of the oval wanted. the centers are located in the usual manner after which perpendicular lines are drawn from the sides, passing through the points of the centers. from the ends of one of these, perpendicular lines are extended lengthwise of the stock (on opposite sides) meeting the corresponding perpendicular at the other end of the stock. these lines form the ridge of the oval. on the other perpendiculars, the points for off-centering are laid off, measuring the required distance on both sides of the center point. with a 1/8" drill bore holes 1/4" deep at each of the off-centering points as well as the original center. this will insure the lathe centers penetrating the stock at the proper point. the stock is then placed in the lathe, using two corresponding off-center points as centers. with the lathe running at third speed turn down the stock to the horizontal line forming the ridge of the oval, excepting for a distance of about 1-1/4" at the ends. the stock at the ends is necessary for the off-centering and, if cut away, will spoil the centering for the other side, especially at the live center end. the stock is then changed to the other off-center points and the second side is cut down to the line. all measurements are then laid out and the design is cut, changing the stock in the lathe when necessary. care should be taken that the sharp ridge left on the work forms a straight line the full length of the stock. after the design has been finished, the stock is centered on the true center and a very thin cut is taken the full length of the object to remove the sharp corners. the model is then sandpapered while the lathe is running very slowly. chapter vii duplicate turning under the head of duplicate turning have been classified only such models as clearly indicate the necessity of making two or more articles to complete the model or set of articles desired. but it is not intended to convey the idea that other models may not be made in duplicate as in many cases it is very desirable and even preferable that they should be made that way. whatever the problem may be the suggestions offered at this point may be applied effectively. whenever two or more models are to be made identically alike there are always two possibilities of inaccuracies that will render the work dissimilar: first, inaccurate measuring both for length and points of new diameters and also on the new diameters themselves; second, a variation in the curved surfaces either on long convex or concave cuts. the first difficulty can be overcome to a great extent by the use of a measuring stick. this stick should be made of any soft wood. it should be straight on one edge and about the thickness of an ordinary rule. on the straight edge lay off very carefully measurements for length, shoulders, beads, concaves and all points where calipering for new diameters will be necessary. insert at each point measured a small brad which has been sharpened at both ends, leaving the end protrude about 1/8". care should be taken that all brads protrude the same distance. after the stock has been turned to the largest diameter, the stick is held in the position of the rule while measuring and the points are forced against the revolving cylinder, thus scoring it. this stick can be used as many times as the model is to be made and the measurements will always be the same. to avoid dissimilar curves it is well to cut out a full sized templet of the model to be made. this templet can be made of any thin, stiff material, preferably light sheet iron. in some cases it will be necessary to make the templet in several pieces in order to help facilitate the tool operations. the use of this templet will not only be a help to getting all curved surfaces the same, but will also check up on the various new diameters on the model. the cylinder should never be in motion while the templet is being used. chapter viii finishing and polishing to get a high and lasting polish on wood, the work must be first sanded so as to be perfectly smooth. in addition to this, open grained wood, such as oak, must be properly filled with a wood filler. if properly sharpened tools have been used very little sanding is required, and then worn sandpaper should be used as it does not cut into the work as new paper cuts. remember sandpaper is not to be used as a tool in cutting down stock when working to dimensions. in using old sandpaper run the lathe at a moderate speed to avoid burning the wood, especially on square or round fillets. keep the edges of the work sharp and do not wear them round. in using new sandpaper use a fine grit (00 or 0) and move the paper from one end of the work to the other slowly, so that no scratches result on the surface of the work. the work may be finished by one of two methods. in the first method as in finishing ordinary cabinet work, the pieces should be stained and filled. in applying filler, run the lathe at the slowest speed after the material has dried sufficiently to rub into the pores of the wood. if the highlights are to be brought out, as in the case of oak, stain and then give a light coat of shellac, and apply the filler after the shellac is dry. the shellac keeps the dark filler from staining the flakes of the oak darker, and the pores of the wood fill in as before. the pores become darker than the flakes, and at the same time a smooth surface is produced. after the filler has hardened the wood may be waxed or varnished. the second method, or french polishing, is rather difficult to apply and requires a little skill. a close grained wood, like maple, will be found more satisfactory for the beginner. an open grained wood may be filled in the ordinary way, or the grain may be filled by rubbing into the pores of the wood a combination of shellac, rotten stone or pumice, oil and alcohol. rotten stone is used for dark wood and pumice is used for light wood. the wood may be left in the natural or stained as in the first method. the mixture of shellac, rotten stone, oil and alcohol, is applied to the work with a pad made of cotton waste, wrapped in cheese cloth to keep it from sticking to the work. it should be about 1-1/2" in diameter and 1/2" thick. hold the pad over the mouth of a bottle of shellac and tip the bottle so that the shellac comes in contact with the pad. the shellac will remain clean in a bottle and will be handy. the mouth of the shellac bottle should be about 1" in diameter and should be dipped once. do likewise with a bottle, having a mouth 1/2" in diameter, containing alcohol. this should be dipped twice allowing the alcohol to dilute the shellac. then drop on a couple of drops of oil and rub over the pad evenly; this aids in distributing the shellac properly and keeps the pad from sticking to the work. a bottle may also be used for this. for the rotten stone use a pepper shaker so that it may be sifted on the work as needed. when the mixture has been applied to the pad, hold the pad against the work lightly at first, until most of the moisture has been worked out of it, and then gradually increase the pressure until the pad is almost dry. in putting on the first coat, use more shellac and alcohol and just enough oil at all times to prevent the pad from sticking to the work. however, the pad should not contain as much shellac that it can be squeezed out with the fingers. when the pad is dry, another mixture is applied, and where open grained wood is used, rotten stone, or pumice stone, is sprinkled on the work to gradually fill up the pores and to build up a smooth surface. run the lathe at a low speed, depending on the size of the piece that is being polished. allow the first coat to dry before applying a second coat for, if too much is put on at any one time, the heat generated in the rubbing will cause the shellac to pull, and it will form rings by piling up. these rings may be worked out in two ways, either by a slight pressure of the pad on the rings or by cutting them with alcohol applied to the pad. if too much alcohol is used it will cut through the shellac and remove what has already been rubbed on. if at any time too much shellac is used it will pile up and form rings. too much rotten stone will cut down the polish and by absorbing the mixture will leave the pad dry. if too much oil is used the polish will become dull after a day or two. after the first coat has hardened apply the second, but use less shellac and more alcohol and just enough oil to prevent the pad from sticking. this may be done by dipping the tip of a finger in the oil and spreading it over the pad. the entire mixture should be so that only a dampness can be felt on the pad. as the process goes on less oil and shellac are used. all oil must be removed when applying the last coat, or the piece will lose its polish. all the pores should be filled, and no rings should be on the finished work. where a natural finish is desired, apply a coat of boiled linseed oil twelve hours before the work is to be polished. this will bring out the grain and will also aid in applying the first coat; no oil need then be used in the first coat. a great amount of practice and patience is required to get a first class polish. polishing can only be learned by experience. correct your troubles in properly proportioning the mixture. never use too much shellac as it will build up too fast and will not harden, thus causing rings; or it will pull and catch to the pad, thus forming bunches. the purpose of alcohol is mainly to dilute the shellac and to prevent against putting it on the work too fast, but care must be taken not to use too much alcohol to cut the shellac entirely. the oil helps to distribute the shellac evenly, but it must be removed when finishing the last coat, or the polish will not remain. it also helps to keep the pad from sticking to the work. it is impossible to obtain a polish that will be as lasting and rich by any method other than the one described. for success it is essential to learn the proportions of the mixture and to acquire skill in applying the materials by using exactly the right pressure and the right movement of the pad. chapter ix face-plate and chuck turning face-plate and chuck turning open an entirely new field of work from that taken up in previous chapters of this book. if handled correctly, it has much greater educational and practical value than cylinder turning. from the practical standpoint the field of work is broader and the models to be made are of much greater value. aside from this, trade methods and practices can be applied and a broad insight into commercial work can be given the student. in some details of chuck turning the tool operations already learned can be employed, but for the most part they are entirely different. in order to preserve the educational value of the work as brought out by skill and dexterity in handling tools, it will be necessary to use the cutting method wherever possible. in some instances that method will be impossible, and the scraping method must be used. methods of fastening stock all the work thus far has been on models where the stock worked upon is held between the live and dead centers. in face-plate and chuck turning the work is done at the head stock only and the piece is supported by means of a face-plate, or chuck, that is fastened to a face-plate, which is screwed onto the end of the live spindle. there are three methods of fastening stock to the face-plate, and it depends upon the nature of the exercise or model to be made which method is used. 1. small single screw face-plate. for all work that does not require deep cutting in the center, such as in towel rings, picture frames, etc., the small face-plate with a single screw should be used. note:--should it be found difficult to keep the block from working loose and turning, it is a good plan to fold a piece of sandpaper, grit side out, and place it between the face-plate and the stock. 2. large surface screw face-plate. for all work that does not require deep cutting on the outside, such as exercises, jewel boxes, etc., as well as all large stock, and all stock from which chucks are to be made, the large face-plate with the surface screws should be used. 3. gluing to waste stock. a block of scrap wood is fastened to a face-plate the same as for a chuck and surfaced off square. the block from which the model is to be made is planed square on one side and glued to the block on the face-plate with a sheet of paper between the two. to separate the model from the chuck, after it is completed, place a chisel on the waste stock, 1/16" back of the glue joint at such a point as will bring the chisel parallel to the grain of the model, and strike lightly with a mallet. this will cause the paper to separate and the model to become free. this method will be found very convenient epecially on models where the base is to be left straight. it will also be found to save much stock when working with expensive woods. lathe adjustments to get the best results in face-plate or chuck turning there should be no end play in the spindle of the lathe. the spindle should always be tested out, and if any play is found, should be adjusted before attempting any work. it is almost impossible to make a true cut when such a condition obtains. position of tool rest for all face-plate and chuck turning the tool rest should be kept as close to the stock as possible, the same as in spindle turning, regardless of the angle it may be set. vertically, the rest in most cases should be sufficiently below the center of the stock to bring the center or cutting point of the tools used, when held parallel to the bed of the lathe, even with the center of the stock. this last condition will necessitate adjusting the height occasionally when changing from large to small tools. chapter x tool processes in face-plate and chuck turning b-i--1-a. straight cuts 1. roughing off corners. (3/4" gouge.) fig. 14. the tool rest is set crosswise to the bed of the lathe and parallel to the face of the stock. place the gouge on the rest with the handle well down. roll the gouge to the left until the grind which forms the cutting edge is perpendicular to the stock. the point of contact should be slightly below the center or nose of the tool. the handle of the gouge is then swung well to the back of the lathe or to the operator's right. the gouge is then pushed forward into the stock and to the left, making a shearing cut. the cut should not be too heavy. the starting point for this cut should be a line which will indicate the largest diameter or circle that can be made from the block.--this cut should be repeated until the corners are removed from the block. to complete the cutting of thick stock it will be found necessary to change the tool rest to an angle of 45° with the bed of the lathe. [illustration: fig. 14.] when hardwood is being turned it is sometimes advisable to saw the block almost round with a compass saw or bandsaw, if one is to be had. should this be done the preceding steps are omitted. the tool rest is then placed parallel with the lathe bed and a roughing cut is taken with the gouge the entire thickness of the block. the lathe should be run on second or third speed until the corners are removed, and then changed to first speed. 2. calipering for diameter. the true diameter is then calipered the same as in spindle work. 3. smoothing cut. a smoothing cut is taken with a skew chisel the same as in spindle work. [illustration: fig. 15.] 4. roughing cut on the face. (3/4" gouge.) fig. 15. the rest is now placed parallel to the bed of the lathe and slightly above the center of the spindle. place the gouge on the rest on its edge with the grind toward the stock and parallel to the face to be surfaced. the nose of the gouge is the cutting point. the handle is then raised and the cutting point is forced toward the center. a very thin shaving should be taken. if the gouge is allowed to roll back so the grind above the cutting point comes in contact with the wood it is sure to catch and gash the wood. 5. smoothing the face. (small skew chisel.) fig. 16. for all work up to 3" in diameter, the surface may be smoothed by using a small skew chisel in the same manner as in squaring the ends of stock in cylinder work. (step 6--exercise a-i--1-a, straight cuts.) for larger work, place the chisel flat on the rest with the toe next to the stock and the back edge of the chisel parallel to the face to be surfaced. the point of the chisel is then forced toward the center of the stock, using the straight back of the tool as a guide against the finished surface. only a very thin cut should be taken at a time. [illustration: fig. 16.] note:--while this operation may be termed a scraping cut, it will be found to be much easier on the tool than if the cutting edge were held flat against the work as in other scraping cuts. the surface of the work should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel or a straight edge across the face. laying off measurements in laying off measurements on the face of the stock a pencil compass or dividers should be used. set the compass or dividers to one-half the diameter of the circle wanted. while one point is held at the exact center of the stock, which is easily located while the stock is revolving, the other is brought in contact with the revolving stock until a circle of the correct diameter is marked. [illustration: fig. 17.] should the center of the stock be cut away, rendering this method impossible, the following method may be used: set the compass or dividers to the exact diameter wanted. place one point in contact with the stock a little to one side of the required line on the part that is to be cut-away. bring the other point to the stock and see if it touches the line first made. if not, move the first point until the two points track in the same line. [illustration: fig. 18.] the rest should be set at the exact center for measuring. all measurements on the edge of the stock can be made with pencil and rule as in cylinder turning. b-i--2-a. shoulder cuts 1. external shoulders. fig. 18. the surplus stock at each successive shoulder is roughed out with a 3/4" gouge, keeping well outside the finished measurements. the gouge for this work is held in the same position as described in b-i--1-a, step 1, for roughing off corners. [illustration: fig. 19.] 2. for the finishing cut a small skew chisel is used, and the process is the same as that used in squaring ends of stock. both the vertical and horizontal shoulders can be handled easily by this method. fig, 19. 3. internal shoulders. for internal shoulder cutting the same methods may be used for roughing out and cutting the horizontal shoulders, but for the vertical or base shoulder it will be necessary to use the scraping process. (see "use of scraping tools.") b-i--3-a. taper cuts taper cutting will not be found hard as the gouge and skew chisel are used in the same manner as described in b-i--1-a, steps 4 and 5. after the stock has been roughed away with the gouge to the approximate angle desired, a smoothing cut is taken with the skew. care should be taken that the skew chisel is held at the exact angle of the taper desired. b-i--4-a. v cuts v cutting will also be found easy as the tool process is exactly the same as that used in spindle turning. exercise a-i--4-a. fig. 20. b-i--5-a. concave cuts place the 3/4" gouge on the rest with the handle parallel to the bed of the lathe. roll the gouge on its edge and swing the handle so that the grind is perpendicular to the stock with the nose of the tool as the cutting point. [illustration: fig. 20.] force the gouge forward into the wood. as soon as the cut is started, the handle is lowered and swung to the left; (if cutting the left side of the concave) at the same time the tool is rolled back toward its original position. this movement brings the cutting point farther down on the lip and the grind, resting on the side of the cut, will force the gouge sidewise and will form one-quarter of the circle. fig. 21. [illustration: fig. 21.] this cut is continued from alternate side until the concave is nearly to size. the cut should be tested with a templet before the finishing cut is taken. b-i--6-a. convex cuts rough out the stock between the beads with a parting tool. hold the edge of the gouge on the rest with the handle, parallel to the bed of the lathe, to make the nose the cutting point. swing the handle to the left so that the grind will form a tangent to the bead at its highest point. the gouge is then forced into the stock and to the right; at the same time the handle is swung to the right; keeping the grind tangent to the bead at the point of contact. fig. 22. this cut is continued until the base of the bead is reached. b-i--7-a. combination cuts as in spindle turning, a combination exercise should be given at this point to provide an opportunity for studying out the best methods of working the various cuts just described into a finished product. use of scraping tools when scraping is to be employed, it should be done with only those tools that are made for that purpose, i.e., square nose, round nose, spear point, right and left skew. the handling of these tools will be found easy. the only point to remember is that they should be held flat on the tool rest and parallel to the bed of the lathe when in use. in general practice the ordinary skew chisel should not be used as a scraping tool, for the cutting edge is not sharpened to withstand the heavy strain required by such work. should it be necessary, however, to use a skew chisel as a scraper, the tool should be held so that the top grind is parallel to the bed of the lathe while in use. internal boring in roughing out the center for napkin rings, jewel boxes, etc., the quickest method is to work it out with a small gouge. place the gouge on the rest parallel to the bed of the lathe, having the point even with the center of the stock. force the gouge into the wood until a hole is bored to the depth required. if the hole is deeper than 1", remove the tool often and clear out the shavings in order not to burn the point. in order to enlarge the hole to the proper size the point of the gouge is pressed against the left side of the hole a little above the center and a shearing cut is taken. to obviate the danger of the tool catching, all cuts should start from the back of the hole and proceed toward the front. [illustration: fig. 22.] b-iii--8-a. sphere after the sphere is turned as nearly perfect as is possible when working between centers (steps 1 to 4) it is cut free from the waste stock and is centered in a chuck. the chuck is made of any soft wood and should be cut in the end grain, which will insure equal pressure on all sides. equal pressure cannot be obtained if the chuck is cut in cross grain wood, owing to the tendency of side grain to give more than the end grain. the sphere should be forced into the chuck with slightly over half protruding. very thin cuts should be taken and the sphere should be revolved one-quarter turn after each until true. as the sphere becomes smaller during the cutting, it will be necessary to cut the face of the chuck down and bore the hole deeper and smaller in order to keep more than half of it protruding at all times. [illustration: mirror (see pages 299-301).] to remove the sphere tap the chuck lightly with a hammer just above it, at the same time pull out on the sphere. chapter xi spiral turning spiral turning is a subject that has received very little attention by most schools in which wood turning is taught. spiral work is seen in antique furniture and also in the modern furniture of the present day. it seems that it takes the wheel of fashion about a century to make a complete turn, for what our forefathers neglected and destroyed the people of the present day value and cherish. spiral work gives excellent practice in shaping and modelling wood. it brings into play the principle of the helix as used in cutting threads, etc.; and its form, size and shape may be varied according to the taste of the individual. as in threads so in spiral work we have single and double spirals, and their form and proportion depend upon their use and application in furniture making. a variation of the spiral may be made in several ways: first, by changing the number of turns of the spiral on a straight shaft; second, by running a spiral on a tapered shaft; third, by changing the shape or form of the spiral itself; and fourth, by making more than one spiral on a shaft. it is uncommon to see ten or twelve spirals running around a single shaft. some of the forms of the above types are fully taken up and explained in the work that is to follow. plates b-v--1-a, a´. single spiral. straight shaft to work out a single spiral for a pedestal proceed as follows: 1. turn a cylinder 2-1/4" in diameter. make the ends slightly larger in order that the design may be turned on each, after the spiral has been worked out. 2. lay off spaces 2-1/16" apart on the cylinder while the spindle is turning in the lathe and divide each of these into four equal parts. each one of these large spaces represents one turn of the spiral. a good proportion is slightly less than the diameter of the cylinder; thus the diameter of the cylinder equals 2-1/4" and the width of the space 2-1/16". 3. on the cylinder parallel to the axis draw lines a-a b-b c-c d-d. these lines should be 90° apart as shown in the top diagram (plate b-v--1-a´). line d-d is on the other side of the cylinder as shown in the top and middle diagrams. [illustration: fig. 23.] 4. start on line a-a at point x, circle 1, and draw a line connecting it with line b-b on circle 1´. then connect b-b on circle 1´ with c-c on circle 2 and so on until a spiral has been drawn the entire length of the cylinder. this line will form the ridge of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram. 5. next begin on line c-c at circle 1, and draw a line connecting it with d-d on circle 1´ then to line a-a on circle 2, and so on as before. this spiral represents the center of the groove or the portion which is to be cut away. this is not shown in the diagram because more or less confusion would be caused with the line representing the ridge of the spiral. 6. begin on line c-c at circle 1, and saw to a depth of 3/4". saw the entire length of the cylinder leaving about 1-1/2" at the ends. do not follow the line here, but switch off gradually and follow circles 1 and 15, so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not abruptly. 7. rough out with a knife or chisel by cutting on both sides of the saw cut. then use a wood rasp to finish shaping out the spiral. when properly shaped out allow the lathe to turn slowly and smooth with sandpaper by following the spiral as the lathe turns. [illustration: fig. 24.] [illustration: fig. 24-a.] [illustration: fig. 25.] 8. cut the design on both ends of the cylinder and polish. plates b-v--2-a, a´, a´´. single spiral. tapered shaft to lay off a single spiral for the electric lamp shown in figs. 24 and 24a proceed as follows: 1. select your wood and bore a hole through it. plug the hole and center the piece in the lathe. this insures getting the hole exactly in the center, and it will not be cut into while the cutting of the groove of the spiral proceeds. a groove may also be cut in two pieces of stock and glued together to form a hole through the stock. 2. turn a cylinder 2-1/2" in diameter, tapering it to 1-1/2" at the one end; this part should be 12-1/8" long. both ends should be left larger than 2-1/2" as the lower and upper designs must be cut here. 3. let the spindle revolve in the lathe and draw circles as shown in the layout (plate b-v--2-a´). the number of circles will vary with the taper. since seven turns are needed in the present spiral, 28 circles will be necessary--four circles for each turn of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram. a good proportion to follow is to measure the diameter of the spindle at circle 2 and lay off this distance from circle 1 to circle 3. then measure the diameter at circle 4 and lay off this diameter from circle 3 to circle 5 and so on until all circles have been made. then divide these large divisions into four equal parts. 4. draw four lines the entire length of the spindle, each 90° apart as shown by the heavy lines in the middle diagram. the heavy circles of the same diagram represent the complete turns of the spiral. 5. lay out the line representing the ridge of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram. begin on circle 1, where the straight line crosses it, draw to circle 1´ at the point where the next straight line crosses it, then to 2--2´--3--3´ and so on until the end is reached. this forms the ridge of the spiral as shown in diagram 3. next it may be more convenient to draw another line representing the groove. in this case begin at point x in the middle diagram, opposite the point where first started, and continue in the preceding manner, making this line parallel to the other line. 6. saw on the line last made, being careful not to saw too deeply. the depth must be 1/4" less than half the diameter of the spindle where the cut is made. this saw cut forms the groove of the spiral. the groove is then cut out by hand with a chisel or knife, by working down the wood on both sides of the saw cut. after the spirals have been roughed out, a rasp is used to finish shaping them. the work is then sandpapered smooth, while the spindle is revolved slowly in the lathe. 7. cut designs on the ends of the cylinder and polish. plates b-v--2-b, b´. double spiral. tapered shaft to work out a double spiral for the electric lamp illustrated in fig. 25 proceed as follows: 1. turn up the spindle in the usual manner. since the base of the shaft is larger than the top, the spiral must also be in proportion and lines a-a´, b-b´, c-c´, d-d´, and e-e´, are drawn around the shaft. to get the approximate spacing from circles a-a to b-b measure the diameter at a-a´ plus about 3/16" and lay off from a-a´ to b-b´. then take the diameter of b-b´ plus about 3/16" and lay off from a-a´ to b-b´. then take the diameter at b-b´ plus about 3/16" and lay off from circle b-b´ to c-c´ and so on. if the shaft is tapered more, a different proportion must be used. also if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft three times, a variation must be made in the number of circles. [illustration: fig. 27.] 2. if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft twice, draw circles 1-1´, 2-2´, 3-3´, and 4-4´ and the spaces will grow proportionately smaller at the small end. 3. draw four lines running lengthwise on the spindle and 90° apart as shown in the midde figure in heavy lines (plate b-v--2-b´). 4. begin at a and draw a curved line to where the 90° line crosses circle 1-1´. from there extend the line to where the next 90° line crosses circle b-b´ at point b´. continue in this manner until the other end of the shaft is reached. begin at a´ and draw a line on the opposite side of the shaft. these two lines running around and along the shaft form the grooves while the portion in between forms the beads of the double spiral. 5. saw to the desired depth, being 1/4" less than half the diameter at the point where cut. with a chisel or knife form the grooves and beads. it is necessary to be careful about not ending the grooves too abruptly. (see point 6 in plates b-v--1-a, a´.) smooth with a rasp and sandpaper while the lathe is revolving slowly. 6. cut the design on the ends and polish. plates b-v--3-a, a´. double groove spiral. straight shaft to work out the double groove spiral for the magazine holder illustrated, proceed as follows: 1. square up the stock to 1-3/8". center carefully and turn the design on both ends as shown, in the upper diagram (plate b-v--3-a´). turn the cylinder between the top and bottom, making it 5-1/2" long and 1-3/8" in diameter. [illustration: fig. 26.] 2. divide the cylinder into two equal parts. each part represents one revolution of the spiral. 3. divide each half into four equal parts as shown in the top and center diagrams (plate b-v--3-a´), 1-1´, 2-2´, 3-3´ and so on. the proportion of the distance between these circles should be one-half the diameter of the cylinder. 4. draw lines a-a, b-b, c-c, and d-d, parallel to the axis of the cylinder 90° apart. 5. with a band 3/16" wide of any substantial material (preferably a narrow strip of tin or a watch main spring) begin on the line a-a at circle 1, and connect circle 1´ at line b-b, and then connect circle 2 at c-c, and so on until the spiral is made the entire length. mark on both sides of the 3/16" band so as to keep the spiral parallel. 6. next begin at the line c-c where circle 1 crosses it and connect from here to 1´ at b-b. proceed as in step 5, as shown in the center diagram. 7. now erase the extreme ends of the spiral near circles 1 and 5, and deviate from the original spiral and follow the circles in a more parallel direction so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not too abruptly. refer to the lower diagram for this. 8. cut out portions of wood between the bands previously marked around, as shown in the lower figure. the wood should be cut out with a knife so as to leave the corners sharp on the narrow bands. the portion cut out should be a semi-circle and can be sanded by making a spindle a little smaller than the distance between the bands and fastening sandpaper on the spindle. place in the lathe and hold the spiral on the sandpaper cylinder at an angle so that the spiral will fit. turn gradually and the sandpaper will smooth up the portion between the bands and true it up. at the ends where the grooves are smaller, use a smaller stick around which sandpaper has been wound and work out by hand. 9. it is well to cut straight down, about 1/32" deep, along the lines marking out the narrow bands. then the wood will not be so likely to split while removing the stock which forms the grooves between the bands. 10. cut out the mortises in the square portions which have been left at both ends. make the frame work for the sides and cane. glue together and polish. note:--by making the posts smaller and using the same construction for a side a nice looking book stall may be made. the proportions for the posts are the same as mentioned in step 3. [transcribers note: there are 142 line art illustrations after this point in the book. they are all provided in the illustrated html edition of this book.] ------------------------------------------------------------[transcriber's note: lead-paint warning! do not use the ground-lead paint ingredients mentioned in the "coloring the toys" chapter. see transcriber's notes at end of document for more details.] ------------------------------------------------------------educational toys consisting chiefly of coping-saw problems for children in the school and the home by louis c. petersen, b. sc. director of manual arts, state normal university, carbondale, illinois [illustration] published by the manual arts press peoria, illinois copyright louis c. petersen 1920 contents _page_ introduction 5 tools and supplies 7 bow drill 8 transferring designs 9 woods 9 laying out work 10 sawing 10 fastening bases 11 fastenings 11 coloring toys 12 working drawings and directions 15 the buzzer 16 the shark puzzle 16 duck 18 goose 18 wild duck 20 hen 20 deer 22 cow 22 weasel 26 tiger 26 rocking rhino 28 minstrels 30 squirrel 32 pig 32 kangaroo 32 camel 36 giraffe 38 swan rocker 40 balancing peacock 42 toy dog 44 teddy bear 46 parrot 48 doll's hobby horse 50 stern wheeler 50 the weather-cock 50 arm-chair and rocking-chair 54 doll's cradle 54 doll's bed 56 doll's table 56 kites 58 wood choppers 60 the bucking goats 60 pecking hens 60 acrobat 64 climbing sailor 64 the jumping jack 68 balancing barrister 68 the dancing rastus 70 the spanking esquimaux 72 wabbler 74 falling teeter-totter 76 tumbling tommie 78 the busy pup 80 the dinkey bird 82 pelican sewing stand 84 whirligig 86 the cart 86 the wagon 88 flying goose 90 the dodo bird 92 rocking-horse and rider 94 animated elephant 97 the bucking mule 100 fox-and-goose game 104 nine men's mill 106 disc puzzle 108 ball puzzle 108 appendix knots and braids 111 introduction the purpose in sending out this collection of toys is to promote among children a love for educational occupation. this book is intended to be of real service to parents and teachers who are intrusted with the arduous responsibility of child-training. it is with this object in view that the directions, drawings and photographs have been prepared. the experience of almost twenty years as a teacher has convinced the author that only when the child approaches subject-matter with interest and enthusiasm can the best results be obtained. giving a child an opportunity to make things, arouses his interest; therefore, learning by doing is a most effective method in gaining educational ends. toy-making incorporates this method, with several vital elements added. it takes into account the child's view-point, his proclivities and his emotions. it is a form of activity that appeals strongly to his fancy, has a direct relation to his environments, and is within the range of his mental grasp and constructive ability. his wonderful imagination endows the creatures of his handiwork with life, individuality and cunning. the toy problem is in harmony with the child's resourcefulness, his powers and his interests. the problems contained in this book have been selected from those worked out in the normal model school. they have been tested under ordinary class-room conditions. to survive the weeding-out process, a toy has had to meet the following requirements: 1. it must be within the child's power. 2. it must excite and sustain interest. 3. it must possess educational value. 4. it must be adaptable to light-wood construction. 5. it must conform in size and complexity to the limited space and equipment of class-room conditions. in his early years, the child begins tinkering with what materials and tools he can find, making something. the wise parent and teacher will turn that healthful, happy, creative instinct into good, useful channels. he will encourage and guide the child, in these early attempts, by surrounding him with congenial conditions, by furnishing him suggestions, pictures, drawings and such other aids as will direct him to occupational problems of educational value, and by providing him with a place to work, the tools, wood, nails, wire and other necessary equipment. one advantage in connection with the kind of educational hand work presented in this book is that it can be carried on with a very small and inexpensive equipment. moreover, it is light, clean and agreeable in every respect. the tools are safe for a child to handle. the material is substantial and durable. the articles made are firm, strong and of lasting quality. they become an excellent means for providing an abundance of entertainment, and constitute most acceptable gifts, promoting as much genuine happiness for the industrious donor as for the fortunate receiver. toy-making may readily be adapted to class-room conditions and a period be devoted to it each day. members of the class may be appointed to distribute the tools and material at the beginning of the period, and collect them at the end. while at work, each pupil should stay at his desk and keep it neat and orderly. when not in use, the equipment should be locked up in a box having suitable compartments for the tools and materials. the teacher who is to conduct the class should be thoroly familiar with the work and should have made each model before taking it up as a class problem. the work as a whole should be conducted in a systematic and quiet manner; concise planning, prompt action, and accuracy in details should be insisted upon. the cheerful spirit, the formation of correct habits, and the proper regard for everything and everybody should be cultivated along with skill in constructing and good taste in coloring the toys. if for any valid reason this work can not be carried on in the school, the teacher should encourage the pupils to do it as home work. the child can buy his own scroll saw and colors, and furnish his own wood. the work can be done outside of school, but still be under the supervision and guidance of the teacher. the training that comes thru reading and interpreting directions and drawings, and carrying out the instruction in every detail, is of value to every child, no matter what his future career may be. the child should, therefore, have a book of his own, giving directions and drawings. furthermore, the teacher should give the proper amount of credit for the home work. l. c. petersen. tools and supplies the equipment listed below is suggestive for ordinary class-room conditions. the number of pupils should not exceed twenty-four. _tools for each pupil_: 12" rule. coping-saw. saw-bracket, fig. 1. a working drawing of the saw-bracket is shown in fig. 2. a water-color brush. [illustration: fig. 1] _tools for every four pupils_: scissors. compass. water-color pan. 4-1/2" round-nose pliers, fig. 4. 5" side-cutting pliers. 5 oz. claw hammer. 8" half-round mill file. bow-drill, see fig. 3. [illustration: fig. 2] _general class equipment and supplies_: a box for locking up equipment and work. 2 breast drills. iron block to serve as anvil. 6 quires of no. 1/2 sand-paper. le page's glue in two one-pint cans. 1 gross coping-saw blades. 1 lb. each of 1/2", 3/4" and 1" brads. 2 lbs. each of 3/4" no. 19, 1" no. 18, 1-1/4" no. 17, 1-1/2" no. 16, and 1-3/4" no. 15 flat-headed nails. 1 lb. each of 1/2", 5/8" and 3/4" brass escutcheon pins. 30 ft. of no. 12 copper-coated steel wire. a few nails of various sizes for making drills. turpentine. alcohol. borax. brushes of various sizes. paint--red, yellow, green, blue, black and white of the paints to be used. several good enamel paints, ready for use, are on the market. "calcimo" is cheaper, but not so convenient, as it must be prepared. [illustration: fig. 3] [illustration: fig. 4] bow drill the bow drill is useful for drilling small holes in wood, and may easily be made by a child. first, procure an ordinary thread spool. push a round stick six inches long thru the hole with a tight fit. shape the top of the stick to a point (fig. 3). drive a nail into the other end of the stick. cut the head off the nail, hammer it flat at the end, and sharpen it with a file. in this way a drill of any size needed for the work can be made. the bow is made from a slender, flexible stick, about twenty inches long. a notch is cut at each end where the ends of a strong string are securely tied. slip the bow string once around the spool and spin it. the top end of the spindle is guided in a shallow hole in a piece of wood as shown at h in fig. 3. this block of wood is held in the left hand while the right moves the bow back and forth, spinning the spindle and drilling the hole. transferring designs the shapes of people, animals and birds on the plates that follow are drawn full size. they are intended to be made of wood, and may be transferred by any one of the following methods: (_a_) place a piece of transparent paper, known as tracing paper, over the drawing in the book, and with a soft, sharp lead pencil, trace all the lines on the drawing. cut out the traced shape with a pair of scissors. place it on the wood, and with pencil trace along the edge of the paper pattern. (_b_) make a tracing and paste it on the wood. (_c_) place a piece of carbon paper on the wood, carbon side down. on this, place the tracing in position and fasten it down with two thumb tacks. with a hard pencil, or a stylus, go over all the lines of tracing. pressure should be applied as the lines are being traced so that they may show plainly on the wood. (_d_) rub the back of the tracing with graphite (the lead of the pencil). place it on the wood, and with a hard pencil, or a stylus, trace the lines. (_e_) when a permanent pattern is desired for class use, place the tracing on a piece of cardboard, and transfer the outline by method _c_ or _d_, indicated above. with a sharp, pointed knife or shears cut the cardboard accurately to line. place this template on the wood, and with a sharp pencil, held vertically, draw lines around the edge of the template. this method serves well for class work. woods save the thin-wood boxes found at home. ask the store-keeper to save boxes instead of burning them. a rich supply of wood for toy-making may be secured in this way. for class work, it will be necessary to buy wood prepared and surfaced to dimensions. the thicknesses most convenient for school work are 3/16", 1/4", 3/8", 1/2", 7/8". while three-ply wood is best for the thin stock, the single-ply answers the purpose when due care is given to the direction of the wood fibers--the grain. such woods as maple, elm, birch, cherry and bay wood are very durable, but rather hard to work. bass wood, poplar and sugar pine are easy to work, are preferable in school, and give satisfactory results. laying out work it is important to have the patterns placed correctly on the wood so that the desired result may be reached. one of the things sought is the greatest possible strength in the parts sawed out. the grain of the wood should, therefore, run lengthwise of the wood where the parts are narrow. another thing desired is the economical use of material. the patterns should, therefore, be so arranged on the wood that the outlines will match closely together and thus use up as nearly as possible all surface space on the board. generally, it is advisable to place the larger patterns first, beginning near a corner of the board, and then fit in the smaller patterns on the intermediate spaces. where the drawings are not full size, the dimensions are shown in inches or fractions of an inch. guided by the figures, the outlines of the object may be laid out directly on the wood by ruler, pencil and compasses. in laying out the different shapes on the wood, attention should be given to the direction of the grain of the wood, to have it run lengthwise the object, not crosswise. sawing after the different shapes have been properly laid out on the wood, the next thing to do is to saw them out with a coping-saw. the wood is placed flat on a saw-bracket, pattern side up. this saw-bracket is fastened to the edge of a desk or a table top and should be adjusted in height so the top of it is about 6" below the child's chin. the child may stand or sit, when at work, whichever is most comfortable, but a standing position gives more freedom of movement. the wood is held and guided on the saw-bracket with the left hand, while the right hand operates the coping-saw with an up-and-down motion in the v-shaped opening in the bracket. the coping-saw is the principal tool needed for this work, and may be purchased with extra blades for about 25 cents. the frame is made of spring steel and holds the blade in tension. by pressing the frame against the edge of a table, it may readily be sprung enough to allow the blade to be put into the slots in the ends of the frame. there is a pair of end slots and a pair of side slots in the frame. the blade may be inserted into these slots with either the teeth edge or the smooth edge of the blade towards the frame. _the points of the teeth should always point towards the handle of the frame._ the frame is held with the handle down. the saw does the cutting as it is pulled downward. in working the saw, the blade must be kept perpendicular to the face of the wood. the blade should never be forced against the wood, as that will cause the wood to tear, and leave a ragged edge. saw right to the line. keep the saw going up and down to insure freedom and plenty of room for the blade, especially in turning corners. when removing it from the work, do not attempt to twist the blade or let the frame hang on it, as the blades are brittle and break easily. when an opening is to be sawed out, bore a hole in the middle of the part to be cut out, remove the blade from the upper part of the frame, while holding it in place in the lower part with the thumb of the right hand. slip the blade thru the hole from below, and replace it in the slot while pressing the upper part of the frame against the edge of the desk. when the opening has been cut, the saw may be removed by reversing the operation. in all cases, saw the edge of the wood to a finish as far as possible. rough or fuzzy edges should be removed by filing and sand-papering. fastening to bases where toys have bases, they should be made of two or more thicknesses, one overlapping the other. the lower piece should be thicker than the upper, extending a distance equal to the thickness of the upper part. when both the toy and the base parts are ready to fasten together, hold the toy in a vise, with its feet up, and drive nails thru the upper part of the base into the feet. then fasten the top to the lower part with escutcheon pins. space the pins accurately. fastenings several methods are employed in fastening parts together in toy-making. where parts are joined together permanently, a thin coat of liquid glue should be rubbed on the joining surfaces with a small paddle, and then fastened with several brads. where possible, these brads should reach thru the parts just enough to be clenched on the other side (a, fig. 5). [illustration: fig. 5] a movable joint is secured by one flat-headed nail which acts as a pivot, on which one or more of the parts turn. the nail must reach thru the wood far enough to allow the end to be bent back like a staple and be driven into the wood. a loose joint is required in some toys so that the parts may swing without friction. a flat-headed nail is used as a pivot, and holes, a little bigger than the nail, are bored thru all but one of the parts to be joined together. the part that will be nearest to the point of the nail has no hole bored in it, for it should fit tight. the nail must reach thru the joint far enough so that it may be bent back, staple-like, and when the point is driven back into the wood, the joint should swing freely. the nail may be bent with round-nose pliers (b, fig. 5). coloring the toys the possibilities that may be achieved in beautifying these wooden toys are almost limitless. they may be treated as design problems, thereby serving as a means of training the taste and imagination as well as developing an appreciation of space relations and color harmonies. the work is fascinating to children and presents an excellent opportunity for acquiring knowledge and skill in mixing and applying colors. several methods are given here. the choice of method should be guided by the child's ability and experience in doing work of this kind. the employment of striking and brilliant colors will enhance the charm and increase the artistic effect. the methods of coloring are arranged in the order of their difficulty in manipulation: _method no. 1._ water colors may be used to color the wood, but only a little water should be used so as to prevent the tendency to spread. when the toy is dry, a coat of shellac may be applied over the water color. this protects the wood and gives the toy a crisp and bright appearance. _method no. 2._ of the calcimine paints, the one known as "calcimo" may be used successfully by children. it is procured in powder form and costs from 15 to 50 cents a pound according to color. it is mixed with water that contains a binder to prevent the colors from rubbing off in handling the toys. the binder may be either glue or mucilage mixed with the water. the proportion is about a tablespoonful of glue to a quart of water. in preparing the colors, put a teaspoonful of powder in a water-color pan and add water, while stirring and rubbing out the lumps, till the mixture comes to a consistency of thick cream. it may then be applied with a no. 6 water-color brush. [tr note: ------------------------------------------------lead warning! do not use the white lead or ground lead ingredients mentioned in methods 3 and 4. -------------------------------------------------end of tr note] _method no. 3._ when handled correctly, oil paint and enamel paint give excellent results, producing a smooth, brilliant gloss. first, give the toy a coat of white lead or flat white tone. apply it with a flat sash brush about an inch wide. allow the toy to dry four or five days and then sand-paper it smoothly with no. 1/2 sand-paper. finally, give it a coat of enamel paint of the colors desired. if colored enamel is not at hand, use white enamel and add colors ground in oil. the enamel paint is put on a surface with a large camel-hair brush. use no. 10 artist's flat brush for features. natural details and life-like effects should be avoided. the features should be conventionalized. eyes, ears, nose and mouth may be dotted in with a tooth-pick. _method no. 4._ for a second coat, instead of using enamel for coloring, white lead ground in oil may be used, mixed with colors ground in oil. this produces a mat or dull finish that is quite pleasing. however, if a gloss finish is desired, a coat of varnish may be applied over the dull color. dry colors may be mixed with shellac varnish until it is heavy enough to cover the wood. if this mixture becomes too thick to spread smoothly, it may be thinned with alcohol. the brush that has been used in varnish may be cleaned by washing in borax water. when the joints are movable, it is advisable to paint each part separately before putting them together. where glue has been used to form joints, it should be thoroly dry before the toy is painted. [illustration] [illustration] working drawings and directions in beginning the construction of these toys, read the directions carefully so as to understand the process of construction. study how you can best arrive at the desired results. by thinking ahead, as you proceed, many mistakes may be prevented. be careful in making your drawings. keep your pencil sharp. be precise in making measurements. handle the tools with care. finish one job before starting another. have a place for your tools. keep your glue and wood-finishes well covered to prevent drying. keep your brushes in kerosene to prevent them from getting stiff. be clean in handling colors. let one color get dry before joining on another. let the colors join on sharp and definite lines. pick up only a small amount of color with the brush. lay the color on in a thin coat. clean your brushes before putting them away. give your work that clean, crisp, snappy appearance which is the mark of superior craftsmanship. [illustration] the buzzer this toy is made from 1/4" stock. two 1/8" holes are located on a straight line passing thru the center, one on each side of the center and 1/4" from it. the circle is drawn with compass, and then sawed to the line. the circumference is stepped off into lengths equal to the radius, and every second point connected by line with the center. this divides the surface into three equal spaces called sectors. color each sector with one of the primary colors--red, blue and yellow. a strong cord is slipped thru the two holes, and the ends tied together in a square knot, leaving a loop on each side of the wheel. to operate the buzzer, insert a finger of each hand in the loops and swing the disk around in a circular motion till the strands of the cord are twisted together. then pull hard on the cord so that the disk will be set into a spinning motion as the cord is being unwound. at this instant slacken the cord so that the disk may continue turning, and rewind the string. then pull on the cord again, and the disk will spin in the opposite direction. by whirling the disks rapidly in this way, the colors will blend and show a new color produced by the three primary colors. the other side of the wheel may have half of it colored yellow and half colored blue. this will blend into green when spun. by pasting paper sectors of different colors on the wheel, an infinite number of tests in color-blending may be made. the shark puzzle the shark is sawed out as shown in the drawing and three holes bored. to make one of the rings, draw two concentric circles--one 1/2" radius and the other 3/4" radius. first, saw out the inner circle and then the outer. take a piece of cord a foot long, double it and slip the loop thru the middle hole in the shark. next, put the two ends of the cord thru the loop. slip a ring on each end of the cord, and tie with a slip knot into the end hole in the shark. puzzle: transfer a ring from one end to the other. [illustration: buzzer shark puzzle] duck the parts for this fowl are sawed out of 1/4" stock. the edges should be sawed square and to line, and may be made smooth and slightly rounded by filing and sand-papering. the two feet should be made alike and held together when the hole for the nail is drilled thru them. the bottom of the feet will then be on the same level, and the duck will stand upright. put a fine 1" nail thru one foot, drive it thru the body, at the proper place, and press it thru the other foot. with round-nose pliers, bend the end of the nail around so the end will point toward the wood (fig. 5). place the head of the nail against a block of iron, and with the hammer drive the point of the nail into the foot. the joint should be firm and movable so the duck will stand at different postures. color the body brown, with black outlines and streaks on the wings, the bill yellow, the head green, and the feet red. [illustration: fig. 6. platform bases.] goose this project may be made of 3/8" stock and fastened to a platform base (fig. 6). the platform is made of two rectangular pieces one on top of the other. the upper is 1-1/2" by 2-1/4"; the lower, 2-1/4" by 3". the grain in the two pieces should cross to prevent warping. to fasten the goose to the platform, outline on the upper piece of the platform the position for the foot. hold the goose with foot up. drive 1-1/2" brads thru the upper piece of the platform into the foot. on the upper side of this upper piece of the platform, locate points at each corner, 1/4" from the outer edges, and drive 5/8" escutcheon pins thru it into the lower piece of the platform. smooth all parts, and color the body white with black trimmings. make the bill yellow, the feet red and the platform green. [illustration: duck goose] wild duck the body may be cut from 3/8" stock, or from heavier material if so desired. it may be whittled to natural shape with a pocket knife before fastening it onto the platform. the bill, eye and feet are colored yellow, throat, breast and tail red, head and wings dark green, and platform blue. hen the construction of this problem is similar to that of the goose. her feet and comb are colored red, body white with black trimming, beak and platform yellow. [illustration] [illustration: wild duck hen] deer the stock is 3/8" thick, the grain running vertical. it should be mounted on a wheel base 3/8" by 2" by 5-1/2" (fig. 7). the deer is colored reddish brown, but nearly white under the body and on the lower parts of the legs. color the base black and the wheels red. [illustration: fig. 7. wheel base.] [illustration: deer] cow the stock is 3/8" thick. the grain of the wood should run vertical. the cow should be mounted on a wheel base 3/8" by 2" by 5-1/2". wheels are 3/8" thick, 1-1/2" diameter. this is a jersey cow, and should be colored accordingly. the base may be colored green, and the wheels red. [illustration] [illustration: cow] weasel this little creature is wary and swift as lightning in its movements. the stock should be 1/4" thick, the grain running lengthwise of the body. it may be mounted on rocker base 1/4" by 1-1/2" by 5" (fig. 8. see text on "minstrels," page 30). it is reddish brown with under part of body light. [illustration: fig. 8. rocker bases.] [illustration: weasel] tiger this may be treated in the same way as the weasel except the coloring. examine a tiger in the zoo, or look up some colored pictures of tigers so you will know just how to draw his stripes and just what color to make them. [illustration] [illustration: tiger] rocking rhino the rhinoceros should be cut out and colored and mounted on a platform which has rockers fastened to its edges (fig. 8). hold the animal in the vise, head down, and nail thru the platform into the feet. [illustration] [illustration: rocking rhino] minstrels the stock for the two minstrels, the platform and the rockers is 1/4" thick, with the grain of the wood running lengthwise in each object. the bottom of the feet of the figures should fit squarely onto the platform. the rockers are laid off with the compass. the center of the arc is on a separate piece of wood of the same thickness as the rocker. when the rockers are accurately finished and nailed to the platform, a center line is drawn along the under side of the platform, and points located to match the position of the feet of the figures. use 3/4" brads and drive them thru the platform. hold the figures, heads down, in the vise, or in clamps, and, in turn, drive the brads thru the feet and into the legs so that the figures will stand in an upright position. they are then colored in such brilliant attire as is becoming two gay minstrels. [illustration] [illustration: minstrels] squirrel the squirrel is generally regarded as being wary and wild. still, by wise and kind treatment, its timidity can be overcome, and it may become quite tame. all parts of the squirrel may be made from 1/4" stock. saw out the body, two fore, two hind legs and a nut. hold each pair of legs together in boring holes thru them. smooth the parts and assemble them by firm movable joints. color throat and breast light gray, and the remainder brown. [illustration: squirrel] pig this problem is worked out similar to the squirrel. it may be colored red, black or white, with large spots. [illustration] [illustration: pig] kangaroo this animal has its home in australia, where the birds are songless and the trees give no shade. it has a very powerful tail which serves with the two long hind legs as its support and for making enormous bounds. the fore legs, much like arms, are used with surprising dexterity by this strange animal. the nose, throat and breast are very light, the rest of the body is reddish brown. [illustration: kangaroo] camel it is with significance that this beast is called the ship of the desert. like a ship crossing a wide ocean of water, the camel travels across a great expanse of sand carrying heavy loads of freight. it has a wonderful endurance and can go for a week without drinking, subsisting on the coarse grass of that waste region, and the water stored up in its humps. its dreamy eyes, sullen nature, angular figure and neutral grey-brown color--all seem to resemble the rocky desert itself. [illustration] [illustration: camel] giraffe this creature (fig. 9) is, unquestionably, the tallest of all the beasts of the forests of africa. it does not stoop to obtain its living from the ground, but browses on the tops of trees. it is also called the camelopard, suggesting a resemblance in shape to the camel and in color to the leopard. it is cream-colored with a shower of dark-brown spots on its back and sides. [illustration: fig. 9.] [illustration: giraffe] swan rocker all the parts may be made from 1/4" stock. the two sides are made like the pattern. the seat is 2-1/4" wide, the back 2-1/2". both are 3" long, and serve to unite the two sides. when the parts are finished and ready for assembling, mark on the sides the exact location of seat and back; also the position of each nail on all parts. hold the two sides together and make small holes thru them where the nails are to be driven. nail, in turn, the seat and back to the first side, and then to the second side. color white and decorate appropriately. [illustration] [illustration: swan rocker] balancing peacock saw out the shape of the fowl as outlined in the drawing. there is good chance for display of fine color in dark-green and blue. the breast should be colored brown. make a small stick about 2" long for a perch. drive a small nail into each end of the stick, and tie the ends of a fine cord to each nail. press a brad thru the middle of the stick up into the foot of the peacock. it may then be hung up by the long loop of the string and swung freely. [illustration] [illustration: peacock] toy dog this dog may be made of 3/16" or 1/4" stock. when put together, the two pieces for the body are separated by the head, tail and two circular pieces. the legs are fastened to the outside of the body by two long nails that reach thru the five thicknesses. the ends of the nails are bent back. smooth the parts and color white, with large black spots on head, back, tail and legs. [illustration] [illustration: toy dog] teddy bear this animal has two pieces for the body. the head and two circular pieces hold these two pieces apart. the head and legs move on tight joints so that the bear will stay in the desired position. [illustration] [illustration: teddy bear] parrot this may be made of 1/4" stock. the base has two holes bored thru it for the uprights with fit tight into the holes (fig. 10). the perch is 2" long and has a brad in each end to swing on. these brads fit loose thru the uprights near the top ends. the parrot is sawed out, and a 3/4" brad driven up thru the foot which also fits into the hole in the middle of the perch. the parrot may be colored white with black trimmings, yellow beak and eyes, red crest, tail and foot. the wings are green. the stand should have a green base, red uprights, and yellow perch. the bird should balance well and swing freely. [illustration: fig. 10.] [illustration: parrot] doll's hobby horse the two body pieces of the horse with rocker are sawed from 1/4" wood. the seat and back are made alike, as are also the shelf and foot-rest. the ends of these four pieces should be at right angles to the sides, and the edges should be slightly rounded. mark carefully on both side pieces where the cross-pieces are to be fastened. hold the two together and make fine holes thru the two thicknesses where the nails are to go thru. by driving the brads thru these holes, fasten all the cross pieces to one side, and watch that the brads go straight. then fasten the other side in a similar way. color the horses white, rockers red, and seat blue. [illustration: doll's hobby horse] stern wheeler this boat is sawed out according to the drawing, and notches cut on the arms at the stern as a place for the rubber band which serves both as axle and motive power. the paddles are sawed out to fit together to form a stern wheel with four paddles. the elastic is made in a double loop of four thicknesses, one of which is placed in each of the four angles of the paddle. by twisting the elastic band, power is stored up sufficient for the boat to attain a fair rate of speed. a spool serves as smoke-stack. paint the boat white and smoke-stack red. [illustration] the weather-cock this fowl may be made of 3/8" stock; a shingle will do. let the grain run vertically. the perch may be made of similar stock, triple thickness, with the middle piece short to allow room for the foot of the rooster. the pieces are securely fastened together with nails, and a hole bored in the other end of the perch for a metal pivot, on which it should swing to tell the way the wind blows. give it two coats of paint, using brilliant colors. [illustration: stern wheeler weather cock] arm-chair and rocking-chair these two doll's chairs are similar in construction. make them from 1/4" wood. saw out two sides, a back and a seat for each chair. have edges finished accurately. the seats are alike for the two chairs. the backs, also, are alike, except that the one for the rocker is 1/4" longer than the other. assemble as shown in dotted lines, and fasten with 1" brads. the chairs may be colored white or mahogany. with due care and skill, this furniture may be made very attractive and valuable. [illustration: rocking chair arm chair] doll's cradle every little girl loves to own a cradle for her doll. here is one that is strong and pretty, and can easily be made from thin wood about 1/4" thick. saw out the two ends after tracing the outline from the full-sized drawing. the two sides and bottom have their dimensions given. when properly shaped and smooth, the bottom is fastened with 1" brads between the ends. one-inch brads are driven thru the sides into the edges of the ends. be careful when driving the brads that the sides do not split and that the brads go straight. paint the cradle white on the outside and violet or pink inside. [illustration] [illustration: doll's cradle] doll's bed this is a problem that will appeal to the little girl. it is also needed to complete the set of doll's house furniture. it is made of 1/4" wood and fastened with 1" brads. the grain should be run from top to bottom in the ends of the bed and lengthwise in sides and bottom. the parts should be cut out of paper full size and placed on the wood as patterns. in cutting out the ends, fold the paper on the vertical center line so as to cut the two halves at the same time. when all parts are sawed out, fasten the bottom to the two ends, and then put the sides in place. the bed is colored like the rest of the furniture. doll's table this table, being part of the furniture set, may be made from 1/4" stock. the four pieces comprising the legs are made from two paper patterns that are laid out to measure, folded on the vertical center line, cut out symmetrically, then traced on the wood, sawed out, smoothed and fastened together with 3/4" brads. the top is drawn directly on the wood with compass and fastened with 3/4" brads, centrally on the legs. it is colored white, brown, mahogany or some other shade to harmonize with the general color scheme of the doll's house and its furnishings. [illustration] [illustration: doll's bed doll's table] kites kite-flying is known the world over. every boy wants to make and fly a kite. it is a sport that is almost limitless in its possibilities. kites may be made any size, of almost any shape and with all sorts of decorations. the two models here presented are types of practical fliers and are easily made. one needs a tail to steady it in its flight, the other is tailless, but has the cross rod sprung by means of a string into the shape of a bow. the wind is caught against the convex surface and renders it steady. in the making of kites, it is essential that a few things be observed: if the size be changed, the same proportions should be maintained. make the wooden stays as light as possible consistent with strength. be sure to preserve balance both in distance and weight of the various parts. make the cross-lap joint secure by driving a light nail thru the several thicknesses and bending down the end; then tie them together with strong twine. cut a notch in the outer ends of the stays and in stringing the twine taut prevent it from slipping by tying a knot around the stick and thru the notch. the paper should be very light and strong. it is doubled over the string and pasted together. the guy-strings are fastened to the ends of the wooden stays and the anchor line securely tied to them with several knots directly opposite where the stays cross. a few adjustments in point of balance and of the weight of the tail may be necessary in starting to fly the kite, but after they are made, it should rise to a great height and maintain a steady flight. [illustration] [illustration: kites] wood choppers the stock required is 1/4" thick. two bodies, two arms with axes, and two bars are needed for this toy. the upper bar has a place 5/8" from its center which is widened to resemble a tree stump an inch high. the pairs of parts are held together while holes are being bored thru them. the shoulders of the men and arms should have small holes to make a fixed joint while the men's legs and the bars should have holes closely fitting 1" nails. both bars are located on the side of the men on which the arms are fastened. color the coats, hats and sleeves blue, boots and axes black, arms, fingers, faces pink, and trousers red, bars green, and stump brown. [illustration: wood choppers] the bucking goats from 1/4" stock, saw out two bodies, as shown in the full-size drawing, and two bars shown in the dimensioned drawing. place the two bodies together and bore holes in the hind legs, as shown, for 1" nails. do likewise with the two bars. color the goats white, with large brown spots on their backs, necks and legs. color the horns and hoofs black, and the bars gray or brown. fasten with movable joints, one bar on each side of the goats, having them cross as indicated in the assembled drawing. [illustration] [illustration: bucking goats] pecking hens saw out two bodies and four legs for the two hens. hold two legs together and bore five fine holes thru them as shown in the drawing. then place one of these with each of the unbored legs and bore these, using the first pair as template for boring the second. also bore holes in the two bodies together, saw out the two bars and bore the holes thru the two together. saw out the upright and the tilting pans; bore holes, and fasten together with a loose joint. enlarge the two lower holes in legs of the hens to the size of a 1" nail. fasten two legs to each hen with three 3/4" brads, and clench. finish the parts in appropriate contrasting colors. place the two bars between the legs of the hens and insert thru the holes 1" nails, bending their ends back to form a loose joint. take the upright and the pans, and fasten the lower end of the upright to the middle of the upper bar so that each pan will tilt when the hens peck. [illustration: pecking hen] acrobat the body, arms and legs are made of 3/16" wood. after the acrobat is sawed out and holes are bored, paint the parts in gay colors. assemble with loose joints. the two upright sticks are fastened to the cross piece by two 1" brads at each end, after the two holes are bored in the upper ends for the cord. it is colored green or black. insert a strong double cord thru the frame and the hands of the acrobat. there is a twist in the cord when the legs are down, but it is straight when the arms point down. [illustration: acrobat] climbing sailor this nimble tar climbs a rope according to a style that is all his own. pull on the string, and the friction on the two nails between his legs being greater than that between his hands, his hands glide upward. let go, and the elastic band between his legs and arms pulls his legs up, and he thus gets a fresh grip. saw out of 3/16" stock one body, two arms and two legs. the arms are fastened to the body with three 3/4" brads and clenched. the legs have a loose hip joint on a 1" nail with the end bent back. the rubber band is held between arms and legs by two nails. the string is held between two thicknesses of felt or cardboard that are fastened between the hands with two brads to produce the required friction. bore holes to avoid splitting. the string passes down between the two legs around two nails that pass thru both legs but do not pull them together. color the cap white and suit blue. [illustration] [illustration: climbing sailor] the jumping jack the wood should be 3/16" thick. two of each pattern is required, except the head, which may be made of slightly thicker stock. bore the holes as shown to form loose joints. color the cap and body blue, thighs and upper arms yellow, calves and fore arms pink, and shoes brown. insert small nails into edge of arms and thighs at the points where the strings are to be attached. take two pieces of string, two feet long; tie the ends of one to nails in the arms, the ends of the other to the nails in the thighs. insert 1" nails thru one of the body pieces; drive 3/4" brads thru it and the neck; place arms and legs in position; adjust the strings to proper lengths, and tie a knot on them. place the other body piece in position. bend back the ends of the nails, making loose joints, and drive the brads thru the neck into the second body piece, and clench. fasten the legs together with loose joints, and all should work freely. [illustration: jumping jack] balancing barrister the body may be sawed from 3/8" stock as outlined in the drawing. find its center of gravity by balancing it on a knife edge, crosswise, and then lengthwise. draw lines along the knife edge where it balances. where these intersect is the center of gravity. bore a hole at this point of intersection perpendicular to the body, and so as to fit tight on a 1/4" dowel rod. make two discs 1" diameter, 1/4" thick, with a hole to fit tight on the dowel on each side of the man. color his shirt red, hat and trousers blue, arms and stockings white, and dowel, shoes and parallel bars black. the frame on which the man should balance (fig. 11), with his head just a little the lighter, is made of seven pieces. the base, 1/2" x 2" x 12"; the four uprights, 1/4" x 1" x 5-3/4", and the two bars, 3/8" x 3/4" x 15", are firmly fastened together so that the two bars will be parallel and horizontal. when the man is properly balanced, which may be accomplished by whittling off a little stock where needed, he should roll from end to end of the bars by giving the dowel a twist between two fingers. [illustration: fig. 11.] [illustration: balancing barrister] the dancing rastus all parts of the body are of 3/16" stock. when sawed out, the parts are colored separately and assembled. all joints should swing without friction. therefore, bore all holes larger than the nail, thru all thicknesses, except the one nearest to the point of the nail. at elbows and knees have the heads of the nails on the inside. at the shoulders place a small wheel between the arms and body, and use a 1-1/2" nail for pivot, with plenty of play. the platform (fig. 12) is of thin, springy wood, 1-1/2" wide and 9" long. the upright post is of 1/2" stock about 6" long and securely nailed to the platform and braced with a small block. holes are bored into rastus' back and the post so as to fit tight on no. 16 spring brass wire, 5" long. put a weight on the rear end of the platform, let the front end project out over the edge of a table and set it vibrating. this should cause rastus to swing legs and arms in a merry fashion. [illustration: fig. 12.] [illustration] [illustration: dancing rastus] the spanking esquimaux the stock for all parts is 1/4" thick except for the oar and broom which should be 1/8" thick. saw out the two figures, wheels and bars. hold the two wheels together and bore two holes for the pivot nails. do similarly to the bars. assemble wheels and bars temporarily to mark places on the wheels where the feet of the figures will be fastened. saw out the oar and broom. color all the parts separately in bright contrasting values to bring out the outlines of the arms and other parts of the figures. fasten the wheels to the feet, the bars to the wheels in loose joint, and the oar and broom to the man and woman in positions indicated by the dotted lines. when properly put together, the figures should swing when the bars are moved back and forth, and the oar and broom go flying and strike with a rattling bang. [illustration] [illustration: spanking esquimaux] wabbler this toy is made so that the wabbler can go or glide down the ladder on his elbows. the ladder is made from soft wood 3/8" to 1/2" thick, 2-1/2" wide, and 20" long. the openings are cut as shown, and nails located and driven in exactly as indicated in the drawing. the ladder is then securely fastened to the base which is made of 3/4" wood, 3-1/2" square. the wabbler is sawed out of 1/4" wood. a full-sized drawing is shown. this is all one piece without openings. features and parts of the body are to be worked out by using paints of different colors. [illustration] [illustration: wabbler] falling teeter-totter the stock for the upright piece and end supports is 3/8" thick; that for the two boys and teeter-totter is 1/4" thick. the upright is made 2" wide and 28" long. on the center line lay off points 1-3/8" apart. with these as centers, draw semi-circles of 1" radius alternately on both sides of center line. from each center draw lines tangent to the circles, as shown in the drawing. saw to these lines and curves, and finish the edges so that they are smooth. saw out two boys and the teeter-totter board (b, fig. 13), cutting out the center opening accurately. slip this board onto the upright, and watch it fall from top to bottom in a see-saw motion. if it fails to travel smoothly, see where the rub is and remove the obstacle. fasten the two pairs of cross pieces to each end of the upright so that it will stand vertically on either end. give it a thin coat of paint. color the boys and fasten them with a nail thru the body of each boy, fitting loosely, and driven into the ends of the board. when the see-saw is turned up-end down, the boys will swing on the nails and keep heads up. [illustration: fig. 13.] [illustration] [illustration: falling teeter totter] tumbling tommie this problem is rather unique in its principle of operation and offers at once material for study and investigation. like that of a circus performer, the combinations must be exactly right or the little fellow may fall on his head. in making the man, first bore the holes thru the block and take care to make them parallel. the openings into the holes from the ends must be in the same plane and made to slide over the rounds of the ladder without friction. the tumbler may be shaped and colored to look like a man. a base may be attached to each end, but on opposite sides of the ladder, so that tommie may tumble in both directions. [illustration] [illustration: tumbling tommie] the busy pup all parts of this article are made of 1/4" wood except the ears which should be 1/8" thick. saw out one body, a pair each of fore legs, hind legs, ears and tail, and the push-rod and guide. the guide is made of four pieces and fastened together with glue and brads, as shown in the drawing. the two pairs of legs are fastened to the body by loose joints. holes are bored thru one end of the push-rod and the forefeet; also thru the projecting end of the guide and hind feet. fasten that end of the guide between the hind feet with loose joint (fig. 14). insert the push-rod thru the hole in the guide, which should slide easily, and fasten between the fore feet. by holding the guide in the left hand and working the push-rod back and forth, the dog should work freely and without a hitch in all the varied positions that it is possible for it to assume. with fine brad fasten the tail. bore holes thru head and ears, and pivot them on a loose joint so that they will swing when the pup is busy scratching. the pup may be colored white with black spots on neck, body and legs. the push-rod and guide may be finished in a dark color or black. the stunts that this pup can perform are greater in number than one would suspect. furthermore, they increase also in variety as the child acquires skill in manipulation. [illustration: fig. 14.] [illustration] [illustration: busy pup] the dinkey bird when properly made up, this bird can bob its head and tail up and down. a swinging pendulum supplies the motive power. the parts are shown in the drawing full size, except the clamp that holds the dinkey in upright position (fig. 15). the head, tail and body pieces, one with and one without the leg, are sawed from 1/4", the back (e) from 5/16", the wedge from 3/8", and the clamp from 1/2" stock. finish all edges. drill 1/16" holes at a and b. put the two body pieces together so they coincide, and drive fine 1" nails thru both of them at c and d. then separate them enough to let the back (e) into place between them. fasten the three pieces together with five 1" brads, and clench. fasten clamp (f) securely to the foot at h. color the different parts in gay tints, and let dry. take 4 ft. of strong twine and with small nails fasten one end to the head and the other to the tail. pull out the nails at c and d enough to let the head and the tail slip into their places between the body pieces. then reinsert the nails. the head and tail should swing freely, and the back (e) act as a stop in their up-and-down motion. put the clamp onto the edge of a table top and fix with the wedge. pull down on the loop of the string, grasp it about 6" from the top, and there tie a simple knot. fasten a stone or a piece of metal to the loop. set it swinging and watch the bobbing performance according to dinkey fashion. [illustration: fig. 15.] [illustration: dinkey bird] pelican sewing stand whether or not this article may be within the toy class, one thing is certain: it is useful as well as ornamental. the pelican is made of three thicknesses. the middle piece is 3/8" and the two outside ones 1/4" thick. the middle piece has parts cut away to give room for the pin-cushion, and in the head, an opening is left to give place for scissors, which, in turn, serve as the bird's beak. the cushion is stuffed with cotton or some other suitable material, and covered with a double thickness of thin cloth, and fastened in place securely by nails piercing from one side to the other. the platform is six-sided in shape (fig. 16), of double 3/8" thickness, with grain at right angles in the two pieces, and has four pins extending 1-1/4" above the surface for holding spools. the pelican is fastened to the platform by placing the upper thickness against the foot, and driving 1-1/2" brads thru and up into the foot. bore holes and drive the pins for the spools thru the upper thickness. lastly, the bottom board of the platform, which extends 3/8" beyond the upper, is fastened by driving 3/4" brads thru the bottom piece into the upper. the pelican may be colored with white enamel and black trimmings, while the platform may be light green or blue. besides the places for scissors and spools, other attachments may be arranged to suit the convenience of the happy possessor. [illustration: fig. 16.] [illustration] [illustration: pelican sewing stand] whirligig this little device might also be called a child's aeroplane, for it soars up into the air over houses and trees, and makes everybody around crane his neck in wonder. the parts consist of the flyer, a spool and the handle. first, get an ordinary thread spool, bore two holes in one end and drive in two six-penny nails. cut off the heads 3/8" from the end of the spool and file the ends round and smooth. take a piece of strong wood (yellow pine will do) about 7" long and 3/4" square. whittle down one end for a distance 3/8" longer than the length of the spool and so it will make a running fit. for a flyer, get a piece of soft wood 3/8" x 1-1/4" x 8". bore three holes at the center to fit onto the two pins on the spool and the top end of the handle. whittle both faces down to a slant like a windmill so the blades will be less than 1/8" thick. put the parts together. wind about a yard of string around the spool in the proper direction, and then set the flyer spinning by pulling the string quickly off the spool. if all parts are properly balanced and adjusted, the flyer should go "way up high." [illustration: whirligig] the cart this practical project is of heavier stock than most toys. however, dimensions and sizes of stock may be modified to suit the convenience and wishes of the maker. the box may be of 3/8" stock, the axle and tongue of 3/4", and the wheels of 1/2" or 3/4". [illustration] heavy round-headed screws with washers under the heads, fitting thru holes bored in the wheels and screwed securely into the ends of the axle, form the bearings. take care to bore the holes thru the wheels and into the ends of the axle the proper size, and central and true. the box is fastened by driving 1-1/4" nails thru the bottom into the axle. the tongue is shaped to fit on the axle, and is securely fastened by nails to the axle and wagon bottom. a handle of a loop of brass wire may be inserted thru the tongue near the small end, and the ends bent. the box is painted green and wheels and tongue red. [illustration: cart] the wagon the stock required for the box of the wagon is 1/4" thick, for the wheels 3/8", for the tongue 1/2", and for the axles 3/4". the axles are 5-1/2" long; the rear one is 1" wide; the front one is 7/8" wide, as shown in the drawing. the holes for the screws in the ends of the axles are bored 3/8" from the lower side. the screws are heavy, 1-1/2" round-headed, with metal washers under the heads. the holes in the wheels are bored true, and so that they will just slip over the screws. the tongue is connected with the front axle by a piece of tin, cut from a tin can after the pattern shown on the drawing. the cross piece between the wagon box and the front axle, called the bolster, is 1-1/8" wide, 5" long and 3/4" thick. it tapers from 5" in length at the top to 2-1/2" at the bottom, where it rests on and turns on the tin that is nailed to the top side of the axle. always bore holes of the proper sizes before inserting screws. the front axle is connected to the bolster by a 2" round-headed screw on which it turns. in making the wagon box, the sides are nailed to the bottom, the ends fastened in position, and the back nailed onto the edge of the seat. the box is painted green outside and red inside. the two wings of the tin plate are bent down to fit tight onto the sides of the tongue, and nails are driven thru the tin into the tongue. the whole running gear is painted red. the box is nailed to the bolster and to the rear axle. the seat is nailed into position, the wheels fitted on, and the front axle screwed onto the bolster. this wagon is strong and should last a long time and afford much wholesome pleasure. [illustration] [illustration: wagon] flying goose the body, platform and wheels (fig. 17) are of 1/4" stock. the wings are a little thinner. saw out one body and two wings and bore holes for cords, as shown in the drawing. saw out the platform and four wheels, and finish them carefully. the front wheels turn on 1" flat-headed nails that are driven into the edge of the platform 3/4" from the end. the rear wheels are driven onto a wire axle which turns in two wire staples that are driven into the bottom of the platform, 3/4" from the end and 1/4" from each edge. in driving these staples, take thought to avoid splitting the platform. also, when boring holes thru the center of the four wheels, take care to secure proper direction and sizes of holes for a running fit in the front wheels and a press fit onto the axle in the rear wheels. hold the body with foot up, and nail the platform onto it. with round-nose pliers make the connecting rods from no. 12 wire with the eyes neatly shaped and at right angles to each other. attach the rods to the wings by staples so the joints will work freely without too much play. attach the other ends of the rods to the outer faces of the rear wheels by means of short flat-headed nails. the nails pass thru the eyes of the rods and are driven into the wheels 1/4" from the outer rims. the nails in the two wheels must be in line with each other, as they act as cranks to actuate the wings. after the rear axle is assembled and fastened in place, the wings are fastened to the body. [illustration: fig. 17.] [illustration: flying goose] the parts of the wings that touch the body must have been rounded off, as shown in section on the drawing. the edges are removed from the holes so as not to wear the cord. a heavy strong twine may be used for hinging the wings to the body. each of the two hinges is formed by slipping the end of the cord up thru the wing, then thru the body, then down thru the second wing, and back thru the body; then tie the ends in a square knot under the first wing. adjust all parts accurately so they are not too loose and yet work without friction. this goose may be painted white with gray stripes on the wings, red beak, foot and wheels, and green platform. attach a string or slender stick to the end of the platform to roll it on the floor. watch the flying goose and see if she can rise by flapping her wings. the dodo bird until recently this bird has been considered extinct, but is here revived to show what it may have appeared like. in this case it has chosen to perambulate on four wheels and maintain a bobbing motion of the head and body by means of a connecting rod between the breast and a crank on the front axle. [illustration] the body swings on a pivot between two uprights which we will call the wings. these wings are held apart by a piece between the feet, which is slightly thicker than the body to give the body freedom of motion. the two base pieces are fastened onto the outside of the feet by three 1-1/2" brads driven in from each side. the front end of the base is held together by a piece 3/4" square and 3/8" thick, which is also the thickness of the base pieces and wheels. the body and wings are of 1/4" stock. make saw cuts 1/8" deep across the bottom of the base pieces to form bearings for the two wire axles, one 1/2" from the rear, and the other 1-1/4" from the front end of the base. the axles should turn freely in these cuts, and nails bent over them will secure them in their places. the parts are colored in gay contrasting colors before assembling. the body is pivoted between the wings and the piece between the feet is fastened. then the base is assembled and fastened to the outside of the feet of the dodo. before inserting the axles into the wheels, the ends should be hammered a little flat to prevent them from turning in the wheels. it should be a tight fit. next, put the axles into the cuts, and fasten. slip a fine nail thru the hole in the upper end of the connecting rod, and drive it thru the breast of the bird, and bend the end. then put the lower, or forked, end of the connecting rod over the crank on the front axle and secure it by a brad. when rolling along on the floor, the dodo should bob its head in a most polite manner in recognition of being well put together. [illustration: dodo bird] rocking-horse and rider the body of the horse is shown full size and may be sawed from 3/8" wood. all the other parts should be made of 1/4" wood and have the grain run lengthwise. [illustration] two fore and two hind legs are required. the upper end of each leg is tapered off on the side that fits against the body so that the feet will be far enough apart to be fastened on the inside of the rockers (see end view b). each pair of legs should be fastened to the body with a nail thru the three thicknesses at the place marked. saw out two rockers and finish to true and smooth curves. with fine brad fasten the feet on the inside of the rocker at the places marked, but take care that the wood does not split. saw out three rails 2" long and 3/8" wide to be fastened onto the top of the rockers with two fine brads, one at each end of the rocker and one in the middle, as indicated on the drawing by the letter r. the upper ends of the legs may now be secured to the body by two or three brads. give the whole a general touching up to assure strength and smoothness. give it a priming coat of paint. let dry four days. paint saddle, bridle, cross rails and rocker red, and the body and legs white. outline eyes, nose, hoofs and other features in black, and the rocking horse is complete. the body of the rider is 3/8", arms and legs 3/16" stock. [illustration: rocking horse and rider] [illustration: rider for rocking horse] animated elephant the body is composed of three thicknesses. the two on the outside are 1/4" thick, the one in between is 3/8" thick, and reaches only to the dotted line (fig. 18), to allow room for the head which is 3/8" thick and moves between the two outside pieces with 1-1/4" nail as pivot. this is a loose joint. [illustration: fig. 18.] saw out the platform and wheels to dimensions. the connecting rod should be of wood 1/8" thick and 1/4" wide. a hole is bored near the end that is pivoted to the throat of the elephant; in the other end is a fork to fit over the axle crank with a fine hole bored at right angle thru the connecting rod for a brad to prevent the crank from slipping out. the two axles are made from no. 12 steel wire. one is straight, the other has a crank in the middle. flat places are hammered near each end of the axles so that they may be pressed into holes in the wheels and not turn. each axle is held to the platform by two staples which may be made from long brads by cutting off the heads. color the elephant gray, the blanket red and yellow, the platform and connecting rod red, and the wheels yellow. fasten the platform to the elephant by driving nails thru it into the feet. press the wheels onto the axles and fasten the axles under the platform so they move freely. fit head and rod in places so all connections are strong and move without friction. attach a string to the front end of the platform, and when pulled on the floor, the elephant will swing his trunk up and down in a vicious manner. [illustration] [illustration: animated elephant] the bucking mule saw out of 3/8" stock the bodies of the mule and rider (fig. 19). all legs and arms are of 3/16" stock. two circles to be placed between the man's arms and shoulders are of 1/4" wood. the connecting rod, marked z, z (fig. 20), shown full size and of 3/8" stock, is to connect the fore legs of the mule and the crank on the axle. fasten the legs to the mule and arms and legs to the rider with loose joints. then take rod z, z, and make the fork-like cut in the wide end and drill a small hole thru it at right angles to that cut. this is for the nail that holds the crank in place. fasten the rod securely between the fore legs of the mule at the position indicated. the tail is then fastened with two 1/2" brads. paint the mule and rider in contrasting colors. [illustration] [illustration: fig. 19.] [illustration: bucking mule] next, make the frame and wheels as follows: saw out two 5" wheels and bore the center holes to fit tight on the wire axle and to run true. the frame, the handle, the sides and end are shaped from 1/2" stock. the two upright pieces are made of 3/8" stock and securely fastened on the inner faces of the sides. then the sides are nailed to the end piece and the handle. cuts are sawed into the lower edge of the sides, 2" from the end to form a bearing for the axle. paint wheels red and frame green. the axle is best made by holding the wire in a vise. first, make bends 3/8" on each side of the middle point. then make the second pair of bends 1-1/4" from the middle. near each end of the axle, flattened places are hammered so that, when driven into the wheels, they will not turn. drive the wheels onto the axle. put the axle in place, drive nails into the sides, and bend them over the axle to hold it in place. take the mule, put the projection from the body between the two uprights on the frame, insert a 1-1/2" nail thru the three holes, and bend the end back. join the connecting rod to the crank. stride the rider on the mule and insert a nail thru his thighs and the back of the mule. with a neat cord connect the hands to the mouth of the mule, for a bridle. take hold of the handle and watch the mule gallop when you push him along. [illustration: fig. 20.] [illustration: rider for bucking mule] fox-and-goose game this game is played by two people on a board with 33 holes, as shown in the drawing. the board may be made either square or octagonal. the octagon is made from a square by placing one point of the compass at a corner and the other point at the center of the board. with each corner in turn as a center, draw arcs intersecting the edges of the board. connect these points of intersection across the corners of the board; saw off the four triangles. smooth the edges and chamfer. lay out and bore the holes. make 26 pegs to fit loose. leave 24 white for the geese and color 2 red for the foxes. in playing the game, all the pegs are put in their places. the foxes at nos. 9 and 11; the geese at 7, 8, 12, 13, and consecutively up to 33. the foxes and geese can move on the lines only, in any direction from one hole to the next. a fox can also jump over a goose and take it, provided the hole just beyond it is vacant. in fact, the fox can jump and take several geese in various directions if conditions permit. the geese can not jump, but they can move so as to hem in the foxes and make it impossible for them to move. this means that the foxes have lost the game. in starting the game, the player having the foxes gets the first move. his aim is to jump and capture all the geese and win the game. each player takes turn in moving. when crowding a goose in on a fox, the player always has another goose behind it so that the fox can not jump it. this game is one of the kind that requires foresight and study. it is highly interesting and entertaining, and by experience, players may become quite expert at the game. _solitaire_--this same board may also be used for the solitaire game. however, that requires 32 pegs. they are put in all the holes except no. 17. the object is to jump and take all the pegs but one, and it must land in hole 17. unaided, this is difficult to do, and it would take a long time for a person to discover a solution. for this reason, the reader is presented with the following "key": 5 jumps to 17 and takes 10, 12 to 10 and takes 11, etc.; 3 to 11, 1-3, 18-6, 3-11, 30-18, 27-25, 13-27, 24-26, 27-25, 22-24, 31-23, 33-31, 16-28, 31-23, 4-16, 7-9, 21-7, 10-8, 7-9, 24-22, 22-8, 8-10, 10-12, 12-26, 26-24, 17-15, 29-17, 18-16, 15-17. [illustration: fox-and-geese game] nine men's mill this is a game that is played by two persons and is as fascinating as it is old. the upper part of the board is 3/8" thick and has 24 holes bored thru it, as shown in the drawing. the lower board is 7-1/2" square and 1/4" thick, and extends 1/4" beyond the top board on all sides. the grain in the two boards should run at right angles when fastened together. the 18 pegs are 3/8" in diameter and 1" long. each player has a set of 9 pegs, the sets being differently colored. in starting a game, each player takes his turn in putting a peg into a hole till all the pegs are put down. then they take turns in moving the pegs. a peg may be moved from one hole to the next and only along rows parallel with the edges of the board, not along the rows that run from corners of the board to its center. that is, along rows 1, 2, 3 or 2, 5, 8, but not along rows 1, 4, 7. the object of a player in putting down pegs and in moving is to get a mill; that is, get 3 pegs in a row parallel with the edges of the board. for example: pegs in holes 4, 5, 6 or 2, 5, 8 makes a mill, but not 3, 6, 9. when a player gets a mill, he can take one of his opponent's pegs that is not in a mill. another aim of a player is to place his pegs so that he prevents his opponent from getting a mill. when the pegs of one of the players have all been taken except 3, then he is allowed to jump anywhere on the board. when the pegs are all gone but two, then the game is lost. when a player can get 5 pegs into holes situated as 7, 8, 9 and 4, 6, then he has a double mill by moving from 8 to 5 and from 5 to 8, etc., and pick one of his opponent's pegs for each move. [illustration] [illustration: nine men's mill] disk puzzle this problem consists of a base, three spindles and seven disks of different diameters. the spindles are fitted tight into holes in the base and rounded at the top so the disks will slide over freely. the seven disks are laid out on the wood with compass, and to prevent splitting the holes are all bored before the sawing is done. the parts may receive a finish of stain and two or three coats of shellac. polish with no. 1/2 sand-paper between each coat. _puzzle_--place all disks on one spindle, decreasing in sizes upward. the object is to transfer the disks to one of the other spindles and to be in the same order. in doing this, never have more than one disk at a time removed from the spindles, and never place a larger disk on top of a smaller one. [illustration: disk puzzle] ball puzzle at first it is not evident why this is called a ball puzzle, but, when let into the secret, most people see at once a good reason for naming it so. the wooden ball or marble is hidden from sight inside of the wood and may be shifted in position from the middle to the upper piece of the puzzle and vice versa (fig. 21). [illustration: fig. 21.] the problem is to slide the middle piece off of the pin that projects up from the lower piece and swing it around its pivot. this pivot is a 1-1/2" round-headed screw, fitting loosely in the upper two and fixed in the lower piece. a 1/2" hole is bored thru the middle and 1/2" deep in the upper piece to hold the 7/16" ball. this hole is bored so it touches the hole for the screw. in the middle piece, the screw can slide into it. in order to make the ball leave its position in the middle piece, the puzzle must be held upside down. the drawings show the puzzle both closed and open, and supply directions for constructing this interesting problem. finish with stain and two coats of shellac. this puzzle may be a source of much genuine amusement when a circle of friends come together and all want a hand at opening it, each having his advice to give how to solve this mysterious problem. [illustration: ball puzzle] [illustration] appendix knots and braids most of us are called upon, in the course of our daily duties, whether afloat or ashore, in camp or at home, to hitch up pack animals, do up packages, equipments and outfits, and make fastenings on sails, tents, scaffolding and play apparatus. this involves the tying of a great number of knots and in many cases life and limb depend upon the correct tying of those knots. the seamen, textile workers and civil engineers are pastmasters of the art. our scouts, sailors and soldiers are taught knot-tying as an essential factor in their training. would it not seem a part of wisdom, for the sake of safety and economy in time and good nature, for everybody to master these knot problems? it would, at least, be a very practical part of the training for children in the schools. they should be taught knot-tying and its application in an intelligent and thoro manner, and have frequent practice-drill therein, till it becomes second nature to them. when a knot is tied, it must be pulled together tight, so as to stay. otherwise, especially if the cord is stiff, the loops will slide apart or flop out of position, and the knot will come loose. a knot derives its strength and reliability from the friction between its different parts. when tension is applied on a knot, the two parts which lie alongside of each other should move in the reverse directions and produce a maximum amount of friction, as the ropes tend to slip. one may readily learn to tie the different knots by carefully following the accompanying drawings. procure a slender, flexible rope, bend it into the shape shown in the drawing, and go over and under, as indicated, so that the parts will be in the correct relative positions. begin by making the simple knots, and, later, tackle the more complex ones. also learn their names. names of knots and braids 1. overhand knot--to prevent unraveling of rope, starting of a square knot; also a stop knot. 2. figure-eight knot--used for a stop knot. 3. boat knot--used on sails and rigging. 4. slip knot--used to fasten rope end to a post. 5. flemish loop--stays tight, will jam. 6. stevedore knot--will not jam. 7. sheet bend or weaver's knot--for joining two ends. 8. square or reef knot--for joining two cords--very useful, is non-slipping. 9. granny knot--most people confuse it with the square knot. it will slip. 10. thief knot--will slip. 11. carrick bend--used on top of gin pole or mast to hold it erect; the four ends are fastened to the ground. 12. carrick bend--used to join two ropes. 13. bowline--a very useful non-slipping loop. 14. clove hitch--an effective means for fastening rope to a post or ring. 15. timber hitch--used for pulling logs. 16. handcuff hitch--used to convey prisoners. 17. sheepshank--to decrease the length of a rope. 18. bowknot--is tied like the square knot, but with ends doubled back in tying the latter half--used on neckties and ribbons. 19. spanish bowline--used as boatswain's chair. 20. wall knot--used by electricians as a stop on drop-cord. 21. wall knot crowned--a neat rope-end finish, to prevent unraveling. 22. three-strand flat braid. 23. four-strand flat braid, begun. 24. four-strand flat braid, continued--the right strand goes over, the left one goes under, and then is passed to the right, in front of the middle strand. 25. six-strand flat braid, begun. 26. six-strand flat braid, continued--note that each strand goes from one side clear to the other, before turning around and goes over and under, alternately, in crossing the other strands. 27. chain knot--is begun like a slip knot. 28. chain knotting, continued--each loop is pulled taut. 29. double chain knotting--is started like the single chain knot, but the second loop is formed from the free end, and slipped thru from the same side as the first. both ends are used, alternately, and the loops are pulled taut. it makes a beautiful cord, triangular in shape. 30. genoese braid, begun--two cords are used, one end of each is used as a core, tho a thicker core may be used, and with the other two ends, in turn, loops are drawn around the core. 31. genoese braid, continued--makes a handsome flat braid. 32. watch fob--may be made of three or more strings or ribbons. four strings are used in this case. take two shoe strings and double them. tie thread around them, about two inches from the loops. hold the loops in the left hand, with the ends up. name them a, b, c, d, as is shown in the drawing. first, bend a to the right; bend d over a, and away from you; bend c over d, and to the left; bend b over c, and toward you, and slip the end under the loop of a. second, take string a and double it back to the left; bend b over a, and away from you; bend c over b, and to the right; bend d over c, and toward you, and slip the end under loop at a. the third step is like the first, and the fourth like the second. when finished, slip the loops thru your watch-ring, open the two loops and slip the watch fob thru them. the charm is neatly fastened to the finishing ends. 33. banister bar--is made by tying the overhand knot over a core of any desired thickness. 34. banister bar, continued--the process of tying this knot is as follows: hold the left strand horizontally behind the core; reach under it at the right of the core and take the right strand, bring it forward and to the left across the front of the core, and then back at the left of the core, thru the loop formed by the left strand. continue by repeating this process. 35. solomon's knot--this is started like the banister bar, but, instead of tying all the knots alike, the tying is done, in turn, first with the right-hand strand, then with the left. each strand will thus remain on the same side of the core as at the start. the strand in front of the core is used continually for tying the knot by the left and right hand, alternately, as the strand moves from side to side. it is a series of left and right overhand knots over a core. 36. four-strand round braid--is very pretty, and well repays any difficulty in mastering it. it is not as easy to illustrate, by drawing, the process of making a round braid as a flat one; however, by carefully following the movement of each strand in the illustration, while manipulating the four strings, one will soon gain success and also much satisfaction. first, hold the four strands in the left hand, as in the beginning of the flat braid, but, instead of taking the right strand, reach in, just in the left of the right strand, and, from behind, take the left strand, bring it forward and across in front from right to left. second, exchange the places of the words, right and left, and repeat the above-described process. referring to the drawing, reach in at b, and from behind at the right, below x4, take c; bring it forward and across b, at x7. next, hold the braid in the left hand and, with the right, reach in at d and take a from behind, and bring it forward and across c, at e, as is shown by dotted lines. braiding with three strands, or as many more as desired, may be done with ropes, strings of beads, rich-colored cords and ribbons, or basketry materials, for making many useful and beautiful articles, such as chains, belts, hangings, bags, portieres and wicker work for baskets, lamp shades and chairs. [illustration] toy patterns _by_ michael c. dank a collection of full-size toy patterns. toys which make a strong appeal to the child. each pattern sheet presents a particular class of toys including jointed animals, animal rocker toys, wheeled platform toys, lever toys, string toys, freak toys, novelties, etc. while intended to be worked out in wood many are equally well adapted for cardboard. toy-making at home from these patterns is a fine hobby for the boy from six to twelve years of age, and in the school is a fascinating manual training activity. these patterns are based upon the author's long experience in the teaching of toy-making in public and private schools and summer camps. they are well presented on sheets size 10-1/2 x 14 inches and are enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive design in color. _price, 80 cents._ manual training toys _for the_ boys workshop _by_ harris w. moore.--a popular boys' book illustrating 42 projects overflowing with "boy" interest. the drawings are full-page and show each project complete and in detail. a descriptive text accompanies giving full information as to materials needed and how to proceed with the simple tools required. _price, $1.50._ coping saw work _by_ ben w. johnson.--presents drawings and suggestions for a course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affording ample means for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. a helpful guide for the teacher of the fourth grade. _price, 30 cents._ kitecraft _and_ kite tournaments _by_ charles m. miller.--an authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. the book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. also aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. four chapters are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite flying tournaments. abundantly illustrated and attractively bound. _price, $1.75._ bird houses boys can build _by_ albert f. siepert.--a book of rare interest to boys. it is written in the boy spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements of continuation work in wood. it illustrates hundreds of bird houses and shows working drawings of various designs, also feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories. the common house nesting birds are pictured and described with information regarding houses, foods, etc., suitable for each. a pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys. _price, 65 cents._ _send for descriptive catalog._ the manual arts press peoria, illinois transcriber's notes reminder: lead-paint warning! do not use the ground-lead paint ingredients mentioned in the "coloring the toys" chapter. this book was published before the harmful effects of lead paint to children were known. also, when working with enamel paint that contains a high quantity of solvents, make sure the area is as well-ventilated as possible. if still in doubt, wear a respirator mask to prevent the toxic effects of solvent inhalation. paper masks do not block solvent fumes. some of the diagrams have been moved from their original positions to the sections describing their constructions. pages 6, 13: retained original spelling of "thoroly." page 15: changed "craftmanship" to "craftsmanship." page 31: changed "minsrels" to "minstrels." transcriber's notes: the table of contents has been changed to match the actual chapter headings. a few hyphenations have been changed to make them consistent. minor typographic errors have been corrected. woodwork joints (_the woodworker series_) _revised edition_ woodwork joints how they are set out, how made and where used; with four hundred illustrations and index _revised edition_ london evans brothers, limited montague house, russell square, w.c.1 _the woodworker series_ woodwork joints. cabinet construction. staining and polishing. woodwork tools. practical upholstery. wood turning. woodcarving. timbers for woodwork. furniture repairing and re-upholstery. household repairs and renovations. carpentry for beginners. kitchen furniture designs. bureau and bookcase designs. light carpentry designs. doormaking. evans brothers, limited, montague house, russell square, london, w.c.1. editorial foreword to be successful in woodwork construction the possession of two secrets is essential--to know the right joint to use, and to know how to make that joint in the right way. the woodwork structure or the piece of cabinet-work that endures is the one on which skilful hands have combined to carry out what the constructive mind planned. and it is just here that the present volume will help, not alone the beginner who wishes preliminary instruction, but also the expert who desires guidance over ground hitherto unexplored by him. in the preparation of this new edition the publishers have secured the services of mr. william fairham, by whom the chapters have been carefully revised and re-illustrated. although intended for the practical man, and not professing to be a graded course of "educational woodwork," the volume is one which handicraft instructors will find of the greatest value in conducting woodwork classes. no book hitherto published contains such a variety of illustrations of joints, almost all of which will form suitable exercises of practical educational importance in a woodworking course. j. c. s. b. [illustration: old oak chests, showing the method of structure which forms the origin of most of our english furniture. (from _the woodworker_, january, 1927.)] contents page the glued joint 1 the halved joint 13 the bridle joint 35 the tongued and grooved joint 48 the mortise and tenon joint 64 the dowelling joint 93 the scarf joint 103 the hinged joint 109 shutting joints 127 the dovetail joint 132 dovetail grooving 160 the mitred joint 163 joints for curved work 172 miscellaneous joints 176 puzzle joints 189 index 209 [illustration: staircase of the second half of seventeenth century. (from _the woodworker_, september, 1929.)] the glued joint the glued joint in its various forms is in use in every country in the world, and is frequently met with in mummy cases and other examples of ancient woodwork. alternative names under which it is known are the butt joint, the rubbed joint, the slipped joint, whilst in certain localities it is known as the slaped (pronounced _slayped_) joint. [illustration: fig. 1.--simplest form of glued or rubbed joint.] the glued joint is made by planing two pieces of timber so that when placed together they are in contact with each other at every point; they are then usually united with glue. fig. 1 shows a sketch of a butt joint in its simplest form. in fig. 2 is indicated the method of holding the joint whilst being glued; the upright portion is held rigid in the bench vice, thus leaving the left hand to hold the piece which is to be jointed, whilst the right hand operates the glue brush. the pieces of wood which form a butt joint may be glued together with or without the aid of cramps or artificial pressure. if the joint is to be made without cramping, the two surfaces of the timber are warmed so as not to chill the glue. the surfaces are then glued and put together and rubbed backwards and forwards so as to get rid of the superfluous glue. they are then put aside to dry. glueing.--the better the glue penetrates into the pores of the wood, the stronger the joint will be; for this reason timber of the loose-fibred variety, such as pine, etc., will hold up at the joint better than hardwoods like teak and rosewood. the glue used for jointing should be neither too thick nor too thin; the consistency of cream will be found suitable for most purposes. it should be nice and hot, and be rapidly spread over the surface of the wood. [illustration: fig. 2.--how the wood is held whilst glueing.] if light-coloured woods, such as pine, satinwood, sycamore, etc., have to be jointed, a little flake white should be procured and mixed into the liquid glue. this will prevent the glue showing a thin black line on the joint. broad surfaces of close-grained hardwood having a shiny surface are usually carefully roughened with a fine toothing plane blade previous to glueing. supporting the joint.--the jointed boards should not be reared up against a "bench leg" or wall without having any support in the centre, as dotted line at fig. 5, because in all probability they will fracture before the glue has time to set; and, when we go to take them up to renew working operations, we shall be annoyed to find that they have assumed a position similar to that at fig. 5 (shown exaggerated), and this will, of course, necessitate re-jointing. [illustration: fig. 3.--correct jointing.] [illustration: fig. 4.--faulty jointing.] [illustration: fig. 5.--boards unsupported.] [illustration: fig. 6.--boards supported.] [illustration: fig. 7.--(a) glued slip, (b) glued moulding.] [illustration: fig. 8.--grain alternating.] a correct method to adopt is seen at fig. 6. here we have supported the joint by rearing up against the wall a couple of pieces of batten, one at each end of the board, thus supporting it throughout its entire width until the glue is thoroughly set. the two or more pieces of timber in a butt joint adhere by crystallisation of the glue and atmospheric pressure. a well-fitted joint made with good quality glue is so strong that, when boards of 3 feet and upwards are jointed together by this method, the timber in most cases will break with the grain sooner than part at the joint. butt joints may be cramped up, if desired, and it is customary to warm them as previously stated. in the absence of the usual iron cramp, the amateur may make an excellent wooden arrangement out of any odd pieces of timber that happen to be handy. two blocks of hardwood are screwed on the base board at a suitable distance for the work in hand; the boards to be jointed are glued and placed in position between the blocks; and the two hardwood wedges are inserted and hammered in opposite directions to each other, thus exerting the desired pressure. an example of this method of cramping is shown in fig. 25, which also indicates the use of iron "dogs." when jointing, care should be taken to first plane up the boards true on one side--_i.e._, take them out of winding. the method of testing for this is shown at fig. 9, and it may with advantage be used when jointing the edges of the boards. two laths or strips of wood are planed up to exactly the same width, having their edges straight and parallel. one edge of each lath may, if desired, be bevelled a little. the method of using these "twist sticks" or "winding laths" is to put them on the board as indicated, and sight along their top edges. the winding laths, being much longer than the width of the board, show up the irregularity greatly pronounced. the tools generally used for making the butt joints are:-the jack plane, for roughing the edges, etc. the wooden trying plane (or iron jointing plane) for trueing up the work. the try square for testing purposes. the winding laths and straight edge. the method of work is as follows: each board is in turn put in the vice and planed straight lengthwise; it is then tested with winding laths and a try square (the latter method is shown at fig. 22). [illustration: fig. 9.--testing surface with winding laths.] the boards are then put on the top of one another as at fig. 1 and tested with a straight edge; they should appear true as shown at fig. 3; if they show faulty as at fig. 4 the joints must be again fitted until the required degree of accuracy is obtained. difficulties may be avoided by care in selecting timber suitable for jointing, and it must be remembered that timber shrinks circumferentially (the heart side becoming curved) as dotted lines in fig. 10. if the timber be jointed with all the heart side one way as at fig. 10, the tendency will be for it to cast as shown by the dotted line. if the timber be alternated as at fig. 11, the tendency will be to cast wavy, whereas if quartered timber can be obtained it will stand practically straight as the tendency to shrink is in thickness only. the grain of quartered timber is shown in fig. 12. [illustration: fig. 10.--showing heart side of timber one way.] [illustration: fig. 11.--heart side of timber shown alternated.] [illustration: fig. 12.--grain of quartered timber.] [illustration: fig. 13.--boards showing uniformity of grain.] judgment should also be exercised to avoid jointing in which one piece of timber is wild and large in the grain, and the adjoining piece of a mild-grained nature. jointed boards should always be glued up with the grain running in the same direction if possible; this we show at fig. 13, and nothing looks worse than a dressing chest end or similar piece of work in which the grain runs haphazard. when jointing thin timber (say, 1/4-in., 3/8-in., 1/2-in. and 5/8-in. boards) the best method is to use a shooting board (fig. 26). it must be noted, however, that a shooting board and plane practically never give a true right angle, owing to wear and the grinding of the blade. therefore, the boards _should not_ all be laid with the "face mark" on the shooting board whilst the edges are shot, because any inequality would be multiplied by the number of pieces jointed. a better method is to alternate the boards, face side up, then face side down, whilst shooting the edges; this will prevent convexity or concavity on the face of the jointed board, because any slight error in the angle is neutralised (see fig. 8). applications of the joint.--the following show various applications of the butt or glued joint:-[illustration: fig. 14.--carcase wing-pieces glued on.] fig. 7a shows a mahogany or other hardwood slip glued on the edge of a cheaper wood, such as pine or whitewood, as is the case on bookcase shelves when only the front edge is seen and polished. fig. 7b shows a moulding glued on a shelf, both mould and shelf in this instance being of polished hardwood. a shelf of this type might be used in a recess, the object of the overhanging moulding being to hide a small 3/8-in. iron rod which would carry the curtain rings and heading of the curtain which covers the recess. the shelf would be fixed about 3 ft. 9 ins. to 4 ft. 3 ins. from the floor. fig. 14 shows the wing pieces glued on the top bearer of carcase work. the application of this bearer in its position will be shown in the chapter on dovetailing. fig. 15 shows a butt joint planed at an angle of 45 degrees (commonly called a mitre), used for box feet, etc. fig. 16 shows jointing up of an ogee-shaped panel. the dotted lines indicate the thickness of the timber previous to its being worked up to the finished shape. bow-fronted and semicircular panels are jointed in a similar manner. [illustration: fig. 15.--butting mitred angle joint.] [illustration: fig. 16.--jointing ogee-shaped panel.] fig. 17 shows timber jointed at right angles to the upright piece, and at an angle of 30 degrees. fig. 18 indicates quarter-circle jointing, as used in round-cornered chests of drawers, wardrobes, cupboards, etc. fig. 19 is similar to fig. 18, but with hollow (or concave) corners. [illustration: fig. 17.--jointed timber at 30° and 90° angles.] [illustration: fig. 18 (above).--convex corner.] [illustration: fig. 19 (below).--concave corner.] [illustration: fig. 20.--jointing a shaped spandrel.] [illustration: fig. 21.--building up case of piano front.] [illustration: fig. 22.--use of the try-square for testing edge.] [illustration: fig. 23.--example of circular laminated work.] [illustration: fig. 24.--glueing ploughslips to drawer.] [illustration: fig. 25.--method of holding glued joints with iron dogs.] [illustration: fig. 26.--method of using shooting board.] fig. 20 gives us the jointing up of a shaped spandrel to the required width. in a case of this description suitably grained and coloured wood should be selected, otherwise the bad match will at once draw attention to the joint. fig. 21 shows the application of butt or glued jointing to the building up of the core of a piano fall previous to shaping up and veneering. fig. 23.--laminated work--the building up of circular rims for cabinet and joinery work. plan and elevation show rim pattern of a pulley as used in the pattern-making trade. [illustration: fig. 27.--cramping glued joints: handscrews and batten shown at left; temporary batten at right to keep the wood flat.] fig. 24.--the glueing of a ploughslip to a drawer side is seen here, the ploughslip being used to carry the drawer bottom. fig. 26 shows the method of jointing with shooting board and trying plane; the right hand operates the plane whilst the left hand holds the wood firm upon the shooting board. owing to the importation of narrow and faulty timber the necessity of jointing is greater to-day than ever it was, wide timber of course meaning higher cost for raw material. the method of using iron dogs is illustrated in fig. 25, and it will be observed that owing to the wedge-like formation of each fang (see enlarged sketch) the dog exerts the necessary pressure to close the joint. at the centre of this illustration is suggested the home-made hardwood blocks, baseboard and wedges referred to on page 4. fig. 27 shows how the iron sash cramps are used to apply pressure to the joint. as this method is in some cases apt to bend and distort thin boards it is wise practice to fix (as a temporary measure) a stout piece of straight wood on to the board to be joined by using two handscrews as shown at the left hand of the illustration. at the right hand of the sketch a wooden cramping arrangement of the box type is given, and by wedging up the boards are closed together. it is obvious that if this type of box cramp be used it will prevent the boards buckling and the handscrew method at the left may be dispensed with. the halved joint the halved joint is frequently known as half-lapping, and sometimes as checking and half-checking. in the majority of cases it is made by halving the two pieces, _i.e._, by cutting half the depth of the wood away. there are, however, exceptions to this rule, as in the case of "three-piece halving" (or, as it is sometimes called, "third lapping") and in the halving of timber with rebated or moulded edges. halving is one of the simplest methods of connecting two pieces of timber, especially where it is desired to make frames and bracket supports for either inside or outside use. [illustration: fig. 28.--frame, with various halved joints. these joints, numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., are shown in detail in figs. 29 to 38.] fig. 28 shows the elevation of an imaginary frame which is indicated as made up of a number of halving joints; it shows also the application of the various joints to this class of work. each joint used in the construction of this frame may be dealt with separately. the numbers marked on fig. 28 refer to the individual joints, shown separately in figs. 29 to 38. [illustration: fig. 29.--halved corner joint.] [illustration: fig. 30.--halved t joint.] fig. 29 shows the "halved joint" at the corner of the frame where the two pieces form a right angle (see fig. 28, 1). each piece is halved and shouldered at opposite sides, thus forming a perfect fit one with the other and giving a strong joint with a minimum amount of labour. for inside work the joint would be glued and screwed together, the screw heads being countersunk so as not to come in contact with the cutting iron of the plane when levelling off the work. for outside work, in exposed positions where the work will have to withstand the weather, the alternative method of smearing the joint with paint or with a mixture of varnish and white lead would be advisable, the joint being nailed or screwed. fig. 29 shows the two pieces separated. fig. 30 shows a similar joint to the above, but in this case the top rail runs through and it is generally spoken of as a "halved t joint" (fig. 28, 2). it may be used in nearly all cases where a top or bottom rail runs through an upright. the method of securing the joint is as before. fig. 30 shows a sketch of the joint separated. [illustration: fig. 31.--oblique halving with shoulder.] [illustration: fig. 32.--oblique halving.] at fig. 31 is shown an "oblique halving joint," where the oblique piece, or strut, does not run through (fig. 28, 3). this type of joint is used for strengthening framings and shelf brackets; an example of the latter is shown at fig. 48. a strut or rail of this type prevents movement or distortion to a frame diagonally (generally spoken of in the trade as "racking"). fig. 31 shows the joint apart. fig. 32 is an example of oblique halving with the upper piece running through (fig. 28, 4). this joint is used in similar positions to fig. 31, and has in some cases the disadvantage of showing end grain at the top of the frame. the sketch shows the two pieces separated. fig. 33 is "dovetail halving," the dovetail running through the top piece (fig. 28, 5). this is a strong joint, used where outside strain is likely to occur in the top piece, the dovetail preventing the rail from being drawn away from the shoulder. the two pieces are shown separate. [illustration: fig. 33.--dovetail halving.] [illustration: fig. 34.--mitre halving.] at fig. 34 is seen "mitred halving," a somewhat weak joint, but necessary in mirror frames, etc., where good appearance is required on the face side (fig. 28, 6). its use is obvious if the face of the frame be moulded with beads or other sections which require to intersect one with the other. this also applies if the frame be moulded on its face edges. fig. 35 is a halved joint with one side of the piece dovetailed (fig. 28, 8). this joint is used in similar positions to fig. 33, and rather less labour is required in the making. the two pieces are shown separate for clearness. fig. 36 indicates the "halved joint," the pieces at one end showing a double dovetail (fig. 28, 7). this particular joint is seldom used except for manual training purposes. the illustration shows a sketch of the joint apart. fig. 37 is "oblique dovetail halving," one side of the piece being dovetailed. the joint is used to prevent "racking," and as a cross brace to framing. it is occasionally made with both its sides dovetailed as shown at fig. 33. (for reference, see fig. 28, 9.) [illustration: fig. 35.--halved joint with one side dovetailed.] [illustration: fig. 36.--halved joint with double dovetail.] [illustration: fig. 37.--oblique dovetail halving.] [illustration: fig. 38.--stopped dovetail halving.] fig. 38 shows "stopped dovetail halving." in this case the dovetail is similar to fig. 33, with the exception that it does not run through the bottom rail. this is an advantage if the bottom edge of the rail is in evidence, or if it is required to glue a moulding or hardwood facing slip on the lower edge. the glue adheres better _with_ the grain than it would _end way_ of the grain, and if slight shrinkage occurs across the width of the bottom rail the moulding would not be forced away by the upright (see example at fig. 28, 10). [illustration: fig. 39.--cross halving joint.] [illustration: fig. 40.--cross halving joint edgeways.] [illustration: fig. 41.--tee halving joint.] the joint lettered b in fig. 28 is a "cross halving joint" where each piece runs through the other. fig. 39 shows this joint separated, and fig. 40 shows a similar joint separated where the joint is made edgeways. fig. 41 shows a "tee halving joint" with a dovetail cut on the edge. this is seldom used except as a woodwork exercise. fig. 42 is a "dovetailed halving joint" used for lengthening timber, and is also a favourite manual training model. it might also come under the heading of scarf joint, although rarely used in actual practice as such. as a practical woodwork exercise it calls for accurate marking out and careful fitting. [illustration: fig. 42.--dovetailed halving joint used for lengthening timber.] [illustration: fig. 43.--dovetailed and halved joint.] [illustration: fig. 44.--dovetailed halved joint with shoulders.] fig. 43 shows a combination of a halved joint dovetailed edgeways, whilst fig. 44 shows a dovetailed halved joint with the shoulders housed. this latter is seldom used in actual work. at fig. 45 we have the application of halving joints when constructing a barrow wheel. the centre portion is an example of three pieces half-lapped or, as it is sometimes called, one-third lapped. a sketch of the three pieces separated is shown at l, b, c, fig. 46. this joint is extensively used in the pattern making trade for lap-jointing the arms of pulley patterns, etc. it is probably the most difficult of the halving joints to mark out and construct with the desired degree of accuracy. [illustration: fig. 45.--halved joints on barrow wheels.] [illustration: fig. 46.--detail of halved joints in fig. 45.] fig. 47 shows a combination of a bevelled dovetail half-lapped joint. this is only used as a puzzle joint. when neatly constructed and glued together it is apparently impossible to make it, showing as it does a half lap on one side and a dovetailed half lap on the reverse side. fig. 48 is the end view of a kitchen table with drop leaf, showing the skirting board scribed to the solid side. a table of this type is fastened to the wall with two iron holdfasts which engage the ends of the table. the hinged bracket frame shows the application of the halving joint to bracket supports for this and similar purposes, such as brackets to support shelving, etc. in this example the hinged brackets turn underneath the table top, and allow the leaf to drop out of the way when not required. the dotted lines show the position of a shelf for boots and shoes. [illustration: fig. 47.--bevelled dovetailed half lap.] [illustration: fig. 48.--bracket of drop table.] [illustration: figs. 49 and 50.--separate pieces of halved moulded joint.] [illustration: fig. 51.--oblique cross halving joint.] [illustration: fig. 52.--manual training halved exercise joint.] [illustration: fig. 53.--exercise dovetail joint.] [illustration: fig. 54.--carpentry tie joint.] figs. 49 and 50 indicate the halving of cross pieces which have their edges moulded; the pieces are shown separately, the moulding being omitted to give a clearer representation of the method of construction. [illustration: fig. 55.--cross halving joint with housed corners.] [illustration: fig. 56.--the parts of fig. 55 shown separate.] fig. 51 is an "oblique cross halving joint" where the two pieces are not at right angles. a plan and elevation of the joint are shown at the left, whilst a sketch of one piece of the joint is given in the right-hand illustration. figs. 52 and 53 are principally used as manual training models, and call for patience and manual dexterity. fig. 54 is used in carpentry and joinery where a tie or cross piece ties joists or beams at an angle. fig. 55 shows the elevation and end view of a "cross halving joint" with housed or notched shoulders. this joint is seldom used in actual practice. the separate parts are given in fig. 56. at fig. 57 are shown two cross rails and an upright halved together. this type of joint is used where three pieces meet, as is the case in building the framing of a poultry house. the joint is nailed together. [illustration: fig. 57.--cross rail and upright halved joint.] [illustration: fig. 58.--workshop trestle joint.] [illustration: fig. 59.--cellarette partition joints.] fig. 58 is the end view of an ordinary workshop trestle, showing the application of dovetailed halving where the legs have a tendency to strain outwards. the inset sketch of joint shows the housing of the top rail to receive the legs. fig. 59 shows a deep drawer, generally known as a cellarette, and used in a sideboard to accommodate wine bottles. here we have a good example of halving the cross pieces so as to form compartments. the part shown separately illustrates the method of construction. the ends of these pieces engage the housings or grooves of the drawer sides. pigeon holes or compartments in stationery cases, bookcases and writing bureaux are constructed in a similar manner, although the method of housing, or combined halving and housing, is to be preferred in some cases. [illustration: fig. 60.--joint used for table with circular top or rim.] at fig. 60 is the plan of a circular table having a small circular shelf with the top removed. the rims or framing are built by the method known as laminating (see fig. 23 in chapter on the the glued joint), after which they are veneered on the face sides. the application of the halving joint to the shaped bottom rails, which in this case carry and support the small shelf, is shown in the part elevation. [illustration: fig. 61 (a).--oxford frame with halved joints. (four alternative corner treatments are given.)] [illustration: fig. 61 (b).--halved joint of oxford frame with front edges champered.] [illustration: fig. 61 (c).--back view of oxford frame.] fig. 61 (a) shows the well-known "oxford frame," illustrating halved joints when the edge is rebated. figs. 61 (b) and 61 (c) make clear the construction of this type of joint. alternative suggestions are shown for the treatment of the corners, the simple inlay being black and white (ebony and holly or boxwood). frames of this type are made in various widths and sizes and are used for pictures, mirrors, etc. [illustration: fig. 62.--the two pieces of a halved joint.] the tools used for making joints of the above class are: planes, the gauge, tenon or other saw, chisels, try square, and in some cases a joiner's bevel to obtain and mark the necessary angles, pencil and marking knife. plane up the face side and face edge of the timber, gauge and plane to both thickness and width; mark shoulders with pencil or marking knife; gauge to the thickness of the required halving; saw waste portions away; pare up with chisel to a good fit; glue or glue and screw, or use paint as previously mentioned, and then level off the surfaces. setting out the halved joint.--although at first sight the halved joint may appear to be a very easy item of construction, it requires much care and attention in marking out and sawing. fig. 62 shows the two pieces which form the joint separated, and it will be noticed that each piece of wood has half its thickness cut away, so as to accommodate the other piece. this type of joint is used where two pieces of wood cross each other at right angles, or at an angle as shown in fig. 51. the halving joint is used also for joining two pieces of wood at their ends, as, for instance, the corner of a frame, one half of this joint being shown at fig. 65 (b). [illustration: fig. 63.--how the timber is marked.] [illustration: fig. 64.--marking the joint with try square.] to make the joint, the timber should be carefully planed to its exact width and thickness. the two pieces may then be placed upon the bench (as shown at fig. 63) or fixed in the vice. find the centre of the timber, c, fig. 63, and set out half the width of the wood on each side of the dotted centre line. thus, suppose the wood (w) to be 2 ins. wide, then set 1 in. on each side of the centre line. take a square as at fig. 64, and with a sharp penknife blade score or cut a line all round each piece of timber. [illustration: fig. 65.--using the marking gauge.] next take up a marking gauge, and set the marking point to half the thickness of the wood. the distance may be measured, and its exactness tested, by pricking a small hole from each side of the wood with the marking gauge and carefully noting that the pricked holes coincide. the gauge mark is clearly shown in the various illustrations. now, take a pencil and scribble or mark "waste" on the parts you intend to cut away. this will save trouble later on, especially if you are making several joints at once. take your sharp penknife or marking knife blade, and cut fairly deeply into the marked line on the portion you are going to pare away. [illustration: fig. 66.--chiselling away wood up to gauge line.] [illustration: fig. 67.--how work is held when sawing shoulder.] fix the wood firmly in your vice, or against your cutting board or bench stop, as may be more convenient to you, and with a sharp chisel cut away the wood up to the marked line, as at fig. 66. the channel in the sketch is exaggerated, so as to show the method clearly. the object of using a penknife or marking knife to mark your work, instead of using a pencil, will be obvious. owing to the knife having scored about 1/16 in. deep across the fibres of the wood, the timber will come away cleanly when the chisel is used, as at fig. 66. the small channel thus made will form a guide in which to start your tenon or dovetail saw; it prevents the saw cutting on the wrong side of the marked line and thus making the halving too wide. [illustration: fig. 68.--paring away waste with chisel.] [illustration: fig. 69.--showing an oblique halved joint.] sawing.--lay the work on the cutting board as at fig. 67; or, if you prefer, put the work in the vice. carefully saw down the work until you _just touch_ the gauge line. do not press heavily with the saw; use it lightly; the weight of the back iron which is fixed on the saw will ensure the saw feeding into the work quite fast enough. if the saw is newly sharpened it will, in fact, be an advantage to slightly ease the weight of the saw from off the wood, owing to the keenness of its edge. if the halving is a very wide one, additional cuts may be sawn between the outside marks, and these will greatly facilitate the removal of the waste wood when paring it away. for sawing the joint reference may be made to the chapter on dovetailing. [illustration: fig. 70.--sawing the cheek of a halving joint.] paring away the waste material with a chisel is the next step, and this is shown at fig. 68. the work may be chiselled either in a vertical or a horizontal position. the horizontal position is the easiest for the amateur who has a vice or handscrew, because he may hold the work securely with a mechanical device and so avoid the unnecessary risk to his fingers. take the chisel and cut away a, fig. 68; now turn the chisel and cut away b; after which keep the chisel horizontal and cut off "the top of the hill," as it were, c. repeat the three operations until you gradually pare the wood away exactly to the gauge line. when chiselling, if you find a tendency for the work to chip or crumble at the back edge owing to the forward pressure of the chisel, turn your wood round and begin to cut from the other edge, allowing the chisel to finish paring at the centre. joints other than a right angle.--if the halving joint is at an angle similar to the sketch shown at fig. 69, great care will have to be exercised in the use of the chisel, owing to the change in the direction of the grain of the wood. the arrow marks in this sketch distinctly indicate the direction in which the chiselling must be done so as to give a smooth result. this change of direction for cutting also applies to the bottom of the halving joint. cutting joint at end of timber (fig. 70).--should the halving joint be used at the end of a piece of wood, as at fig. 30, the waste material may be roughly sawn away and the flat surface trimmed up with a chisel. to saw out this type of halving joint, proceed to work the shoulder line as already described; then place the piece of wood obliquely in the vice as shown (fig. 70) and proceed to saw down the vertical line, carefully watching the gauge line to see that you saw on the _waste_ side of the lines. then turn the piece of timber with its opposite edge towards you, and again use the saw as illustrated. you will this time only have to watch the gauge mark on the edge of the wood, because the saw will readily follow in the saw kerf already made. now place the wood vertically in the vice, and keeping the saw in a horizontal position, saw down to the shoulder line. halving joints properly made and fitted should knock together with the weight of the clenched fist; the use of a heavy mallet or hammer will deface the work. [illustration: fig. 71.--joints used in the erection of a queen post roof truss.] the bridle joint a bridle joint is often defined as the reverse of a mortise and tenon, and is chiefly used in the carpentry and joinery trades. the name probably originated from the fact that it bears some resemblance to the manner in which a bit slips into the horse's mouth and is fastened to the bridle. there are fewer varieties of the bridle joint than of the halved or the mortise and tenon; and this being the case we may take the opportunity of giving a few detailed directions, with explanatory illustrations, on the setting out and the making. [illustration: fig. 72.--simple bridle joint.] fig. 72 shows a bridle joint in what is perhaps its simplest form, the separate pieces being given at the left and the completed joint at the right. a joint of this type may be applied in nearly all cases where a halved or a mortise and tenon joint could be used. bridle joints have an advantage as regards appearance over the mortise and tenoned variety in cases such as fig. 73, which shows an occasional table leg fitted to the circular top framing. the bridle joint here allows the grain of the leg to run through to the top, and gives a better and more workmanlike appearance to the completed article. [illustration: fig. 73.--table leg bridle-jointed to rail.] fig. 74 is a "mitred bridle joint," the part _a_ showing the upright portion separated. this is a most useful joint for positions similar to that shown in the small glass frame, fig. 75. the wood framing in this case is only 1-3/8 in. in width, and if a mortise were used it would have to be exceptionally small. the shaped rail at the bottom of this frame again shows the application of the bridle joint. fig. 76 shows an "oblique bridle joint," used in many instances as a brace, or strut, to prevent framing from racking. (see also figs. 31 and 32.) fig. 77 is a "stopped bridle joint," used in positions where the top or bottom edge of the work meets the eye, and where, if the rail were allowed to run through, the end grain would appear unsightly. [illustration: fig. 74.--mitre bridle joint.] [illustration: fig. 75.--mirror frame with bridle joints.] fig. 78 is a so-called bridle-joint at the corner of a frame. this is also called an "open slot mortise and tenon joint," a good strong, serviceable joint which can be used instead of the closed mortise and tenon type, its advantage being that less labour is required in the making. (see also fig. 169.) fig. 79 is an "oblique angle bridle joint," used in similar positions to the above, but when the two pieces meet at an acute angle at the end of a frame. fig. 80 shows the application of the bridle joint to a roof truss. two sketches are shown at the joining of the tie beam and the principal rafter. the joint _a_ is the type generally used. (see also fig. 71 for the joints in a queen post roof.) [illustration: fig. 76.--oblique bridle joint.] [illustration: fig. 77.--stopped bridle joint.] [illustration: fig. 78.--bridle joint at corner of frame.] [illustration: fig. 79.--oblique angle bridle joint.] [illustration: fig. 80.--application of bridle joint to roof truss.] setting out and marking.--it is a safe rule, when setting out a bridle joint, to divide the thickness of the timber into three equal parts. this will leave the timber on each side of the tongue equal to the thickness of the tongue, thus giving uniform strength to the joint. the bridle joint is chiefly used for connecting the internal parts of wooden frames. it is stronger than the halving joint, and, owing to its peculiar construction, requires little in the way of pegs, screws or nails to secure it in position. fig. 81 illustrates the joint, both open and closed. to understand the method of setting out and marking, glance at the sketch, fig. 81. it is not necessary that the bridle piece a be the same width as the cross piece b; but it must be remembered when setting out the joint with the marking knife or pencil that the width marked w on piece b must be equal to the width w on the piece a. the timber should be fairly accurately sawn or planed to the same thickness, and all edges should be square and true. the wood is placed upon the bench, and the joint marked out by using a marking knife or penknife blade and the try square. a knife blade is much better than a pencil, as the sharp edge severs the fibres of the wood and gives a finer line than the pencil. it is not always necessary to exactly square and trim the end of piece a; it may with advantage in many cases be left at least 1/4 in. longer than necessary and levelled off with the saw, plane and chisel after the joint is put together. (see method of cutting in fig. 92, page 47.) when the piece a has to have a bridle joint fitted at each end, it is customary to cut the timber about 3/8 in. longer than necessary, and mark the shoulder lines c to the exact length, after which the joints are cut. this leaves the ends standing over the horizontal rails, and, after fixing the complete frame together, the small projecting ends are levelled off flush with the cross rails. gauging.--after squaring all the shoulder lines round the timber with the knife and try square, the mortise gauge should be set so as to strike the two gauge lines marked g, figs. 83 and 84, at one operation. if the worker does not possess a mortise gauge the lines may be marked at two distinct operations with the aid of the marking gauge (fig. 82). the gauge should be adjusted so as to mark the wood into thirds, and the stock of the gauge (the portion of the gauge containing the thumb screw in fig. 82) must be used from the face side of the timber when gauging up the whole of the pieces forming a frame. the face mark on the work is indicated by a glorified comma, and the edge mark is shown by x, as in the various illustrations. fig. 82 shows the method of holding the gauge in the right hand whilst gauging the lines on the work. [illustration: fig. 81.--bridle joint, open and closed.] [illustration: fig. 82.--gauging the timber.] the joint, when marked out, will appear as at figs. 83 and 84, and the portions which are to be cut away may be shaded with a pencil as indicated; this will prevent mistakes arising whilst cutting the work, especially by one who is not thoroughly familiar with the joint. the distance a b, in fig. 84, must not be less than the distance a b in fig. 83. [illustration: fig. 83., fig. 84. the two parts of the joint marked.] boring away waste.--examine fig. 84; the shaded portion in the centre has to be cut away, and it will greatly facilitate the removal of this waste piece by boring a hole with a twist bit at the position shown. the twist bit should be about 1/8 in. less in diameter than the width between the gauge lines g. the easiest method of boring out this hole is shown at fig. 85, which gives the correct position of the worker. [illustration: fig. 85.--vertical boring previous to chiselling.] sawing.--the wood should be put in the vice as fig. 86. taking up a saw, with the index finger on the side of the handle, commence sawing, and proceed until you come to the position indicated by the dotted hand and saw a; this will leave a saw kerf or cut running diagonally from the shoulder line to corner of the wood. release the vice and refix the wood so that it leans in exactly the opposite direction to fig. 86; then reverse your own position and repeat the sawing, so as to cut another diagonal saw cut from the shoulder line to the corner. fix the wood upright, as shown at fig. 87, and saw as shown, when you will find that the saw has no tendency to run out of the guide cuts already formed by the method used at fig. 86. remember, when commencing to saw at fig. 86, that it is necessary to saw inside the gauge line; otherwise the joint will be too slack, owing to the amount of sawdust removed by the thickness of the saw blade. the index finger on the side of the saw, pointing in the direction of the saw cut, will greatly help the worker to saw in a straight line, as it is natural to point with this finger to any object that is to be aimed at. [illustration: fig. 86.--how the saw is held for the first cut.] cut down the other line in a similar manner, and then with a chisel of suitable width carefully chop away the waste material. the wood may be placed edge way upon the bench, or in the vice, and the chisel should be held vertically. the hole which has been bored with the twist bit will allow the chips which are cut away to offer little or no resistance to the chisel blade. the chiselling should not all be done from one side, or a chipped under-edge will be the result; it is better to chisel the work until half-way through and then turn the other edge of the wood uppermost and again begin to chisel from the top. this method will finish the cutting in the centre of the work and prevent burred and ragged or chipped edges at the shoulder. [illustration: fig. 87.--third, or horizontal cut.] [illustration: fig. 88.--chiselling operation.] cutting the shoulders.--with regard to working the piece b, fig. 81, place the wood against the bench stop or in the vice, and taking up a 3/4-in. chisel carefully cut away a small channel, as shown at fig. 88; treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner. if the marking knife or penknife blade has been used with a fair amount of pressure so as to score the fibres of the wood, this small channel, which is to form a guide for the saw, will quickly and easily be cut. next place the wood in the vice or on the cutting board as shown at fig. 89, and begin by sawing lightly at the back edge as shown. when the saw has entered the wood 1/4 in. gradually bring the handle down from position a to position b (dotted lines) whilst the saw is in motion. continue sawing until just on the gauge line; then treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner. [illustration: fig. 89.--sawing the shoulders.] chiselling away waste.--fix your wood firmly in any suitable manner, vice or otherwise, and, holding your chisel tilted as at fig. 90, pare away the blacked portion 1; then pare away the blacked portion 2; after which hold the chisel flat and by gradual operations pare away the dotted lines 3, until you come down to the gauge line; then repeat the method of cutting on the opposite side of the wood. if any difficulty be experienced by chipped or ragged edges whilst chiselling, it can easily be overcome by chiselling alternately from the outside of the wood, so that the finish of the chisel cut takes place in the centre of the work. some prefer to chisel away the waste by placing the wood on its edge and using the chisel vertically instead of horizontally. the same methods (1, 2 and 3) hold good in this case. [illustration: fig. 90.--chiselling away waste.] joints other than at 90°.--the two pieces forming a bridle joint are not always at right angles, as at fig. 81; in many instances it is necessary that the joint be at other than 90 degrees. the work, however, is treated in a similar manner, with the exception that an adjustable joiner's bevel is used instead of a try square to mark out the shoulder lines, and that a change of direction in the grain of the wood will occur when chiselling out the work. fig. 91 indicates the change in the grain of the wood, and the adjustable joiner's bevel is also shown. [illustration: fig. 91.--bridle joint at angle other than right angle.] [illustration: fig. 92.--sawing off waste from bridle joint. (see reference on page 39.)] the tongued and grooved joint the tongued and grooved joint is used in one form or another throughout the whole of the woodworking trades, covering, as it does, a great variety of work from the laying of flooring boards to the construction of dressers, bookcases and other cabinet work. flooring and match boarding generally have the tongues worked on the solid board, and examples of a few of the various types are shown as follows:-[illustration: fig. 93.--tongued and grooved flooring board.] [illustration: fig. 94., fig. 95. method of nailing hardwood floors.] fig. 93 shows the end view of the ordinary 7/8-in. "tongued and grooved flooring board," as used in the construction of floors for mills, workshops and cottage property. this type of flooring is nailed to the joists in the ordinary manner, no attempt being made to conceal the nails used. fig. 94 is a section of flooring which is generally made of hardwood, such as maple, oak, or jarrah. it is used in positions such as ballroom and skating rink floors, etc., the tongue and groove being worked in such a manner that the joint covers the nails as shown. each nail is driven into its position at one edge of the board, the groove holding the next board and hiding the nail (fig. 95). [illustration: fig. 96.--tongued and grooved matchboarding, with bead on one side.] [illustration: fig. 97.--tongued and grooved matchboarding, with bead at each side.] [illustration: fig. 98.--matchboarding, tongued, grooved and vee'd.] fig. 96 shows an example of matchboarding known as "tongued, grooved and beaded" on one side only, and fig. 97 shows a similar type tongued, grooved and beaded on both sides. this variety of matchboarding is known in the trade as "t. g. and b." it is used for nailing on framing to form partitions for rooms, offices, etc., for panelling corridors, etc., and for making framed and ledged doors, building tool houses, cycle sheds and other outhouses. fig. 98 is an example of matchboarding that is tongued, grooved and vee'd on one side, and fig. 99 shows tongued, grooved and vee'd both sides. these are used for similar purposes to figs. 96 and 97, and many prefer the v matchboarding variety because it is more easily painted than the beaded variety. the object of working a bead or beads on matchboarding is to break the jointing of the various pieces and to aim at ornamental effect; also to prevent unsightliness should the timber shrink slightly. when a moderate amount of shrinkage takes place, as is nearly always the case, the joint at the side of the bead appears to the casual observer to be the fillet or channel worked at the side of the bead. if the tongues are not painted before the work is put together, the shrinkage will cause the raw wood to show and thus make the joint too much in evidence. [illustration: fig. 99.--matchboarding vee'd both sides.] [illustration: fig. 100.--double-tongued matchboarding.] [illustration: fig. 101.--double-dovetailed, tongued and grooved.] fig. 100 shows a "double tongued and grooved" joint used in the wholesale cabinet factories. it is preferred for the jointing of cabinet stock, and the amateur can make a similar joint by working two grooves and inserting loose tongues. fig. 101 is the end view of a "double-dovetailed, tongued and grooved" joint, and fig. 102 is a sketch of a similar joint having only one dovetailed tongue. from a constructional point of view fig. 101 is far and away the best joint that has yet been produced. unfortunately, however, there is not at the present time any hand tool that will economically produce it, owing probably to the fact that the joint is the subject of a patent. the dovetail tongue tapers slightly throughout its entire length, gripping the joint on the principle of the wedge and squeezing the glue into the pores of the wood. [illustration: fig. 102.--joint with single dovetail tongue and groove.] [illustration: fig. 103.--(a) cross tongue. (b) feather tongue.] [illustration: fig. 104.--method of secret-nailing hardwood flooring boards.] cabinet-work joints.--with regard to tongued and grooved joints which apply more particularly to the jointing of cabinet work, fig. 93 is produced by planes which are specially made for the purpose. one plane makes the tongue and another the groove. the handiest sizes to buy are those which joint 3/8 in., 5/8 in., and 3/4 in. timber, it being usual to dowel or loose-tongue thicker boards. the 3/8 in. partitions (or, as they are sometimes called, dustboards) between the drawers of a sideboard or dressing chest are in good work jointed in this manner. the 5/8 in. and 3/4 in. ends and tops of pine or american whitewood dressing tables, wardrobes, etc., call for the larger sized plane. loose tongues.--there are two methods of jointing with loose tongues, viz., the use of the cross tongue, fig. 103 a, and the use of the feather tongue, fig. 103 b. cross tongues are the stronger when glued in their position and can be used very much thinner than feather tongues. feather tongues are cut diagonally across the grain as illustrated. [illustration: fig. 105.--cradle for planing.] fig. 105 is a cradle for planing up loose tongues to the required width (generally 7/8 in.). two grooves are made in a piece of 1-1/4 in. hardwood; one groove is used for planing the width way of the tongue and the other for planing the edge way. these tongues can be cut to accurate size on a circular saw bench if power and machinery are at hand. applications of the joint.--fig. 106 is a sketch of a portion of a sideboard top, showing the plough groove ready worked out to receive the tongue; the other half of the top is treated in a similar manner. it will be noticed that the groove is not worked through the full length of the board, but stopped about 1-1/4 in. from each end; this leaves a square joint at each end of the top on which the moulding is worked. if the groove be run through the board it looks very unsightly when the mould is finished. fig. 107 is a shaped spandrel, such as is fixed in the recess of a sideboard or cupboard or shop window fitment. it is of such a width that, were it cut from a wide board, the shaped portion would be apt to break off owing to the short grain at c. the shaping is therefore built up out of three separate pieces, the grain running as indicated. the loose tongue is represented by the dotted line and a section is shown of the joint at the line a b. at the opposite corner the tongue is left blind, _i.e._, not run through the edge. this is the method that should be used when the shaping is above the level of the eye. [illustration: fig. 106.--part of sideboard top; grooved with ends left blind. (the boards are shown upright.)] [illustration: fig. 107.--shaped spandrel for recess.] fig. 108 shows part of a carcase of a dressing table. the drawer runner a is shown grooved across the end to receive a cross tongue; this cross tongue engages a similar groove in the front bearer. this method of fastening the runner to the bearer is in everyday use. [illustration: fig. 108.--part carcase of dressing table.] [illustration: fig. 109.--framed writing table top.] fig. 109 is a writing table top. the centre boards are first jointed and glued up, after which the ends and sides are grooved ready to receive the cross tongues. the hardwood margins are shown at one end and at the front, and the grooves are arranged so that, on completion, the marginal frame stands above the top just the amount of the thickness of the leather which will cover the table. in some cases the margin at the end runs the same way of the grain as the top, thus allowing for slight shrinkage. cross tongues would of course be used in this case. fig. 110 is a sketch showing one-quarter of a barred or tracery cabinet door. an enlarged section of the astragal mould which is grooved to fit on the bar which forms the rebate is also shown. fig. 111 is a "combing or corner locking" joint, a method of making boxes by means of a continuous use of tongues and grooves instead of dovetails. this type of joint is generally machine made. the amateur, however, who is not proficient to undertake a dovetailed box frequently uses this method. [illustration: fig. 110.--corner of barred door.] [illustration: fig. 111.--combing or locking joint.] [illustration: fig. 112.--single loose tongue and double-tongue joint.] corner joints.--fig. 112 shows both a single loose tongue and a double solid tongue. both are methods used to connect circular cornered work, such as a counter end, to the front framing. fig. 113 indicates a tongued and grooved joint suitable for edge or end jointing, such as fitting matchboarding round a chimney breast, making small jewel drawers, etc. fig. 114 is a tongued and grooved joint with a bead worked on same to hide the joint, sometimes called a staff-bead. it would be used in positions such as boarding around an upright iron pillar, etc., the bead giving a neat finish at each corner. fig. 115 is a similar joint, but at an obtuse angle. an example of its use is in fixing boarding around an octagonal column of brickwork. [illustration: fig. 113., fig. 114., fig. 115. examples of tongued and grooved corner joints.] fig. 116 shows a tongued and grooved mitre as used for strengthening the corners of cabinet work, such as tea caddies, small boxes, plinths, etc. two pieces of wood are glued in position and allowed to set prior to glueing and cramping the joint proper. these pieces are afterwards planed away, thus leaving a clear surface to the box sides. fig. 117 shows the method of working the groove in the above joints. the pieces are turned back to back, the mitres thus making a right angle. the guide on the grooving plane thus works against each face of the joint, and this ensures correct jointing. fig. 118 is somewhat similar to fig. 113, but with a quarter circle mould to hide the joint. fig. 119 indicates the building up of a double skirting mould. c represents the brickwork, a the oak-framed panelling, and b the packing and fixing block. a wide skirting of this type is made in two portions for convenience in working the moulding and to prevent undue shrinkage. [illustration: fig. 116.--cramping a tongued and grooved mitre.] [illustration: fig. 117.--working a groove.] [illustration: fig. 118.--corner joint with corner mould.] fig. 120 illustrates the use of a tongued and grooved joint for fixing together the sides of a corner bracket, and the same method holds good when jointing a corner cupboard. a capping mould or top shelf will conceal the joint; it then has the appearance of a glued butt joint, but is of course considerably stronger. no screws or nails are required if this joint be used. ploughing.--when grooves have to be worked in the edge or face of a board to receive tongues, the process is generally called ploughing, and it is usually accomplished by a special tool called a plough (or, as it is occasionally spelt, "plow"). when a plough plane is bought it is usual to procure eight plough bits or blades of various sizes to fit the plane. in fig. 121 is given the sketch of a plough plane with the names of the various parts lettered thereon. [illustration: fig. 119.--double skirting mould.] [illustration: fig. 120.--joint for corner bracket or cupboard.] the board or boards which it is desired to groove are first planed straight and true, exactly as though it were desired to make a glued or butt joint. one of the boards is now placed edge way up in the vice and with the face side to the worker. take the plough plane and select a suitably-sized blade; fix it in the plane in the usual way, allowing the cutting edge to project beyond the steel skate about 1/32 in., and securely drive up the wedge. next loosen the small boxwood wedges at the side of each stem, and adjust the plane by tapping the stems with a hammer until the cutting iron is in the desired position; then knock up the small wedges nice and tight. when setting the fence to or from the blade it is a wise precaution to measure the distance from the fence to the skate at each end of the plane; this will ensure the skate being parallel to the fence. the neglect of this is a source of annoyance to many amateurs. now adjust the depth stop by turning the screw at the top of the plane, measuring the depth of the required groove from the edge of the blade to the stop, and carefully lock the screw which adjusts this stop. [illustration: fig. 121.--the plough plane and its parts.] the plane is now ready for use. hold the fence close up to the side of the timber, the hands in position as shown at fig. 122, the position of the body being that generally assumed in planing. move the plane backwards and forwards in the usual manner, beginning the cut at the end of the board nearest to the vice jaws (the front), and proceed with the planing until the depth stop is in contact with the wood. then take a step backwards and repeat the process until the whole length of the groove is ploughed. care must be taken to force the fence up to the board with the left hand, whilst the right hand thrusts the plane backwards and forwards, and the plane must be kept vertical. [illustration: fig. 122.--method of using the plough plane.] tongueing.--the grooves having been completed, the tongues have to be made. fig. 123 shows a sketch of a board and the method of marking out cross tongues (a) and feather tongues (b). the usual procedure for making cross tongues is to plane the end of the board and use a cutting gauge to give a line the required distance from the end (see sketch). the board is sawn with a tenon or panel saw, and the piece of timber for the tongue is thus procured. if a feather tongue is to be used it is cut diagonally from the board (b) and the ends cut square as shown by the dotted line. [illustration: fig. 123.--method of marking out for cross tongues and feather tongues.] feather tongues can be obtained in fairly long lengths out of narrow boards, whilst on the other hand cross tongues are limited by the width of the board. after cutting off the tongues, they require planing with nicety to fit the grooves, and the advantage of a grooved board (fig. 105) will be appreciated. a glue spoon similar to a plumber's ladle is generally used to pour the glue into the grooves, and it is customary to glue the tongue into one board first; after allowing this to set, the joint is completed in the usual manner. tongueing planes.--fig. 124 shows the end view of a tongueing plane for working matched joints out of the solid. the method of holding and using the plane is similar to the directions given for using the plough. the part lettered f (in front) represents the fence, which in this case is not adjustable. [illustration: fig. 124., fig. 125. end views of tongueing and grooving planes.] in description fig. 125 is similar to fig. 124. the steel skate runs in the groove and supports the cutting blade similar to that in the plough plane, and provided a grooving plane of this type is of suitable width it may be used for making grooves for loose tongues. there is on the market a metal plane which is specially designed with handles at both ends. this plane carries a grooving iron on one side and a tongueing iron on the other side; thus with one plane both the tongue and the groove can be worked. [illustration: fig. 126.--tongueing shoulders of tenons.] fig. 126 shows the method of tongueing the shoulders of tenons as used in thick timber which is to be veneered on the face. a temporary piece of wood (a) is put between the tenon cheek and the saw, thus forming a guide for the latter. after cutting one saw kerf a thicker piece is made and a second saw kerf cut; the waste between the saw kerfs is now removed with an 1/8 in. chisel and this completes the groove. a tongue of this type acts as an extra tenon and prevents the joint from "lipping" (becoming uneven) on the face side. the mortise and tenon joint a mortise and tenon joint is the method of joining timber by working a solid rectangular projection in the one piece and cutting a corresponding cavity to receive it in the adjoining piece. the projection is called the tenon, and the cavity the mortise. joints of this type are secured in various ways. small wedges, wooden dowels, metal dowel pins, glue and paint are frequently used, and prior to the introduction of glue we have examples of egyptian furniture in which the mortise and tenon joints were united by a composition of cheese. [illustration: fig. 127.--barefaced tenon joint.] [illustration: fig. 128.--stub tenon.] barefaced tenons.--fig. 127 illustrates the joint in its simplest form and shows a tenon having only one shoulder. this is called a barefaced tenon, and it will be noticed that the portion which carries the mortise is thicker than the rail on which the tenon is cut. the joint is therefore level (or flush as it is called) on one side only, and it should never be used at the corner of a frame. it is a useful interior joint for framing that has to be covered on the back side with matchboarding, and allows the work to finish level at the back when the boarding has been applied (see plan, fig. 127). stub or stump tenon (fig. 128; also occasionally called a joggle tenon).--the illustration shows a tenon as used in the interior of a frame. the tenon is not allowed to run through the stile, and unsightliness on the edge is thus avoided. this type of tenon is often used at the corner of a frame, and it then requires to be haunched. a good workshop method of gauging the depth of the mortise for a stub tenon is shown in fig. 129; a piece of gummed stamp paper is stuck on the side of the mortise chisel, indicating the desired depth of the mortise. this greatly facilitates the work, as it is not necessary to be constantly measuring. a haunched tenon as used at the end of a door frame is shown at fig. 130.--in this case it will be seen that the width of the tenon is reduced, so that sufficient timber will be left at the end of the stile to resist the pressure of the tenon when the joint is driven together. the short portion (a) which is left on the tenon is called the haunch, and the cavity it engages is termed the haunching. the haunch and haunching prevent the two pieces of timber lipping, or becoming uneven on the face side, as would be the result if it were cut away entirely up to the shoulder. fig. 131 shows the type of tenon and haunch used when the stile or upright rail is grooved to receive a panel. in this and similar cases the haunch is made the same width and the same depth as the groove; the groove therefore acts as the haunching. an application of this joint is shown in the top rail of the door frame, fig. 132. [illustration: fig. 129.--method of gauging for depth of tenon.] [illustration: fig. 130.--haunched tenon used at end of door frame.] [illustration: fig. 131.--haunched tenon used when stile is grooved for panel.] [illustration: fig. 132.--application of haunched tenon joint to door frame.] [illustration: fig. 133.--occasional stump tenon.] this type of joint is also used to connect the rail to the leg of an ordinary kitchen table (see fig. 167). fig. 133 is a variation of the stump tenon, occasionally used where the work in hand demands a thin tenon and a stout stump to take heavy strains. [illustration: fig. 134.--joint for inside framing.] [illustration: fig. 135.--haunched barefaced tenon.] a joint used for inside framing is seen at fig. 134. the rails may be used as shown, but in the case of a door frame (as fig. 132) they would have the inside edges grooved to receive the panels; the tenons would therefore be slightly narrower than shown, owing to the groove at each edge. a haunched barefaced tenon, used in similar positions to fig. 131, is shown at fig. 135. the door or frame in this case would be made of matchboarding nailed on the back as shown in the plan at fig. 127. wedges.--fig. 136 shows the method of cutting wedges which are to be used to wedge the tenons; this avoids waste of material. some workers cut the wedges from the pieces left out of the haunching of the lock rail, or the bottom rail. [illustration: fig. 136.--cutting wedges from waste of haunching.] [illustration: fig. 137.--stile and cross rail with horn.] a stile and cross rail, framed together, are shown at fig. 137. the portion above the rail is called the horn, and it is usual to leave sufficient length of stile to project above and below the cross rails, so that there will be no tendency for the stile to burst out at the end whilst the cramping and wedging of the frame is in progress. on completing the framing the horn is cut away. in fig. 138 we have a type of joint frequently used for garden gates. the illustration shows the method of tenoning the three pieces to the top rail, barefaced tenons being employed. [illustration: fig. 138.--joint used for garden gates.] [illustration: fig. 139.--sprocket wheel.] [illustration: fig. 140.--boring tool.] sprocket wheel.--at fig. 139 are shown the guide bar and chain of a chain-mortising machine, two enlarged links of the chain being indicated at a. the chain is similar in construction to the driving chain of a bicycle, with the exception that it is provided with teeth which cut away the timber as the chain revolves. when using a chain mortiser the portion of the machine carrying the chain is fed downwards into the timber, thus cutting a clean and true mortise. if, however, a stump mortise is required it is necessary to pare away a certain amount of timber by hand, because the machine obviously leaves a semicircular bottom to the mortise. to overcome this difficulty the latest types of mortising machines have a square hole-boring attachment fixed alongside the chain. this tool, the working portion of which is illustrated in fig. 140, consists of a square hollow chisel (e), which is sharpened from the inside, and a revolving twist bit (d) fitted with spurs or nickers, but without a point (one spur can be seen at the bottom of the illustration). this bit revolves inside the shell like a chisel, and bores away the superfluous timber, whilst the pressure exerted on the chisel causes the corners to be cut away dead square. a mortise 3/8 in. square by 6 ins. in depth may thus be cut. the portion marked a is the shank of the chisel (fig. 140), where it is fixed into the body of the machine, and the hole at e allows the boring bit to free itself. [illustration: fig. 141.--method of fitting an interior table leg.] [illustration: fig. 142.--haunched tenon for skylight or garden frame.] [illustration: fig 143.--long and short shouldered tenon.] fig. 141 indicates the method of fixing an interior leg to a table having a circular or straight top rail. the inlaid leg in this case is stump-tenoned into the top rail, and the inlaid portion of the leg is allowed to run through the rail, thus giving continuity of design. fig. 142 shows the application of the haunched tenon (fig. 135) to the making of a skylight or garden frame. in this and similar cases the side rails are rebated as shown in the section, and the bottom rail is thinner than the side rails to allow the glass to finish level upon it. long and short shouldered joint.--fig. 143 shows a haunched mortise and tenon joint having a long and short shoulder. this is a fairly common joint in framed partitions for offices, framing for greenhouses, tool sheds, etc., and is a frequent source of annoyance to the amateur. it is necessary to use this joint when both the stiles and uprights are rebated, and it calls for accurate marking out and great care in the making. [illustration: fig. 144.--joint for fencing.] [illustration: fig. 145.--example of faulty tenon.] fig. 144 shows the upright and rails of common garden or field fencing. the tenons are bevelled to fit and wedge each other in the mortise. the illustration gives both cross rails as shouldered, but in many cases shoulders are omitted when the rails are not thick enough to carry them. fig. 145 indicates faulty methods of working a tenon. at a the saw has been allowed to run too far when cutting the shoulder, thus greatly weakening the tenon. at b faulty sawing has again occurred, and to remedy this defect the worker has resorted to paring the shoulder with a chisel. had the chisel been used vertically an undercut shoulder (as at b) would not have occurred. the trouble now is that the slightest amount of shrinkage in the width of the stile will show an open joint. the result will be the same if it is necessary to remove a shaving or two when planing or levelling up the face of the frame. [illustration: fig. 146.--self-wedging japanese tenon joint.] [illustration: fig. 147.--tenoned and scribed joint.] [illustration: fig. 148.--mitred and moulded tenon joint.] [illustration: fig. 149.--twin tenons.] a japanese tenoned joint, little known and rarely used in this country, is shown at fig. 146. for clearness the two parts are here shown separate. the joint is self-wedging and will be of interest to handicraft instructors. a tenoned and scribed joint is seen at fig. 147. the cross rail is cut at the shoulder, so as to fit the moulding which is worked on the stile. this is a good joint in everyday use. mitred and moulded joint.--fig. 148 shows a type of joint largely used in light cabinet work. the method of mitreing the moulding and tenoning the stile to rail is indicated. twin tenons (fig. 149).--the method of tenoning the bearers which carry the drawers, or the midfeather between two drawers, in a dressing table or similar carcase is here shown. on completion, the tenons on the midfeather are wedged diagonally. [illustration: fig 150.--method of pinning.] [illustration: fig. 151.--joining top rails to upright post.] pinning.--fig. 150 shows the tenoning of the inside end of a wardrobe to the top of the carcase. this is also called pinning. the tenons should be wedged diagonally. the tenons and the distance between the tenons are more satisfactory if made equidistant, because if slight shrinkage occurs this is partially equalised. the width between the tenons should in no case exceed 3 ins. top rails.--at fig. 151 is shown the method of joining the top rails to the post of a tool shed or similar outhouse. the two rails, which are at right angles to each other, are half-lapped and mortised; the tenon on the post runs entirely through them. a tusk tenon joint, with wedge, as used to secure the binder to the girder when making floors, is indicated at fig. 153. the tenon here is narrow and engages the mortise, which is situated in the compressional fibres immediately adjoining the neutral layer. fig. 152 shows a tusk tenon furnished with a drawbore pin. [illustration: fig. 152.--tusk tenon.] [illustration: fig. 153.--wedged tusk tenon.] fig. 154 is a variation of fig. 152. fig. 155 shows tusk and wedged tenons as used when making a portable book or medicine cabinet. the shelf is housed into the end, and the tenons run through the end and are secured by wedges. this allows the article to be quickly and easily taken to pieces for removal or re-polishing. the dotted line in fig. 155 indicates that the shelf may be shaped if desired. [illustration: fig. 154.--another type of tusk tenon.] [illustration: fig. 155.--tusk tenon and wedge.] [illustration: fig. 156.--wheelwright's self-wedging tenon joint.] in fig. 156 a self-wedging mortise and tenon joint used by wheelwrights is shown. the dotted line (left-hand diagram) will indicate the amount of taper given to the mortise. dovetailed and wedged tenon (fig. 157).--when two pieces such as the cross rail and leg of a carpenter's bench are required to be held together by a mortise and tenon, and to be readily taken apart, the tenon is dovetailed on one side and the mortise is made of sufficient width to permit the widest part of the dovetailed tenon to pass into it. when the tenon is in its position a hardwood wedge is driven in above the tenon, as shown. [illustration: fig. 157.--dovetailed and wedged tenon.] [illustration: fig. 158.--method of fox-wedging.] fox wedged tenon (fig. 158).--this is the method of securing a stub tenon by small wedges. the mortise is slightly dovetailed and two saw cuts are made in the tenon about 3/16 in. from each side. into each saw kerf a wedge is inserted and the joint glued up. the cramping operation forces the wedges into the saw cuts, thus causing the end of the tenon to spread and tightly grip the mortise. mortise and tenon with mitred face (fig. 159).--this is a useful method of jointing framing which has square edges as shown; and it is equally useful even if the face edges have moulds worked upon them. if the joint has square edges a rebate may be formed to accommodate a panel by fixing a bolection moulding around the frame. a section of the bolection mould planted on the frame is shown in the lower figure. [illustration: fig. 159.--tenon joint with mitred face.] [illustration: fig. 160.--rafter joint.] [illustration: fig. 161.--roof joints.] roof joints.--fig. 160 shows the method of tenoning the principal rafter to the king post, whilst fig. 161 illustrates the tenoning of the struts to the king post, and the king post to the tie beam. both these examples are used in roof work. (see also fig. 71.) [illustration: fig. 162.--drawbore pinning.] [illustration: fig. 163., fig. 164. operation of pegs in drawbore pinning.] drawbore pinning.--at fig. 162 is seen the method of securing a tenon by drawbore pinning, employed when it is not convenient to obtain the necessary pressure by using a cramp. the joint is made in the usual manner, and a 3/8-in. twist bit is used to bore a hole through piece a. the tenon is driven home and the hole is marked on the side of the tenon (b); the tenon is then withdrawn and the hole bored about 1/8 in. nearer to the shoulder than as marked on the separate diagram at c. when the tenon is finally inserted the holes will not register correctly, and if a hardwood pin be driven into the joint it will draw the shoulders of the tenon to a close joint and effectually secure the parts. sash bars.--fig. 165 shows how to tenon a moulded sash bar to the rebated cross rail. in this illustration both shoulders of the moulded bar are shown square, but in the best class work these shoulders may be slightly housed into the cross rail to prevent side play. this type of joint is used for horticultural buildings, etc. if the lower rail be moulded with the same members as the sash bar, the end of the sash bar will have to be scribed on to it to make a fit. [illustration: fig. 165.--tenoning moulded sash bar.] [illustration: fig. 166.--tenon with tongued and grooved shoulder.] [illustration: fig. 167.--detail of table framing.] tenon with tongued and grooved shoulders (fig. 166).--the object of the tongues and grooves here is to prevent the face of the work casting, or becoming warped, and thus spoiling the appearance of the surface of the work. if framing is to be veneered on the face side this is an exceptionally good method. table framing.--fig. 167 indicates the framing of a rail to a dining-table leg. in cases similar to this the tenons run into the leg and almost touch each other. they are therefore mitred on the end as shown in the inset. chair frames often call for similar treatment. twin tenons with haunch, as used when the timber is of great thickness, are shown in fig. 168. an open slot mortise at the end of a right-angled frame is seen in fig. 169. fig. 170 shows an open slot mortise and tenon joint at the end of a frame of 60°. both these joints are occasionally called end bridle joints. [illustration: fig. 168.--twin tenons for thick timber.] [illustration: fig. 169.--the open-slot mortise joint.] hammer head tenons.--at fig. 171 is shown the method of jointing framing having semicircular or segmental heads. the left-hand diagram indicates the method of wedging the joint so as to draw up the shoulders; the right-hand view shows the tongueing of the shoulders, which is necessary if thick timber has to be wrought. the sketch depicts the stile when taken apart from the shaped head of the frame. clamping.--fig. 172 shows the method of tenoning drawing boards, desk tops and secretaire falls. this is commonly called clamping. the method is used to prevent wide surfaces from winding. a variation of the joint is shown at the left-hand side, the corners in this example not being mitred. fig. 173 shows the tenoning of a wide to a narrow rail when the joint is at an angle. inserted tenons (fig. 174).--where two pieces of timber run together at an acute angle it becomes necessary to use inserted tenons. both pieces of the timber are mortised and the inserted tenons are secured into the widest piece. on the left is shown the inserted tenon, secured by the method known as fox-wedging; on the right the inserted tenon has been let into the wide rail from the edge. the narrow rail is secured by wedging the tenons from the outside edge in the ordinary manner. [illustration: fig. 170.--open-slot mortise at 60 degrees.] [illustration: fig. 171.--hammer-head tenon joint.] dreadnought file.--at fig. 175 is a sketch of a portion of a dreadnought file. this has superseded the old-fashioned home-made float used to clean out the sides of a mortise. [illustration: fig. 172.--clamping.] [illustration: fig. 173.--tenoning narrow rail.] [illustration: fig. 174.--inserted tenons.] [illustration: fig. 175.--dreadnought file.] [illustration: fig. 176.--external and internal joints.] [illustration: fig. 177.--setting out stiles and rails for tenoning.] general rule.--in practically all cases where a single tenon is used the thickness of the tenon should be one-third the thickness of the timber. this leaves the timber at each side of the mortise the same strength as the tenon. mortise and tenon joints for inside work may be united with glue. if, however, the work has to stand the weather a better method is to unite the joint with white lead, which is run down to the required consistency with good outside varnish. setting out the joint.--the principal use of the mortise and tenon joint is in the construction of various types of framing, such as door and window frames. in one or other of its many and varied forms it may be classed as the most important joint in the general woodworking trade. the joint may be used as an internal one, as shown at the lower rail, fig. 176, or as an external joint, as the upper rail of the same illustration. whatever type of framing has to be made, it is necessary that the face side of the wood be planed up straight and out of winding, and the face mark (as shown in fig. 176) pencilled upon it. the best edge of the timber should next be planed up true in length, and square to the face side, and the edge mark (x) clearly placed upon it. the marking gauge is now set to the desired width, and gauge lines are marked on the wood, after which the waste wood is planed off until the timber is the required width. the thickness is gauged and treated in a similar manner, except in such cases where the finished work is to be of a rough and ready character. the two stiles (or uprights) have their faces turned to touch each other, as shown at fig. 177, and their length may be anything from 1 in. to 3 ins. longer than the required finished size. this waste wood at each end of the stiles (see arrow ho) is of importance to the work, as it prevents to a great extent the bursting of the mortise whilst cutting the hole or when knocking together the work. the small projection is called the "horn," and it is cut off after the frame has been put together. [illustration: fig. 178.--setting out the stiles with marking knife.] [illustration: fig. 179.--how to saw the tenons--first operation.] the two cross rails (fig. 177), have their faces placed together as shown in the sketch. these rails may with advantage be left 1/2 in. longer than the finished size, and the portion of the tenon (which will protrude through the stile 1/4 in. at each end) may be cut off after the work is put together. (see fig. 92.) set out the stiles with a marking knife or penknife and a try square, as shown at fig. 178. in this sketch only one stile is shown for clearness of representation, but two or more stiles (as at fig. 177) may be marked out at the same time, provided a 12-in. try square be used; in fact, marking out the stiles in pairs is to be recommended, as all cross lines will be exact owing to their being marked at the same operation. the cut made by the marking knife should be lightly carried all round the work as the mortising is cut from each edge of the stile, the cutting of the mortising being finished in the centre. the lettering on fig. 177 is as follows:--ho, horn; m, position of mortise; h, position of haunching; a, inside line, or sight size, as it is occasionally called. set out the cross rails as at fig. 177, lower sketch. the lettering in this figure is as follows:--t, tenons; the small piece of the tenon lettered j is called the haunch, and the shaded portion h is cut away to allow the haunch j to fit the haunching of the stile. the tenons (as already stated) are generally one-third the thickness of the timber, thus leaving the same amount of substance at each side of the tenon as the tenon itself is composed of. the mortise gauge is set to the required distance and used as in the case of the marking gauge (fig. 82). [illustration: fig. 180.--second operation in sawing tenons.] [illustration: fig. 181.--cutting channel at shoulder of tenon before sawing.] to saw the tenons, place the rail in the vice as at fig. 179 and, with a panel, tenon, or hand saw, according to the size of the work, cut down the outside of the tenon line as shown. reverse your position and cut as shown at fig. 180, then place the rail in a vertical position, and you will find little or no difficulty in sawing down square with the shoulder line. repeat the above methods of sawing until all the tenons are sawn. next saw out the pieces at the side of the tenon by the following procedure. place the rail against the bench stop, or in the vice, and cut a small channel in which to run your tenon saw as shown at fig. 181. if you have scored the line deeply with your knife when you were marking out the work, you will have little difficulty in removing a small portion with the chisel. the amount removed in the illustration is, of course, exaggerated. in the small channel thus made place the tenon saw and, guiding the saw blade with the finger so as to keep it upright or square (fig. 182), saw away the waste material. remove the waste material at the sides of the tenons in a similar way, and then saw out the portion marked h, fig. 177, lower sketch. the mortising of the stiles may next be taken in hand by putting the stiles edgeways in the vice and boring away the bulk of the waste wood from the mortise with a suitable-sized twist bit and brace. this method will save a great amount of noise, as to a great extent it does away with the use of the mallet. take the mallet and chisel and chop down about 3/8 in. as shown at fig. 183; then turn the chisel to the position shown at fig. 184 and remove the small piece as shown. continue these two operations until you are about half-way through the wood and then start in a similar manner at the line _a_, fig. 183, after which turn the other edge of the timber uppermost and repeat the methods shown. [illustration: fig. 182.--sawing away waste material.] [illustration: fig. 183.--using the chisel and mallet for mortising.] fig. 185 shows the sketch of a mortise which has its side removed so as to show the method of successive cuts with a chisel when removing the core from a mortise; this, in conjunction with the other sketches, clearly shows the methods of working. in many woodwork examinations the examiners insist that the mortise shall be removed by successive cuts with the chisel, but we certainly advise the removal of much of the waste wood with a boring bit, provided the worker can keep straight and well within the limitations of his gauge lines. [illustration: fig. 184.--removing waste of mortise with chisel.] removing haunching.--after removing the mortise hole, the small portion which is called the haunching will require to be removed with a chisel. this calls for no special remark, as it is clearly shown in figs. 187 and 188. fig. 186 shows an everyday type of mortise and tenon joint separated; it is used in cases where a straight joint is required on the upper or lower edge of the work, whereas the upper rail of fig. 176 shows the full haunch on the top edge. in cases such as figs 187 and 188, where the edges of the frames are grooved to receive panels, etc., the width of the tenon is reduced by the width of the groove. [illustration: fig. 185.--mortise with side removed.] [illustration: fig. 186.--the joint separated.] [illustration: fig. 187.--removal of haunching.] [illustration: fig. 188.--haunching with groove above.] this must be remembered by the worker when marking out his stiles with the marking knife. fig. 187 (right-hand sketch) shows the haunch, tenon, and groove g at the bottom. fig. 188 (left-hand illustration) shows g (groove) at top, and hh (the haunch) at the bottom. tenons may be glued together and wedged as shown at fig. 176 if for inside work; but if for outside work they are generally smeared with thick paint and wedged up. for light-class cabinet work it is usual to cut the mortise about seven-eighths of the distance through the stile and make the tenon to match it; the edge of the finished work does not then show any indication of the joint, and it leaves a nice clean surface at the edge of the work for polishing or varnishing. [illustration: fig. 189.--interlocking joint for seat rails of chair to leg.] interlocking chair joint.--a joint designed with a view to strengthening the construction of chairs at the point where they are weakest is shown in fig. 189. the joint is an interlocking one so arranged that, once the chair is glued up, no motion of the side rail can be possible. the groove in the side rail tenon is cut in such a manner that, on the insertion of the back rail tenon, the joint actually draws up and, having done so, is locked in position. the exact location of this groove is obtained in a similar manner to that used in marking out tenons for drawbore pinning, _i.e._, the tenon is inserted in its mortise and the position of the back rail mortise transferred to it, after which the lines are set back by 1/64 in. (approximately) to cause the joint to draw. from the illustration the construction of the joint should be clear. the method is particularly adapted to a section of rectangular form where one side is longer than the other, such as the back leg of a chair, as this shape allows for the accommodation of the extra length of tenon required. the dowelling joint dowelling is the term generally given to the method of jointing timber and other materials by wooden or metal pegs, which are called dowels. for cabinet-making and similar work straight-grained beechwood dowels are mostly used; these may be bought by the gross, in lengths of about 36 ins., and of any desired diameter. [illustration: fig. 190.--steel dowel plate.] making dowels.--many, however, prefer to make what they require for the work in hand, and the following is the method that is generally employed. pieces of straight-grained wood are wrought to a square section, after which the corners are planed away to form an octagonal section. the sharp corners are now planed away, and the roughly formed dowel is driven through a steel dowel plate, fig. 190, by the aid of a heavy hammer, thus giving the necessary roundness and finish to the dowels. when hammering dowels through a plate the hammer should on no account be allowed to come in contact with the face of the dowel plate, or the cutting edge of the hole will be spoilt. simply drive the dowel to within 1/8 in. of the plate and knock it out with the next dowel. [illustration: fig. 191.--cradle for planing dowels.] [illustration: fig. 192.--dowel with groove.] [illustration: fig. 193.--sawing groove in dowel.] to plane off the corners a "cradle" (fig. 191) is made and kept for the purpose. the advantage of this cradle is obvious, preventing as it does any tendency of the partly-formed dowel to slip or wobble. a jig, or cradle, is easily made by bevelling the edges of two separate pieces of wood and then glueing and screwing them together as at fig. 191. a small block of wood is inserted to act as a stop whilst the planing operation is in progress. it is usual to bevel both edges of the timber from which the cradle is formed, thus accommodating all sizes of dowels from 1/4 in. to 5/8 in. in diameter. [illustration: fig. 194.--pricking the centres ready for boring. also showing how brace is used in conjunction with try square.] fig. 192 shows a completed dowel with a small groove running along its entire length. the object of this groove is to allow the air and superfluous glue to escape and thus avoid splitting the work on hand; the groove also secretes a certain amount of glue, which increases its hold on the timber. fig. 198 illustrates the method of marking out and gauging two boards for dowelling. the edges of the boards are first shot to a true joint; then the face sides are placed together and the lines for the dowels are marked across the edges with a fine pencil and the aid of a try square. the boards are then gauged from the face side, thus giving the points indicated in the sketch. [illustration: fig. 195.--countersink.] [illustration: fig. 196.--dowel rounder.] [illustration: fig. 197.--twist bit.] to start the twist bit (fig. 197) it is a good plan to prick the board at the point of intersection of the marked lines with a sharp, circular-pointed marking awl. this obviates any tendency of the boring bit to run out of truth and thus cause unevenness on the face side of the jointed board. (see fig. 194.) a safe rule for the spacing of dowels when jointing sideboard tops, dressing table and wardrobe ends, etc., is to place the dowels 9 ins. to 10 ins. apart, and place two dowels at each end as shown at fig. 198. the length of the dowels should be about 7/8 in. to 1-1/4 in. long. fig. 199 shows the two boards prepared ready for glueing. the back one is bored to receive the dowels, and the front one shows the dowels glued in position. it is customary to warm the edges of the boards before spreading the glue, and cramps are required to squeeze the joint tight. these should be left on the jointed board from one to four hours according to the state of the weather. in cases where thick timber (say 2-in. or 2-1/2-in. boards) is to be jointed, two rows of dowels may be used, the position of the dowels being as fig. 200. [illustration: fig. 198.--marking and gauging boards for dowelling.] [illustration: fig. 199.--dowelled joint ready for glueing.] fig. 201 shows the plan of a 3-in. cornice pole made to fit a bay window; the straight portions of the pole are generally turned in the lathe, the corner portions being afterwards jointed and worked up to the required shape. to avoid any difficulty in the setting out of the dowels, a disc of cardboard or sheet metal is made to the same diameter as that of the cornice pole; this disc is called a template. the positions of the dowels are set out geometrically, and the centres are pricked through with a fine-pointed marking awl (see sketch of template, _a_, fig. 201). the template is put on the ends of the straight pole, and the dowel centres are pricked into the wood. the process is repeated on the ends of the corner block (_b_, fig. 201), and if the holes be now bored at the centres indicated a true fit will be obtained. [illustration: fig. 200.--method of dowelling thick timber.] [illustration: fig. 201.--method of dowelling cornice pole by means of template.] fig. 201 _c_ shows two portions of the circular pole jointed up to a corner block, and the dotted lines p indicate the direct line of pressure and shows the position for the cramp. when the glue is thoroughly set the corner block is sawn and spokeshaved to the desired shape as shown by the dotted line. this method is illustrated to show that, by the use of a suitable template, dowels may be exactly set out even when there is no straight or square face from which to use a marking gauge, and the method may, of course, be applied to many other examples of dowelling at the discretion of the workman. [illustration: fig. 202.--dowelling a mitred frame.] [illustration: fig. 203.--method of frame dowelling. (long and short shoulders.)] [illustration: fig. 204.--table leaf with dowels.] [illustration: fig. 205.--block for twist bit.] [illustration: fig. 206.--dowelling for moulded frame.] [illustration: fig. 207.--cap.] fig. 202 shows one corner of a mitred and dowelled frame. it needs little or no explanation beyond the fact that the dowels should be at right angles to the line of joint, and consequently the dowel at the outside edge of the frame will have to be much shorter than the others. this gives a strong and serviceable joint, suitable for many purposes. frame dowelling.--fig. 203 shows one corner of a frame with long and short shoulders, such as occurs when the upright is rebated through its entire length. the holes in both pieces are bored for the dowels before they are rebated. this avoids any difficulty in endeavouring to bore with only one side of the twist bit in the wood. a similar type of joint is used on nearly all kinds of glass and door frames in cabinet work. fig. 204 is a leaf for the screw type of table. circular dowels are shown at one end, and rectangular wooden pegs at the other; both methods are equally good, and, of course, the dowels are only glued into one leaf. the object of these dowels is to guide the table leaf into its proper position when the leaf engages the table proper, and to make the flat surface of the table top and leaf register correctly and thus ensure a level surface. fig. 205 is a wooden block made in two portions and held together by screws; it is used to fasten around a twist bit, the object being to ensure that all the dowel holes are of uniform depth. it may be adjusted as desired and firmly screwed round the twist bit; if the hole is made 1/4 in. in diameter it will clip round a 1/4-in. or 3/8-in. bit and will answer a dual purpose. it is a preventative for bad dowelling. fig. 206 is an example of dowelling framing when the moulding on the edge has to be mitred. it is necessary to cut the shoulders away so as to allow the members of the moulding to intersect. the section of the mould is not shown in the sketch for clearness of representation. the portion marked h is called the "horn," and it is not cut off until after the frame is glued up; its object is to prevent the rail splitting or bursting when knocking up the frame or during the cramping process. fig. 207 shows the method of dowelling a moulded cap to the top of a wooden bedstead post or similar pillar where it is desired to avoid any unsightliness. fig. 208 is a dining-table leg and portion of the framing, showing the method of dowelling the frame to the leg. chairs, couch frames, etc., are made in a similar manner. fig. 209 shows the top portion of a table leg and a home-made dowel gauge. the gauge is made of any hardwood, and steel wire pins are driven through at the required positions and sharpened similar to the spur of a marking gauge. the legs are sawn and planed up true and square, and the advantage of the gauge is that all legs are marked exactly alike and are therefore interchangeable until glued up. a gauge of this type is easily and quickly made and may be kept for its specific purpose or altered for other work. fig. 210 indicates the queen anne type of leg, a sketch of same broken below the knee also being given. here we have another type of irregular setting out, which is accomplished in the following manner. saw and plane the broken portion of the leg true as shown; take the timber which is to be jointed and treat it in a similar manner; now place four ordinary pins on the lower portion. carefully place the top portion to the required position and smartly give it one tap with the hammer; this will cause the pin-heads to leave indentations, and if these be taken as centres for boring, accurate work will result. the new portion of the leg is afterwards sawn and wrought to the desired shape. this is an example of work where it is next to impossible to use a gauge, and as only one joint is required it is not worth the time taken to make a template. [illustration: fig. 208.--dowelling a dining-table leg.] [illustration: fig. 209.--dowel gauge for legs.] [illustration: fig. 210.--dowelling a cabriole leg.] the tools used in dowelling are: brace, countersink, dowel-rounder, twist bit, try-square, marking-awl, and the usual bench tools. the first four are illustrated at figs. 194, 195, 196 and 197 respectively. the method of working is: plane up, mark out, bore holes, countersink, glue dowels and complete joints. the scarf joint the method known as "scarfing" is used for the joining of timber in the direction of its length, enabling the workman to produce a joint with a smooth or flush appearance on all its faces. one of the simplest forms of scarfed joint is known as the half lap, in which a portion is cut out at the end of each beam or joist, equal in depth to half the full depth of the beam, and of equal length to the required scarf. the two pieces before they are placed together form a joint as shown at fig. 211, the projecting part (a) fitting into the recessed portion marked b and the two pieces being secured in their respective positions by screws. fig. 212 shows a dovetailed scarf joint. this is a variation of fig. 211, the length of the dovetail lap being from 6 ins. to 8 ins. in length. fig. 213 is an illustration of a joint designed to resist a cross strain. the face side is left flush, whilst the underside is assisted by an iron plate. the joint is secured with nuts, bolts, and washers. this type of joint is frequently used for joining purlins in roof work; the iron plate on the underside is in this case omitted. fig. 214 is designed to resist both tension and compression and is an excellent joint for all purposes. the joint is brought together by using folding wedges as shown in the centre. [illustration: fig. 211.--half-lap scarf joint for light timber.] [illustration: fig. 212.--dovetailed scarf joint.] [illustration: fig. 213.--plated scarf joint used in roof work.] fig. 215 is a variation of fig. 214, and it will be noticed that tenons are provided on the face and underside to resist cross strain. probably this is one of the best varieties of the scarfed joint. unfortunately, however, its production is somewhat costly, and this may be the reason that it is not more universally used. folding wedges are used to secure the two pieces in position. [illustration: fig. 214.--tenoned scarf joint.] [illustration: fig. 215.--double tenoned scarf joint.] [illustration: fig. 216.--scarf joint with vee'd ends.] fig. 216 is a scarfed joint with undercut vee'd ends which prevent the joint from lipping up or down or sideways. it is a useful joint, calling for careful setting out and accurate craftsmanship. folding wedges are used in this case to draw up and secure the joint. fig. 217 is a "fished joint," and the following difference between a scarfed and fished joint should be noted. a fished joint need not necessarily reduce the total length of the beams to be joined, and fish plates of wood or iron (or a combination of both) are fastened at each side of the joint. in a scarf joint all surfaces are flush. in fig. 217 the beams are butt-jointed and secured by wooden plates and iron bolts. the upper plate is let into each beam, and the lower plate is provided with two wooden keys to prevent the beams sliding (or "creeping") upon the lower plate. iron nuts, bolts, and washers are used to complete the joint. [illustration: fig. 217.--fished joint.] in the case of the scarfed joint at fig. 218 (used for purlins) the length of the scarf is usually made about four times that of the depth of tie beam. it has two hardwood keys which force the pieces together and thus tighten the joint. [illustration: fig. 218.--detail of scarfed joint in purlins.] the methods of scarfing and fish-jointing are many and varied, and, in selecting a joint, the nature of the pieces to be joined and the direction and the amount of the load should be carefully taken into consideration. the above joints come under the heading of carpentry, and the ordinary tools such as the saw, plane, boring-bit and chisels are all that are requisite and necessary to produce a sound and serviceable joint. scarfed joints are generally of large size, and they are usually made by placing the work upon sawing trestles owing to the bench being too small to accommodate the large timbers. [illustration: fig. 219.--example of tabled joint with straps.] [illustration: fig. 220.--lapped scarf joint with bolts for heavy timber.] fig. 219 is a tabled scarf joint which admirably resists tension and compression. it is very easy to make and fit, and is not materially affected by shrinkage. the rectangular wrought iron straps are knocked up over the joint after the two pieces engage. the length of the joint should be approximately five times its thickness. fig. 220 is an example of a lapped scarf joint which is secured with nuts and bolts. it effectively resists compressional stress in vertical posts and it may, if required, be strengthened by the addition of wrought iron fish plates. it is quite a serviceable joint for all general purposes, such as shed or garage building where fairly heavy timbers are used. the hinged joint one of the most common forms of hinged joint in use to-day is that formed by using the "butt" hinge, and many troubles experienced by the amateur, such as "hinge-bound," "stop-bound," and "screw-bound" doors, etc., are due to a lack of knowledge of the principles of hingeing. hinges call for careful gauging and accurate fitting, otherwise trouble is certain to occur. a "bound" door or box lid is said to be hinge-bound when the recess which contains the hinge is cut too deep. the frame and the body portion engage too tightly when closed, the result being that the door has always a tendency to open a little. this fault may be in many cases remedied by packing behind the hinge with one or two thicknesses of good stiff brown paper. for packing purposes such as this paper will be found to be of much more value than thin strips of wood or knife-cut veneer, the latter always having a great tendency to split when a screw or bradawl is inserted. a stop-bound door is the name applied when the door is not finished to exactly the same thickness as originally intended. this causes the door to bind on the stops at the back, as shown at fig. 221. the difficulty may be remedied by thinning the door a little at the back, or slightly rounding away the portion which binds. screw-bound is a common fault often overlooked by the amateur. it is caused by using screws of which the heads are too large for the countersunk holes in the hinge, and may be avoided by slightly sinking the holes in the brasswork with a countersink or rose-bit. [illustration: fig. 221.--stop-bound door.] [illustration: fig. 222.--butt hinge.] [illustration: fig. 223.--gauging.] [illustration: fig. 224.--marking for recess.] [illustration: fig. 225.--sawing for the recess.] alignment.--another fault that is fairly common is having the axes of the hinges out of alignment. especially is this the case when three hinges are used to hang a wardrobe or other large door. it is absolutely necessary in all cases that the exact centres of the pivot-pins of the hinges should be in a straight line. particular attention to alignment is necessary when the body and the door frame are shaped on the face side. a familiar example that every reader may inspect for himself is the curved side of a railway carriage body and railway carriage door, where he will notice that a specially wide hinge has to be used at the bottom of the door to give the necessary alignment. hinges fixed on work with their centres out of truth are often overlooked by the inexperienced worker, and this is a frequent cause of creaking. gauging.--fig. 222 is a sketch of a brass butt hinge, open. fig. 223 illustrates a similar hinge closed, and shows the gauge set so that the point of the marker is exactly to the centre of the pivot-pin. this distance we will call c. now turn to fig. 224. the distance c has been gauged from the face side of the frame. the gauge is then set to the thickness of the hinge at its thickest portion, and to prevent "hinge-bind" see that the gauge is set on the _fine_ side. remember that the tapered point of the steel spur or marking awl will part the fibres of the timber a little more than the fine point, and give you a wider gauge line than was anticipated when you set the gauge. the inexperienced worker nearly always overlooks this. the result is a hinge-bound door, the cause of which is not discovered by the worker because he is so sure that he has set the gauge correctly. the distance b, fig. 226, shows the line gauged for the thickness of the hinge. position of hinges.--another difficulty to the beginner is the position for his hinges, and it may here be stated that the general rule is to carry a line across the face of the work from the inside of the cross rail and place the hinge at e, as fig. 224. [illustration: fig. 226.--tool operation when paring out the hinge recess in the door.] sawing for the recess.--after marking out for the hinge, as shown at fig. 224, take a fine-toothed saw (a dovetail saw is considered the best) and saw down as shown at fig. 225, care being taken not to cut beyond the gauge lines. in this sketch three intermediate saw kerfs are shown, but if the hinge is of great length, say 5 or 6 ins., the removal of the waste wood will be greatly facilitated by the addition of more intermediate saw kerfs. these cuts sever the cross fibres and allow the timber to be easily pared away in short lengths. in fig. 226 we see the tool operation when paring out the hinge recess. at the left of the drawing the recess is shown marked. take a 3/4 in. chisel and, using it as a knife (see a), deepen the gauge lines. then stab the chisel downwards, as at b, to deepen the end lines. next, take the chisel and pare away the back of the recess as at c. the work may then be completed by paring neatly till the bottom of the recess is flat. [illustration: fig. 227., fig. 228. the hingeing of a box lid.] stopped hinged joints for box work.--fig. 227 is a section through a small box similar to a lady's work-box (the back of the box in the illustration is enlarged in thickness to clearly show the position of the hinge). in this case the knuckle of the hinge is let into the woodwork until it is flush with the back of the box, and the gauge would have to be set to the total width of the hinge. the back edges of the lid and the back edge of the lower portion of the box are planed away at an angle of 45 degrees as indicated by the dotted lines. fig. 228 shows the same box with the lid open, and it will be observed that the chamfered edges come together and form a stop which prevents the lid falling backwards and breaking the box. this method of letting-in the knuckle flush is a useful one for box work because the ordinary stock brass butt hinge can be used. attention may, however, be called to the "stopped butt-hinge," which is specially made to answer the above purpose; in its action a similar mechanical principle as the one applied to the box is used. [illustration: fig. 229.--strap hinge.] [illustration: fig. 230.--reversible or double-folding screen hinge.] [illustration: fig. 231.--pivot hinge for screens.] [illustration: fig. 232.--non-reversible screen hinge.] types of hinges.--fig. 229 is an elongated variety of the butt hinge, known in the trade as "strap hinge," "desk hinge," or "bagatelle hinge." as its name indicates, it is used on folding bagatelle tables, small writing desks, and other types of work that have but a narrow margin on which to fix the hinges. the long, narrow plates are sunk flush into the wood, the knuckle or rounded portion projecting. [illustration: fig. 233.--back flap hinge.] [illustration: fig. 234.--card table hinge.] [illustration: fig. 235.--pivot hinge.] [illustration: fig. 236.--rising butt hinge.] fig. 230 is an illustration of the reversible or double-folding screen hinge. half the thickness of this hinge is let into each wing of the draught screen, allowing the screen to be folded either way. the hinge is costly, but effective in use. fig. 231 is a type of pivot hinge which is used to fix at the top and bottom of a screen. fig. 232 is the non-reversible screen hinge and, as its name implies, will only fold in one direction. fig. 233 is a back flap hinge with a specially wide wing, used for the fall-down leaf of small tables and similar articles. fig. 234 is a card table hinge. this is let into the edges of the table, so that all is flush or level both above and below the surface. centre or pivot hinges.--fig. 235 is a centre or pivot hinge, used on the top and bottom of wardrobe doors, more particularly the interior door of a three-winged wardrobe where the method of fixing is confined to the cornice and plinth. the flange carrying the pins or pivot is let into the top and bottom of the door, the remaining flange being let into the cornice and plinth respectively. rising butt hinges.--fig. 236 is the rising butt hinge, used on dining and drawing-room doors, so that when the door is opened the door rises sufficiently to clear the thickness of the carpet. this hinge has also an advantage over the ordinary butt hinge in that it is self-closing, _i.e._, the weight of the door _plus_ the bevel on the hinge joint causes the door to close. band and hook hinges and other ordinary varieties are too well known to require illustrating. acute angle hingeing.--fig. 237 is a sectional plan of a corner cupboard showing a good method of hingeing the door. the inset _a_ shows an enlarged view of the corner carrying the hinge, also the adaptor piece _c_, which is fitted to the inside edge of the cupboard so that the hinged edges are at 90 degrees to the face. this is a far better and stronger method than that shown at _b_, which is often attempted with disastrous results. the incorrect method _b_ allows insufficient wood for fixing purposes, and in nearly all cases the thin edge of the door breaks away during the making and fitting, or soon after completion. the adaptor piece may have a face mould worked upon it to give a pilaster-like appearance if fancy so dictates. [illustration: fig. 237.--hingeing door of corner cupboard.] [illustration: fig. 238.--inside hingeing: method of letting butt hinge into door frame and carcase.] inside hingeing.--when a door is being hung _inside_ the carcase (that is, not hinged _over_ the ends) it is permissible, in the case of light work, to let the whole thickness of the hinge into the door; and when screwing the door to the carcase it is usual to fix the knuckle of the hinge flush with the face of the carcase, thus allowing the door frame to stand back, making a break of about 1/8 in. with the face. the marking gauge should be set to the full width of the hinge; the mark, gauged on the inside of the carcase end, thus forms a line to guide the worker whilst fixing the door. to successfully fix a door it generally requires two persons, one to hold the door in position, whilst the other bores the holes and fixes the screws. [illustration: fig. 239.--showing top and bottom of carcase cut back to allow door to close.] [illustration: fig. 240.--outside hingeing.] [illustration: fig. 241.--section.] fig. 238 shows the correct method of fitting butt hinges on high-class work. one wing of the hinge is let into the door, and the other wing is let into the carcase or door jamb, thus distributing a proportion of the weight to the carcase end instead of allowing the whole of the weight to be carried by the screws as would be the case in _a_, fig. 237. the method of sinking each portion of the hinge into the door and carcase respectively is costly; hence it is not the general practice in cheap work. in fig. 239 the top and bottom of carcase (t and b) are shown set back to allow the door to close. outside hingeing.--fig. 240 illustrates the portion of a door frame and carcase end when the door is hung on the face of the carcase. the correct method of letting in the hinge is shown in the enlarged section (fig. 241), but, as previously mentioned, the hinge may have its entire thickness let into the door frame where it is of a light character. the door frame projects slightly over the carcase end, and occasionally a bead mould is worked on the edge of the door so as to give a finish and partly hide the joint. the bead would, of course, be the same size as the diameter of the knuckle of the hinge; and the knuckle, therefore, will form a continuation of the bead and give a workmanshiplike finish. fall fronts.--fig. 242 is a sectional view of a fall front writing bureau fitted with centre or pivot hinges and arranged so that the edges form a stop when the desk front is turned to a horizontal position. the position for the fitting of the brass plates carrying the pivot-pin is somewhat awkward; but, by first sinking the plates into the carcase ends, and then slotting the edges of the fall, it will be found that the fall front may be put in from its horizontal position, and that sufficient room is left to enable the screwdriver to be manipulated without inconvenience. [illustration: fig. 242.--fall front of writing bureau.] [illustration: fig. 243.--revolving fly rail for table. see pivoted fly or front rail.] [illustration: fig. 244.--draught screen tape hinge.] fly rail.--fig. 243 is a sketch of a small table with the top removed. a revolving fly rail is shown pivoted upon a piece of 1/4-in. wire. the object of this fly rail is to form a support to the small hinged drop-leaf of the table. this method is suitable for small occasional tables and similar articles. draught screens.--fig. 244 illustrates the end elevation and plan of a draught screen which is constructed of a light framework and covered with baize or american cloth. the reversible double-folding hinge (fig. 230) would answer admirably for such a screen. cases occur, however, where it is desired to hinge a screen to be used for an invalid's bedside, and it is then important that all draught should be excluded through the jointed edges. the double reversible hinge will not fulfil these conditions, and the following method is therefore adopted. in the plan, fig. 244, a and b, two laths of hardwood (beech, birch or mahogany answer splendidly) are shown. they are made the same length and the same width as the edges of the screen, the corners being slightly rounded away. a double-folding, draught-proof hinge is then made as follows: procure good fine webbing, about 1-1/4 in. wide, and the necessary large-headed tacks. lay the laths side by side as shown in fig. 244, and proceed to web them as shown. commence with the web under the lath a; bring it between the laths and over b; now take it round the left-hand edge of b, and round the back and between the laths and over a, continuing this method of wrapping the laths until the lower end is reached, and then fastening the webbing as indicated by the dotted lines which represent the tacks. this self-contained hinge is then fixed to the edges of the screen by boring suitable holes through the laths and using countersunk screws. this is a cheap and efficient method of overcoming the difficulty. a similar method is used for the household clothes horse. [illustration: fig. 245.--finger joint hinge.] [illustration: fig. 246.--the knuckle joint hinge.] finger joint hinge.--fig. 245 is a finger joint--a movable interlocking joint used to support the leaf of a pembroke table. the small portion is screwed to the table rail and the shaped bracket swings out to support the drop leaf. the shaded portion of the bracket shows the timber chamfered away so that the fingers may be easily put behind the bracket to manipulate it. note that the corners are slightly rounded off, as indicated by the black portion of the sketch, and that the mortises are cut about 1/4 in. deeper than the thickness of the timber used. this joint has now been almost superseded by a cheap stamped galvanised iron bracket of exactly the same pattern. the joint, however, is still used for repair work and in cases where a stamped metal bracket has not sufficient overhang. [illustration: fig. 247.--open joint hingeing.] knuckle joint hinge.--fig. 246 is a similar type of joint to the above, and is called the knuckle joint. this arrangement of hingeing allows the table leg to swing in an angle of 180 degrees and is much neater in its appearance. it is often used to connect a movable table leg to the framing, where it is necessary for the table leg and rail to swing outwards and support a drop leaf. the pivot is formed by a piece of 1/8-in. or 1/4-in. round iron rod running through the centre of the joint. [illustration: fig. 248.--clearing the architrave mould.] open joint hingeing.--the next three illustrations apply more particularly to the hanging of the ordinary household door. fig. 247 is termed "open joint hanging," from the fact that when the door is open a certain amount of open space exists between the edge of the door and the doorpost. this open space varies according to the position in which the butt hinge is fixed. a section is shown at which the pin of the hinge is let in level with the face of the door. this will allow the door to open as shown by the dotted line, and it will not clear the architrave moulding. [illustration: fig. 249.--close joint hingeing.] fig. 248 indicates the position of the hinge fixed so as to allow the door to open and lay flat back to the architrave moulding. in this instance the butts are made with wider wings, and they are generally provided to take three screws (see fig. 233, right-hand wing of hinge). to determine the position of the centre pin of the hinge the following rule is observed. the centre of the pivot pin of the hinge must be _half the distance_ between the face of the door, when closed, and the outside of the architrave moulding. close joint hanging.--the method known as "close joint hanging" ensures the joint at the hanging stile being in close proximity to the hanging rail; this is shown at fig. 249. the first member of the architrave moulding is generally a bead of the same diameter as the knuckle of the hinge. the butt hinge is let in as shown in the illustration, and the door when opened forms a close-fitting joint. [illustration: fig. 250.--rule joint hinge, with leaf open.] the rule joint hinge is used to connect the top and the drop leaf of a table in cases where continuity of design is desired, so that the edge of the top and the leaf will show an ovolo moulding when the table is either open or closed. to the inexperienced worker it presents several difficulties and, if it is a first effort, it is advisable to try out a sample joint on a couple of odd pieces of timber. fig. 250 illustrates the joint when the leaf is opened or in a horizontal position. at fig. 252 we have the joint when the leaf is let down to a vertical position. it should be observed in the latter figure that the edge a of the drop leaf is in alignment with the axis of the hinge. steel or brass back-flap hinges (fig. 233) are generally used and they are sunk into the table as suggested. set out the work full size as at fig. 251, and mark point 1, which is to be the position of the joint. draw 1, 2, at right angles to the table top. mark point 3 on the vertical line for the centre of the hinge, and mark point 4 approximately as shown. [illustration: fig. 251.--setting out for rule joint hinge.] [illustration: fig. 252.--the rule joint with leaf down.] with compass point on 3 and radius 3 to 4, describe an arc 4 to 5. this gives us the true joint line (1, 4, 5). the distance 0 to 3 is usually determined by the hinge. the knuckle of the back flap hinge is always let into the under side of the wood and the further it is inserted into the wood the more the joint will overlap at a (fig. 252) which shows the joint when the flap or leaf is down. shutting joints this chapter deals with the joint made by the upright rail of a door frame which carries the lock, or handle, generally called the "slamming stile." many and varied are the methods used to make a draught and air-tight joint at the meeting of the slamming stile and the carcase end, and our sketches illustrate some of the simplest and also some of the best and most expensive methods. [illustration: fig. 253.--shutting stile of cupboard door.] [illustration: fig. 254.--showing cupboard end thicknessed (see b).] [illustration: fig. 255.--dust-proof cupboard door.] fig. 253 is a part plan of the end of a simple cupboard of which the carcase end is all of one thickness (_i.e._, not lined up in thickness). a small strip of wood (a) is glued and screwed on the end to form a stop to the door and to prevent the access of dust to the interior of the cupboard. fig. 254 illustrates a similar method; the stop (c) is seen, as in the previous illustration, but it will be noticed also that the carcase end in this case is lined up (see b) to give a pilaster-like appearance to the end, and the moulding is selected on account of its suitability to hide the joint of the lining piece. fig. 255 is of a more intricate type, and is often used on jewellers' showcases. the end at the right hand is slightly rebated to receive the frame, and both the rail and the end are grooved with a plough plane. a separate bead is made and glued into the groove of the door frame (d), engaging the groove in the carcase end when the door is closed. the shutting stile and the end are worked with a hook joint (e), and if carefully made they are practically dust-tight. [illustration: fig. 256.--meeting stiles with rebated astragal.] [illustration: fig. 257.--door rebated for astragal.] [illustration: fig. 258.--door with brass astragal.] fig. 256 shows the meeting of two doors which open outwards, a separate piece of timber being made to form a rebated astragal mould (f) and glued to the right-hand door. this method gives a neat and effective finish. fig. 257 is similar to the above, with the exception that the rail of the door is rebated (g) to receive the astragal moulding. this method is preferred on the best class of work, because it shows no unsightly joint at the inside of the door frame. fig. 258 illustrates the type of joint made by using a brass astragal mould (h) as employed on high-class work, frequently seen on french furniture of the louis periods. in fig. 259 is shown a piece of brass astragal moulding, which may be procured from any cabinetmaker's ironmonger in suitable lengths. it is fixed in position by slightly rebating the edge of the door and fastening with ordinary countersunk brass screws. [illustration: fig. 259.--brass astragal.] [illustration: fig. 260.--curved cupboard doors with rebated meeting joint.] [illustration: fig. 261.--rebated meeting joint.] [illustration: fig. 262.--meeting joint with applied astragal.] fig. 260 is a rebated joint, broken at the front by a bead moulding. the illustration shows its application to a circular-fronted cupboard, and it will be noticed that the hinged rails are received in a rebate which is worked on the carcase ends. the rebated joint at the centre of the two doors is worked slightly on the bevel, so as to allow for clearance when opening the door. two of the commonest meeting joints of doors are seen in figs. 261 and 262. in the former case the stiles are rebated (as already shown in fig. 260), whilst at fig. 262 an astragal bead is glued to the right-hand stile. in fig. 261 a bead is worked on the right-hand stile to mask the joint. fig. 263 is the hook joint used on good-class joinery and cabinet work. a pair of special wood planes are required to make the joint in a cheap and efficient manner. the cost of a pair of 5/8-in. hook joint planes is from 6_s._ to 8_s._ they are of similar size and general appearance to the ordinary ovolo moulding plane. [illustration: fig. 263.--the hook joint.] [illustration: fig. 264.--hook joint with loose tongues.] [illustration: fig. 265.--rebated joint with tongue slip.] fig. 264 is a special type of hook joint as used on larger work. the joint may be made by using the plough plane, the rebate plane and a suitably-sized bead plane, the loose tongues being inserted as shown and fastened by screws and glue. fig. 265 is a rebated joint with loose tongue-slip and astragal mould, suitable for frames over 1-1/4 in. in thickness. the loose tongue-slip is glued into the right-hand door frame. fig. 266 shows a shutting joint used to prevent permeation of dust to the interior of a drawer. the drawer front is grooved and engages a suitably-formed slip which is screwed to the bearer as indicated in the illustration. occasionally some difficulty is experienced when fitting the slip to a narrow drawer, but this can always be overcome by putting in the screws from the top of the bearer instead of from underneath. [illustration: fig. 266.--dust-proof drawer, showing the front grooved to engage a slip which is screwed to the bearer rail.] shutting joints which are required to be "light-tight," such as those used in photographic work, are generally formed by slightly grooving the frame and inserting a strip of black velvet. the friction of the high pile of the velvet prevents the filtration of light through the joint. when making air-tight showcases, one of the best and simplest tests is to place a lighted candle in the case and close all the doors; if the candle goes out within three minutes you have accomplished your object. the dovetail joint nothing definite is known as to the origin of dovetailing, but a quaint and pleasing little story which is well worth repeating runs as follows: a farmer had called in the local "joyner" to do sundry repairs at the homestead. one day, whilst enjoying a humble meal, he sat watching some doves as they hopped about the yard. struck by the movement of their wedge-shaped tails, it occurred to him to joint his timber by the interlocking method; hence we have _dovetails_. [illustration: fig. 267.--a single through dovetail.] [illustration: fig. 268.--through dovetails on carcase work (p, pins; t, tails).] through dovetailing.--one of the simplest forms of the dovetail joint is shown in fig. 267, where two pieces of timber are joined by the method known as "through" dovetailing. this method is used in everyday practice for joining the corners of frames, bracket trusses, and a hundred and one other articles. figs. 268 and 269 show the method of through dovetailing as applied to the making of boxes, plinths, and general carcase work; it is used in positions where no objection can be taken to the end grain showing on each side of the finished work. in the case of plinths and furniture cornices the foundation frame is made of yellow pine or other cheap wood, and the more expensive and rare timbers are glued and mitred around in various thicknesses and shapes, thus saving the more costly material and strengthening the construction by the method known as laminating. in many cases all that is necessary is to veneer the face sides, thus covering and hiding any unsightliness. [illustration: fig. 269.--dovetails for boxes, etc.] [illustration: fig. 270.--lap-dovetailing for drawers.] lap-dovetailing.--fig. 270 is an example of lap-dovetailing, such as is used where a drawer side joins with the drawer front. it is not permissible to allow the end grain of the timber to show at the front of a drawer, and this is why resort is had to the lap-dovetail. as the most general use of the dovetail is for this and similar purposes, we shall therefore deal fully with the methods of marking out and the making of this class of joint. angles.--a most important point in the construction of a dovetail is to avoid having the angles of the pins and tails too acute. an inclination of one in eight is considered correct; no hard and fast rule need be obeyed, but the variation should on no account be less than one in six. [illustration: fig. 271.--how to obtain correct angles for dovetail template.] [illustration: fig. 272.--squaring and use of template.] fig. 271 shows a simple method to obtain the correct angle. take a piece of timber and plane up the face edge (a, b) true and straight; mark out a line (c, d) at right angles to the face edge and space off 8 ins. as shown; now measure a distance of 1 in. (d, e), and join e to point eight. this will give the correct angle for the dovetails, and it may then be transferred to the joiners' bevel. many workers who are constantly on dovetail work make a zinc template to the exact angle and keep it specially for the purpose (fig. 272). squaring.--another important point to remember is that the drawer sides must be true and squared to an exact length and planed up to thickness; otherwise the finished drawer will be in winding and out of truth. to true and square the ends of drawer sides, drawer backs and drawer front, a most useful little machine is the mitre trimmer; failing this, excellent results can be obtained by using the shooting board. [illustration: fig. 273.--method of marking with cutting gauge.] gauging.--after squaring up the timber accurate gauging of the ends is another important point. the gauge used should be a cutting gauge, so that the line is incised about 1/32 in. in depth, thus effectually cutting the cross fibres of the timber. fig. 273 shows the method of using the cutting gauge. the stock of the gauge must be held well up to the end of the timber. the gauge is a most difficult tool for the novice to use, and his trouble is generally caused by holding it too flat. tilt the gauge a little so that the thumbscrew shown in the illustration goes nearer to the floor; the blade will then not bite so keenly, and better results will be obtained. the dotted lines indicate the positions which the dovetails will occupy when marked out. the gauge is set a trifle less than the thickness of the drawer sides to allow for the thickness of the steel cutter, and a gauge line is marked on the inside of the front and all round the drawer back. the gauge is now readjusted so as to leave a 1/4-in. lap on the front, and a line marked on the ends of the front and all round the ends of the sides which will engage the drawer front. a glance at figs. 270 and 273 will make this clear. [illustration: fig. 274.--removing the waste wood.] the dovetail pins on drawer part and back are spaced out and marked on the end with the aid of the joiners' bevel, the lines being then squared down to the gauge line by the method shown at fig. 272--that is, by using the try-square and marking awl. the drawer front is now put into the bench vice, and the pins are cut as indicated in fig. 274. the drawer back is treated in a similar manner, but of course in this case it is not "lap" but "through" dovetailing, and the saw kerf goes through the timber and down to the gauge line. [illustration: fig. 275.--cutting away the half dovetails.] we now come to the point where it is necessary to remove the superfluous material. fig. 274 shows a method commonly adopted and known as sawing out the waste; the saw is held at an angle and part of the inside portion of the dovetail is cut away as shown. this is a good plan for the amateur, because it shows him at the commencement of his chopping out which will be the pin and which the tail. [illustration: fig. 276.--showing the vertical and horizontal chisel operations in lap-dovetailing. a: the preliminary roughing-out. b: vertical chiselling; note that the first stab should be just outside the gauge line. c: marking the horizontal cut.] fig. 276 (a) shows another method that answers well for soft woods such as pine, american whitewood and satin walnut. the drawer front is laid flat on the bench after it has been sawn, and with a mallet and sharp chisel the corner of the dovetail is knocked off as shown. this takes the bulk of the material away and the dovetail is then pared out square in the usual way. the illustration (fig. 276) also shows how the chisel is held for vertical paring (b) and for horizontal paring (c). [illustration: fig. 277.--roughing-out by boring.] [illustration: fig. 278.--marking pins on drawer side.] a third method is shown at fig. 277. with hard, curly timbers, such as tobacco mahogany and satinwood, it is a laborious process to carefully chop away the timber in small pieces, and to overcome this difficulty we occasionally see the workman take a twist-bit and bore a series of holes as shown. a great portion of the timber may then be split away by inserting the chisel end-way into the grain, after which it is pared to a finish. as dovetailing is chiefly used for drawer making, it will be of interest to give several illustrations of variations of the joint and its uses. fig. 278 indicates the method of marking the position of the holes in the drawer side. when the paring out of the dovetails is completed the drawer front is turned over on to the side as shown, and the position of the recesses which will engage the pin portions are marked with the marking awl as illustrated. [illustration: fig. 279.--marking by means of saw blade.] [illustration: fig. 280.--gauge lines, scores and saw cuts.] [illustration: fig. 281.--sawing the drawer side.] [illustration: fig. 282.--position of chisel for cutting channel.] the completed drawer back is marked on the sides in an exactly similar manner. another method of marking through dovetails is shown at fig 279. the side is held in position on the end, and the dovetail saw is inserted and drawn out of the saw kerf, thus leaving the exact mark on the drawer-back. other workers prefer a pounce-bag instead of a saw. a pounce-bag consists of a piece of fairly open woven muslin filled with a mixture of french chalk and finely-powdered whiting; the muslin is tied up with a piece of thin twine like the mouth of a flour sack. all that is necessary is to place the timber in position and bang the bag on the top of the saw-cuts, when sufficient powder will pass through the bag and down the saw kerf to mark the exact positions of the lines. sawing the dovetails.--after marking out the pins on the drawer sides, we proceed with the next operation, that is, sawing the dovetails ready for chopping out the waste material. the drawer side is taken and firmly secured in the bench screw and sawn as at fig. 281; it is most important that the saw kerf is kept _inside_ the line which has been scratched by the marking awl. see fig. 280, where the dotted line represents the gauge line and the outside lines indicate the scores of the marking awl. failure to observe this condition will result in faulty dovetailing, and it will also prove the necessity for using a finely-toothed and thin-bladed dovetail saw. to cut out the waste wood (or core), the usual procedure is to saw away the half-dovetails as at fig. 275. with care, this can be accomplished with the dovetail saw, thus avoiding unnecessary labour and the use of the paring chisel. after sawing, the drawer side is placed flat upon the bench, one end in contact with the bench to prevent the drawer side from slipping away; a chisel (preferably bevelled edged) of suitable width is now taken and a small channel is cut as at a, fig. 282. the method of cutting this channel is shown in the same illustration. the chisel-cut is started about 1/8 in. from the gauge line; the cut is made right up to the gauge line, which (when gauging) was made 1/32 in. deep so as to cut the cross fibres of the timber. a small piece of waste wood will therefore come away as at a. the object of cutting this small channel is so that, when the chisel is held vertically on the gauge line and struck with the mallet, the chisel will have no tendency to force its way backward and overshoot the gauge line. the waste or core is now removed by holding the chisel approximately vertical and applying sufficient power to drive it half-way through the timber. the drawer side is now turned over, the operation repeated, and the core pushed out. care must be exercised whilst cutting away the core to ensure the chisel being held nearly perpendicular; if too much lead (or bevel) be given, a faulty and undercut dovetail will be the result. undercut dovetails prevent a proper grip of the glue; they give a weak joint, and often cause the face of the drawer side to be splintered whilst driving up the joint. if it be necessary to ease one or two shavings from off the drawer side whilst fitting the completed drawer in the carcase, the joint will show a greater gap as each succeeding shaving is removed. in common work, especially in soft timbers, many workers allow the pins of a drawer back to run through the sides about 1/16 in. and hammer down the pins of the dovetail. this is called "bishoping the dovetails," and is unnecessary if the work be properly made and fitted. an alternative method of dovetailing is that of cutting the dovetails first, as shown at fig. 283. four or six drawer sides are placed in the vice and the dovetails are sawn at one operation. a little lead (or bevel) from front to back is given whilst sawing, and if this method be used care must be taken to see that the parts of the drawer sides which will be on the inside of the completed drawer are towards the worker, or the lead will be given to the dovetails in the wrong direction. [illustration: fig. 283.--cutting several dovetails at once.] after sawing the dovetails in this manner the sides are placed in their respective positions on the drawer fronts or backs, and marked with a pounce-bag or by using the saw-blade method. the pins are then cut in the usual way, care being taken that the saw kerf be on the outside of the marks, otherwise the pins will finish too slack to engage with the tails. frame dovetails.--fig. 284 is a sketch of a constructional frame such as is used for building up a cornice or plinth. at the joint marked a an edge barefaced dovetail is shown. from the separated sketches of the joint (b) it will be seen that the dovetail can be put together either from the top or the bottom of the framing as all its edges are parallel; glue is relied upon to hold it in position. the centre stretcher rail at fig. 284 is similar, except that in this case it is a complete dovetail in place of a barefaced one. [illustration: fig. 284.--constructional frame (as for plinth or cornice) showing application of the dovetail joint.] some workers, when making either of the above joints, prefer to give a slight bevel to the dovetail, so that it drives tightly into the housing when put together. a variation of this type of dovetail is frequently used to joint internal uprights to the horizontal shelves of writing desks, cabinets, and bookcases, etc. the dovetailed portion is parallel for about three-fourths of its width; the remaining part is tapered towards the front edge and notched away at the face so as to conceal the method of construction. an illustration of the top portion of a division 14 ins. wide is shown at fig. 284, c. the other portion is of course dovetailed to fit it. blind lap-dovetailing.--at fig. 285 is shown a type of blind lap-dovetailing. this makes a good, sound joint, but it has the disadvantage of showing a small portion of the timber of the front rail end-way of the grain. joints of this kind are used for cornices, boxes, etc., and also for painted furniture. [illustration: fig. 285.--blind lap-dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. 286.--housed and mitred dovetail.] housed and mitred dovetail.--fig. 286 is another form of dovetail--commonly called a housed and mitred or rebated and mitred dovetail. in this instance we see that a small portion is mitred at top and bottom edges, and when used in plinth or cornice work, or for making tea-caddies, etc., the edges are (when completing the work) covered either with the moulding, which is planted on the cornice or plinth, or with the top and bottom of the box or tea-caddy. the method of making a housed and mitred dovetail joint is seen in fig. 286. the ends to be joined are planed up true and square and then rebated as shown. the dotted lines indicate the portion which has been worked away. the dovetails are now sawn and pared out in the usual way and the part denoted by the arrow is afterwards cut away with a chisel and finally finished to a smooth surface with a rebate plane; the method of working is shown at fig. 287, where the dovetail pins are seen with the waste portions cut away. [illustration: fig. 287.--working a housed and mitred dovetail joint.] fig. 287 also shows the method of cutting away the mitred part. a temporary piece of wood is planed to a true mitre and placed underneath the dovetailed piece to form a template. both pieces of the timber are now secured to the bench with a handscrew or cramp; the template a will form a guide for the chisel and rebate plane and allow a sharp edge or arris to be worked on the mitre. a secret mitred dovetail joint is illustrated at fig. 288; it is used in all the better class of cabinet and box work. fig. 288 shows the pieces separated; note the mitre at the top and bottom edge. [illustration: fig. 288.--secret mitre dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. 289.--dovetailed keys for wide surfaces.] dovetail keying.--fig. 289 is a method used to prevent wide boards such as signboards, wide and shaped pediments, etc., from casting or warping. it is called dovetail keying. beyond calling attention to the fact that the angles at the edges of the keys, where they are bevelled, should be at or about 75 degrees, nothing further need be said, as the drawing is self-explanatory. angle dovetail keying is shown at figs. 290 and 291. [illustration: fig. 290.--dovetail key.] [illustration: fig. 291.--dovetail keying on the angle.] [illustration: fig. 292.--bow-fronted door dovetailed edgeways.] other varieties.--at fig. 292 we have an everyday method of jointing circular-fronted cabinet door frames. great care must be taken in setting out and making, or a twisted frame will result. then at fig. 293 are shown two familiar examples of dovetailing the bearer to the carcase end of a dressing table or washstand. fig. 294.--lap-dovetailing the top of a wardrobe to the carcase end. other examples, such as the top of a bookcase to the sides, will suggest themselves. fig. 295.--side view of a jewel drawer with a moulded drawer front as used on dressing tables, etc. this shows the necessity of bevelled dovetailing in order that the drawer front may be kept as thin and light as possible. [illustration: fig. 293.--carcase work, showing bearer rails dovetailed.] fig. 296.--bevelled dovetailing when pins are at right angles to the end cut. fig. 297.--bevelled dovetailing when the centre line of the pins is parallel to the edges of the work, used for making "hoppers," food troughs, knife boxes, etc. one corner of the box shows the joint separated. [illustration: fig. 294.--lap-dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. 295.--jewel drawer side.] [illustration: fig. 296.--bevelled dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. 297.--bevelled and dovetailed box, showing the jointing of one corner separated.] fig. 298.--an example of oblique dovetailing, as used on "hoppers" when one piece is vertical and the other piece is inclined. fig. 299.--method of dovetailing small boxes. the box is dovetailed in one width and the top and bottom glued on; the sides and ends are then cut along the dotted line, thus forming the lid. it will be noticed that a specially wide dovetail pin must be left so as to form part of the lid and part of the lower portion. [illustration: fig. 298.--oblique dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. 299.--dovetailing for small box.] setting out the joint.--for constructing a dovetail joint at the corner of a frame, as fig. 300, it is necessary at the outset to trim up the ends of the timber square and true. this may be accomplished by neatly sawing to the line and paring the end of the wood with a sharp chisel, or by bringing the wood to a finish with a finely-set plane, such as an iron-faced smoothing plane. the ends of the wood must be perfectly square when tested from either the face side or from the marked edge. [illustration: fig. 300.--corner dovetail.] [illustration: fig. 301.--squaring.] take a cutting gauge and set it to equal the thickness of the timber, and, holding it as already shown at fig. 273, strike the gauge lines on the wood as illustrated at fig. 302, g. proceed to mark out the dovetail pins, as at fig. 303; in this illustration g again shows the gauge line. the inclination of the lines across the end of the wood should not be too great, or the joint will be a weak one, and the edges of the dovetails will be liable to crumble away when the work is knocked together. dovetailing template.--many workers who are constantly engaged upon dovetail joints make a small wooden template, as shown at fig. 304. this template is generally of hardwood, such as beech or walnut. the method of obtaining the correct angles of such a template has already been given on p. 134. notice that the lines _bb_ (fig. 303) of the dovetail pins do _not_ bevel; they are parallel to the sides of the wood and at right angles to the end of the wood as shown. [illustration: fig. 302.--gauging.] [illustration: fig. 303.--marking the pins.] chisel work.--after marking out, as shown at fig. 303, place the wood on the bench and proceed to chop away the centre portion in the following manner. hold the chisel on the bevel and cut out a small piece to form a channel at the gauge line. now hold the chisel in a vertical position, and with a mallet strike it so as to make a cut about 1/8 in. deep. then hold the chisel on the bevel again and cut away more waste wood; proceed alternately, first forcing the chisel down vertically, and then paring the wood away with the chisel held obliquely, until you have cut half-way through the thickness of the wood. [illustration: fig. 304.--hand-made template for marking dovetails.] [illustration: fig. 305.--testing.] [illustration: fig. 306.--the marked piece.] turn the wood over and repeat the various operations until the core, or waste piece, is removed. pare away any little irregularities which may be left in the corners with an 1/8-in. chisel, thus leaving all smooth and neat. lay the piece of wood which is to have the dovetail marked on it flat upon the bench, and take the piece with the dovetail pins cut upon it and place in the position shown at fig. 305. saw work.--take a marking awl, or a knitting needle which has had its end sharpened, and mark the lines of the dovetail in a similar manner to that shown at fig. 307. remove the piece a, fig. 305, and the lower piece shown at fig. 305 will clearly show the marks _aa_ as they appear in fig. 306. place the piece (fig. 306) in the vice, and saw _outside_ the lines aa, as shown in fig. 308. [illustration: fig. 307.--marking dovetails with marking awl.] after sawing down the lines aa, fig. 308, place the wood in the vice and, guiding the saw blade with the index finger of the left hand, cut away the small piece at the side (see fig. 275). repeat the operation as may be necessary, and the completed joint will be similar to that shown at fig. 300. if the sawing is not neatly done it may be found necessary to pare the shoulder with a sharp chisel. drawers.--when dovetailing drawers or boxes it is necessary to square up the ends of all the stock and gauge them, as shown at fig. 273. this illustration shows how to gauge the lines on a drawer side; the dovetailed joint in this case, however, does not run through the drawer front and leave the work unsightly, as the joint at fig. 300 would do. the method used is shown at fig. 309, and it is commonly known as lap-dovetailing. most workers cut the dovetail pins on the drawer fronts and the drawer backs first, after which they mark the drawer sides with the marking awl. the dovetailing of the drawer back is shown at fig. 310. this is the type known as "through dovetailing," the method being similar in regard to tool operations as the single joint shown at fig. 300. [illustration: fig. 308.--sawing the dovetails.] [illustration: fig. 309.--lap-dovetailing drawer front to drawer side.] [illustration: fig. 310.--through dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. 311.--chipping waste of lap dovetail.] when the pins on the drawer front have been sawn, the waste material is cut away, as at fig. 311. first stab down with the vertical chisel, which must make the cut about 1/32 in. in front of the gauge line (see illustration). this commencing of the cut slightly in front of the gauge line is a very important feature. the chisel may be likened to a wedge, and if the chisel edge be placed exactly upon the gauge line and force be applied to the handle, it will force the timber away equally on each side of the gauge line, and the finished depth of the hole will therefore be too deep for the thickness of the drawer side; in other words, it will press itself over the gauge line on both sides. by taking the first vertical cut on the waste side of the gauge line, and then removing a small piece with the chisel held obliquely, as at fig. 311, the wood is removed and less resistance is offered to the chisel when the next vertical cut is made. this overshooting the gauge line is a common fault with the beginner, who is puzzled at the result because he is certain he had his chisel exactly on the gauge line when he commenced his vertical cut. it is especially noticeable in soft-grained woods. to cut away the waste of a lap-dovetail (fig. 311), the vertical and oblique cuts are repeated until the final trimming up is required, and now is the time to finish both the vertical and the horizontal cuts exactly on the gauge lines. some workers prefer to cut the drawer sides first, and if this method is preferred (and it has its advantages for cheap work) several drawer sides are cut at once by placing four or six behind one another in the vice and sawing them all at one operation. the drawer front is placed in the vice, and the drawer side held upon it, whilst the saw blade is placed in the saw kerf and drawn smartly forward. this will give the required marks at the exact position desired. it must be remembered, however, to saw just inside these dovetail-pin lines, otherwise the finished joint will be too slack, owing to the removal of the sawdust, which is practically equal to the thickness of the saw blade. machine-made dovetails.--as a general rule machine-made drawer and box dovetails show both the pins and the tails of exactly the same size. the reason is obvious after an inspection of fig. 314, which shows the position in which the pieces are held during the machining operations. in spite of a certain amount of prejudice they are satisfactory and thoroughly reliable and have their place in modern shop and office fittings. [illustration: fig. 312.--machine-made drawer front and side, apart.] [illustration: fig. 313.--the parts together.] [illustration: fig. 314.--position when machined.] dovetail grooving the dovetail housing joint should first be carefully marked out with a marking knife, so as to cut across the fibres of the wood. for obtaining the bevel on the edge of the wood a joiner's bevel may be used, and the angle should not be too acute. (see previous chapter.) take a chisel and pare away a small channel as at a, fig. 315, to form a small shoulder to guide the saw. [illustration: fig. 315.--paring away channel for dovetail grooving.] with a fine tenon or dovetail saw, cut the saw kerf as at fig. 316. if any difficulty is experienced in cutting the kerf true and square, you may resort to the method shown at c, fig. 315; a small temporary piece of timber has been screwed on the top of the work to form a guide for the saw. [illustration: fig. 316.--cutting the saw kerf.] [illustration: fig. 317.--old woman's tooth plane.] [illustration: fig. 318.--guide block for bevelling.] fig. 315, b, shows the small channel formed by the chisel prior to the sawing operation. the sawing of the bevelled side is worked in a similar manner; but occasionally we find amateurs who adopt the method shown at fig. 318. a block of wood (h) is first made by boring a 1-1/4-in. hole through its entire length, and afterwards making a saw cut at the desired bevel. the object of this block, which is kept specially for the purpose, is to form a guide for those who have not full control of the dovetail saw; the back of the saw clears the hole, and the required bevel is obtained. when a saw cut has been made at each side of the groove, the surplus timber is pared away in the following manner: cut away portion e, fig. 319; then cut away portion f, and lastly cut away the apex portion marked g. continue by this method of paring until the approximate depth is reached. to ensure a correct depth throughout the entire groove, the router plane (or, as it is often called, "the old woman's tooth plane," fig. 317) is used. [illustration: fig. 319.--showing method of paring.] [illustration: fig. 320.--channelling the alternate piece.] with regard to cutting the alternate piece, it is necessary to first plane the end of the shelf true and square. with a cutting gauge strike the line k, fig. 320; the required bevel on the edge (j) is then set out, and with the chisel a small channel is again formed. with the tenon or dovetail saw cut down the line k to the required depth, and carefully pare away the wood with a sharp chisel to the correct shape. the mitred joint although mitreing is used in everyday woodwork, it comes last in our list of regular joints simply because it has been partly dealt with in almost every previous chapter. for example, we have mitre halving in fig. 34, a mitre bridle joint in fig. 74, a tongued and grooved mitre in fig. 116, mitred mortise and tenon joints in figs. 148 and 159, a dowelled mitre frame in fig. 202, and a mitred dovetail in fig. 286. [illustration: fig. 321.--mitred skirting.] [illustration: fig. 322.--curved mitre.] [illustration: fig. 323.--halving the angle.] mitreing.--the term mitreing is generally used to denote the type of joint used at the corner of a picture frame; or where two pieces of wood are bevelled away so as to fit each other, as the skirting or plinth mould at fig. 321. in these cases the timber is cut so that the joint is at 45 degrees to the face, and the two pieces, when placed together, form an angle of 90 degrees (a right angle). the term mitreing, however, is not confined to the fitting of timber around a right angle; it may be justly applied to the fitting of a moulding around an angle irrespective of the number of its degrees. one often hears such terms as "a half mitre," used to denote the fitting of a moulding around an octagonal column or pedestal, and probably it would be more correct to describe the joint as a mitre cut at 22-1/2 degrees. mitreing consists of halving the angle and making each piece to fit the line of bisection. should the angle be bounded by straight lines, as at fig. 321, then the mitred joint will be a straight line, but should the angle be bounded by a curved and a straight line, as at fig. 322, a, or by two curved lines, then the mitred joint will have to be a curved line if the mouldings are to be of the same section. [illustration: fig. 324.--sawing block for mitreing.] finding the angle.--for straight mitres, the mitre joint line is found by bisecting the angle, as shown in the various examples, and the following instructions are given to enable the reader to follow the diagram (fig. 323). take a pair of compasses, or dividers, and with any convenient opening strike out the arc a, b. put the point of the compasses on a, and mark another arc c; then, without altering the distance between the points of the compass, put the point on b, and mark the arc d. draw the line e from the corner, so that it cuts through the intersection made by the arcs c and d. the angle a b is now halved by the line e, and this method may be applied to any angle. sawing block.--for sawing mouldings, etc., to their approximate shape, a home-made sawing block is generally used, as shown at fig. 324. two pieces of wood are glued one on the top of the other, the required angle is transferred thereto, and the saw kerf made. in the sketch the saw kerfs are shown at 45 degrees, right and left, and other angles and kerfs may be made where desired. planing.--after sawing the piece to approximately the correct angle, it is necessary on high-class work to plane the cut end so as to give a perfect finish and enable a glued joint to be made. this may be accomplished by using the plane on the shooting board, as shown at fig. 325, and, if the worker is constantly using mitres of various angles, it is an easy matter to make new angle blocks and fix them on to the board. other workers prefer the screw mitre trap shown at fig. 326. this apparatus takes wide plinth or cornice moulds, and the angle may be altered by fitting temporary packing pieces under the work so as to tilt the moulding to the desired angle. the method of using the plane is indicated in the illustration. another method in everyday use by those workers who are constantly mitreing wide pieces of stock at 45 degrees is the "donkey's ear" shooting board illustrated at fig. 327. the plane is laid on its side on the surface of the board marked a, and used in a similar manner to that shown at fig. 325. [illustration: fig. 325.--use of plane and shooting board for mitreing.] [illustration: fig. 326.--the screw mitre trap.] a simple method and one that should always be remembered because it is handy when working without a shooting board is shown at fig. 328. set the marking or cutting gauge to the thickness of the wood to be mitred at 45 degrees; then gauge this distance on the wood, as shown at b; draw from the line to the edge, as shown, and saw and plane to a finish. the diagonals of a square give 45 degrees, and this is the method used to mark out the work. the end of the wood must, of course, be square with its edges before marking out in this manner. [illustration: fig. 327.--"donkey's ear" shooting board.] [illustration: fig. 328.--gauging for mitres.] [illustration: fig. 329.--narrow inner moulding.] [illustration: fig. 330.--wide mitred moulding.] fig. 329 shows a bevelled framing into which has been mitred a narrow moulding m so as to show a correct margin around the panel. [illustration: fig. 331.--door with curved mitres.] [illustration: fig. 332.--method of setting out for a curved mitre.] fig. 330 shows a similar framing, but with a wide moulding m mitred around it. to obtain a correct intersection of this moulding, the angles a and b are bisected. the bisection of the angles meets before the width of the moulding is cleared, therefore the angle c will again have to be bisected, and the finished joint will appear as shown. one of the simplest of mouldings with a large flat face has been chosen to illustrate this. the moulding could be all in one width, as shown, or it could be built into the framing in separate pieces, the wide flat and the piece carrying the mould. curved mitres.--we now come to what are probably the most difficult of all mitres, viz., curved mitres, and the writer well remembers in his apprenticeship days his first experience of attempting to fit the mouldings around the door shown at fig. 331 by using straight mitres at a. this, of course, is impossible if the mouldings are of the same section and it is desired to make all the members correctly intersect. if straight mitres are used the section of the curved moulding will have to be of a different shape from the section of the straight moulding, and in these days of machine-made mouldings this method is seldom resorted to. it is better, cheaper, and easier to make curved mitres when the necessary machinery is at hand. to set out a curved mitre (see fig. 332).--draw a section of the moulding full size, a, as shown at the left hand of the illustration, and project lines round the framing, as shown v, w, x, y and z. where the lines v, w, x, y and z intersect at the corner d, it clearly shows that a straight mitre will not cut all the points of intersection. a curved line will cut all the intersections, and a template made of cardboard, sheet zinc, or veneer, should be made to this shape. at the left-hand side the geometrical setting out is shown for obtaining the curve without having to resort to drawing it freehand. take half the width of the moulding, as shown by dotted line a, and where it cuts the approximation of the curved mitre place the point of the compasses and strike out a circle as shown; with the same radius place the compass point on b--that is, the inside point of the mitre, and cut the circle on the right and left with the small arcs shown at _aa_. with the same radius put the compass point at the junction of the circle and mitre line, c v, and cut the circle at right and left, viz., _ee_. [illustration: fig. 333.--template for mitreing.] now rule a line through _aa_, and another line through _ee_, and where these lines cut each other it will give the correct radius of the curved mitre. the advantage of knowing the correct radius of a curved mitre is of great benefit to the skilled machinist, as it enables him to set up his machine so as to give a definite result. mitreing a moulded door frame.--fig. 333 illustrates the method of mitreing the moulded portion of a door frame where the joint is dowelled, not tenoned. a small wooden template is made out of beech or other hardwood, having its ends cut at 45 degrees. this template is placed on the rail, as shown, and held in position by placing both the rail and the template in the vice. the face of the template forms a guide for a wide chisel, and enables the worker to gradually pare away the moulding to the correct angle. [illustration: fig. 334.--using panel saw in mitre box.] for sawing the mitres on large mouldings such as are used on the lid of a gramophone or wireless cabinet, a mitre sawing box and a panel saw may be used as indicated at fig. 334. joints for curved work fig. 335 shows a circular frame made up in two thicknesses, the segments being screwed to each other and the joints crossed in two layers. this is a very strong method, and it is used for making circular frames and curbs up to 15 ft. in diameter. the segments can be either long or short, the only important condition being that they must be marked out and sawn to the correct radius. fig. 337 shows a board marked out in segments for this class of work. the longer the boards the better will they cut up, as it gives more opportunities of cutting one piece out of the other as at a a. [illustration: fig. 335.--circular frame in two thicknesses.] [illustration: fig. 336.--circular rim in halved segments.] fig. 338 shows how to begin to put the work together. to continue this, fit other segments in position and screw them to d and e respectively. the completed work is illustrated at fig. 335. [illustration: fig. 337.--board marked for circular jointing.] [illustration: fig. 338.--putting circular work together.] [illustration: fig. 339., fig. 340. method of building up semicircular head of door frame.] fig. 336 shows a circular rim, or curb, made of segments which are halved together. this method is suitable for heavy work, where the timbers are of considerable size. the halvings are cut on the ends of the segments to any convenient shape or bevel, each one being marked so as to fit its fellow. [illustration: fig. 341.--part of laminated table frame.] [illustration: fig. 342.--half of laminated core box.] when extra length is required, semicircular or circular work is built up out of four or five thicknesses of wood, and the method is called laminating. the method of building up the semicircular head of a door frame by this method is shown at figs. 339 and 340. the shaped framing for kidney-shaped writing tables and similar classes of work is built up by laminating pieces of 3/4-in. or 1-in. wood, after which the face side is veneered so as to hide the glued joints. fig. 341 shows a sketch of one quarter of an elliptical table frame levelled up and ready for applying the veneer. lamination.--if we apply to the dictionary for the word "lamination," we find that lamellar structure is the arrangements in thin plates or layers one over the other, usually having the end joints alternating, and it is a condition which allows of cleavage in one direction only. this method is used for nearly all descriptions of free or irregular curves, such as sweeps, bends, ogee shapes, and segments of circles. the timber is marked out in suitable lengths, rough-sawn and then planed true on the face, glued together, and when set the sides are cleaned up to the required shape. it is one of the strongest methods of construction, and necessarily costly. pulleys, pulley rims, and a hundred and one other jobs are built by this method. fig. 342 shows one half of a core box built by this method, ready to be worked to the required shape. miscellaneous joints weather boards.--for outdoor buildings, such as garages, garden sheds, toolhouses, etc., "weatherboarding" is often preferred to ordinary matchboarding, chiefly because of the facility with which it throws off the rain. the boarding can be bought ready prepared. three methods of jointing are shown in the sections at fig. 343. the method indicated at a shows one of the most satisfactory types, its boards being planed and moulded as shown. the other two examples are more common. the boarding at b is rebated, whilst at c each board overhangs its lower neighbour. the boards for c and d are always cut tapered as indicated. [illustration: fig. 343.--weather boards.] [illustration: fig. 344.--ladder rungs.] the end grain is usually protected by nailing on a strip of timber, chamfered on both edges. ladders.--fig. 344 illustrates the method of fastening the rung (or stave) of a ladder to the side. at a the common method is shown, the stave being simply driven into the hole and wedged. at b a much better but more expensive method of construction is given. the stave here is socketed and the pin turned to a smaller diameter. in both cases the rung, or stave, is painted before being driven into the side and wedged. [illustration: fig. 345.--cornice pole joint.] [illustration: fig. 346.--veneer keying.] ladder sides are made in two distinct ways. one method is known as "a plank side," the side being cut from a plank as shown at the section d; the other method is called "a pole side," and is constructed by cutting a straight larch pole in half and using half of the pole for each side of the ladder, as at section c. hinged cornice poles.--fig. 345 shows a hinged joint for cornice poles and should be of interest to those who are frequently removing from house to house. the joint will adapt itself to fit any bay window (even a square bay) and it is formed by turning and cutting the two pieces shown. to fix a cornice pole to a bay window one of these joints is required for each angle of the bay, the pole being cut into suitable lengths and fixed to the hinged joints by the use of the dowel screw and a little hot glue. it is perhaps needless to remark that the diameter of the joint should be of the same diameter as the cornice pole, to enable the rings to easily slide over the surface. for fastening a turned ornament (or "finial") to the end of a cornice pole a double pointed screw (known in the trade as a "dowel screw") is used, one half of which is screwed into each part of the pieces to be joined. veneer keying.--fig. 346 illustrates the method of strengthening the corners of boxes which are made of 1/4-in. or 3/8-in. timber, by securing the corners with veneer keys. the box is mitred and glued in the usual manner, and after allowing sufficient time for the glue to set, saw kerfs are made as shown at _a a_. a piece of thin saw-cut veneer is afterwards glued into the saw kerfs, and when dry the face is levelled off flush. this method is often used previous to veneering the face side of the box with rare veneers, and it is also useful for repair work. note that the saw cuts are made at an angle. small picture frames are sometimes keyed instead of nailed. muntin and skirting joint.--in the case of panelled rooms it is usually necessary to scribe the muntins (or uprights) to the skirting. the method is shown in fig. 347. the bead moulding of the skirting is only partly removed, as indicated, leaving a solid portion to which the muntin is skew-nailed. cot joint.--at fig. 348 is shown an interesting joint used largely in the making of indian cots. the illustrations indicate how the cross bar and end bar are mortised into the leg. a turned hardwood peg fits into a suitably provided hole and locks the tenons, which are dry jointed (not glued) in position. the head of this peg forms an ornament (a) at the top of the leg and should fit tightly in position. at b are seen the end and cross bars in their relative positions when apart from the leg. c shows the end bar and cross bar when the cot is fixed, but in this illustration the leg is purposely left out of the drawing for a clear representation. d shows the joints of the leg portion when the part of the leg above the line at a is sawn off. the hardwood peg is shown at e. [illustration: fig. 347.--fixing muntin to skirting.] [illustration: fig. 348.--joint for home-made cot.] sideboard pillars, etc. (fig. 349).--for economy, sideboard pillars are sometimes built up as indicated, the "shaft," the "base," and the "swell" being made up of three distinct pieces. turned pins are left on the shaft and the base, and these are secured at the joint by the use of a double-pointed screw called a dowel screw. this does away with the necessity of reducing the squares at the top of the wood and thus getting the turning out of a large piece of wood. notched joints.--fig. 350 is a "notched joint," where two joists, or scantlings, cross each other, the object of the joint being to prevent the joists moving from their position without materially weakening them. for an end notch, see fig. 352. [illustration: fig. 349.--method of building up turnings.] [illustration: fig. 350.--notched joint.] [illustration: fig. 351.--the saddle joint.] the "saddle joint" (fig. 351) is used for connecting upright posts to heads or sills of framing, and undoubtedly takes its name from its similarity to the way in which the saddle fits the horse. it does not weaken the framing as does a mortise and tenon joint, and shrinkage has little effect upon the joint. the "cogged joint," used for connecting purlins to rafter and joists to girders, is illustrated in fig. 353. [illustration: fig. 352.--end notch.] [illustration: fig. 353.--cogged joint.] [illustration: fig. 354.--birdsmouth joint.] [illustration: fig. 355.--another type of birdsmouth joint.] birdsmouth joints.--fig. 354 is a "birdsmouth joint," a simple joint which can be readily made by the handsaw, used when a spar fits on the wall plate. a nail is shown securing it in position. fig. 355 shows the birdsmouth joint where the spar runs over the _outside_ of the wall plate, thus allowing a fixing for an ornamental finish. [illustration: fig. 356.--rafter and tie beam joint.] rafter joint.--fig. 356 shows an everyday joint, as used at the juncture of the principal rafter and the tie-beam in roof truss work. a sketch of piece a is shown separated, and it should be noted that the depth of the cut portion b should not be more than one-fourth of the total width of the tie-beam. [illustration: fig. 357.--method of pelleting the corner of a mitred picture frame.] pelleting.--fig. 357 indicates the method of pelleting and screwing the corner of a picture frame. the mitre joint is first screwed and a pellet of the same timber is made to fill the hole which has been bored to receive the screw head. the pellet is glued in position and levelled off. [illustration: fig. 358.--patera covers to hide screws.] patera covers.--in cases where the style of ornament permits of it, patera covers are used instead of pelleting. fig. 358 shows the jointing of shaped spandrails, etc., to carcase ends of light portable cabinet work, etc. a hole is bored about 3/8 in. deep into the end, and a screw is used to hold the shaping in position. after fixing the rail a small turned button, called a turned patera, is inserted in the hole, thus giving an ornamental finish, as shown in the front view. the turned patera is driven fairly tightly into the hole, but not glued. when it is required to take the article apart a chisel is carefully inserted under the edge of the patera to remove it, and the screw can then be taken out. this method is often used for the construction of light hanging bookcases and similar objects. for a bookcase having an end 8 ins. wide three of these turned buttons and three screws would be used to secure the shelf to the end. pateras in different styles may be purchased from any dealer in woodworking sundries. buttoning.--the tops of tables, sideboards, etc., should not be fixed with screws in the ordinary way. at the front, screws can be driven upwards through the top rail, but at the sides and back, buttons should be employed, as in fig. 359, so that the top is free to shrink. it is otherwise liable to split if immovably fixed. the tops of kitchen tables are usually fixed in this way, to allow for shrinkage. [illustration: fig. 359.--method of buttoning a table top.] frames for oil paintings.--the method of making joints for frames on which the canvas is stretched for oil paintings is shown at fig. 360. they are generally mitred at the corners and fitted with loose wedges. the four parts of the frame can be held temporarily by a piece of thin board while the canvas is being tacked to the edges of the frame. in the accompanying illustrations fig. 360 shows the action of the wedges when tightening up the frame, the result being to open the mitre joint. fig. 361 shows the position of the saw cuts for receiving the hardwood wedges. note that the parallel groove is carried the full length of the material for greater convenience in cutting. the other groove is taken from the outer angle of the mitre joint inwards. the cut finishes with due regard to the necessary taper; see the dotted lines showing taper in fig. 360. the grooves will be wide enough after being cut with an ordinary hand-rip saw, but for large work they are usually grooved on the circular saw bench. [illustration: fig. 360., fig. 361. joint and method of wedging the frames of oil paintings.] corrugated steel fasteners.--it is now many years ago since the steel saw-edge fastener first appeared on the market, but probably 80 per cent. of amateur woodworkers have never yet sampled its advantages. in appearance it resembles a miniature corrugated galvanised sheet such as is used for roofing purposes, with the exception, however, that the corrugations are divergent instead of being parallel and that one end is ground down to a cutting edge (see fig. 363, a). they are made in various sizes from 1/4 in. to 1 in. in length, whilst in regard to width they are classed by the number of corrugations and not by their measurement. [illustration: fig. 362.--jointing boards.] [illustration: fig. 363.--jointing a frame.] [illustration: the use of saw-edge corrugated steel fasteners.] to use the fastener no special tools are required; it is simply driven in with a hammer exactly as though it were a nail; once in position, however, to get it out is worse than drawing teeth. the corrugations add to the strength of the device, the wood fibres closing around them, age and rust but emphasising their grip. wall plugs.--at fig. 364 four types of wall plugs are shown: _a_, the ordinary rectangular tapered wall plug to drive between the joints of the brickwork; _b_, the circular tapered wall plug as used to plug a wall after a star-shaped brick drill has been used; _d_, a twisted wall plug used for similar purposes to the wedge _a_, but considered to be superior in holding power owing to its twisted formation; _c_ is another type of wall plug considered to have great tenacity by reason of its corrugations. wall plugs are required in nearly all cases where it is necessary to joint woodwork to brickwork, as, for instance, heavily-framed silvered mirrors to the walls of shops. [illustration: fig. 364.--wall plugs, four varieties.] [illustration: fig. 365.--slot screwing.] [illustration: fig. 366.--slot screwing a bracket.] slot screwing, or keyhole screwing, is a most useful way of joining light woodwork in such a manner that the fixing method is not exposed to the eye. a stout screw is inserted to within 3/8 in. of the head, as at fig. 365. in the adjoining piece a hole is bored with a centre bit and a slot is cut with an 1/8-in. chisel. the two pieces of timber are placed together, and by sliding the upper piece forward the screw runs up into the slot or keyhole and secures the joint. fig. 366 shows the application of the joint fixing a shaped bracket to the shaped shelf; the bracket and shelf are inverted in the illustration to clearly show the method of jointing. for heavy work special brass plates are obtainable for this purpose; one plate is let flush into the upper piece and the other plate into the lower piece. battening (fig. 367).--a good method of joining cross battens to drawing boards and other wide surfaces is shown here. after boring for the screws, slots are cut so as to allow the screws to move along the slots when shrinkage takes place. in fig. 368 a similar method is applied to secure the drawer bottom to the drawer back. if shrinkage takes place in the drawer bottom and it leaves the groove in the drawer front, the screws are slackened, the drawer bottom is knocked up into the groove, and the screws again inserted. for drawing boards, etc., specially made elliptical-shaped slotted brass socket cups are made to receive the screw heads. [illustration: fig. 367.--battening.] [illustration: fig. 368.--drawer bottom joint.] puzzle joints puzzle joints are not only interesting in themselves, but are often excellent studies in craftsmanship. the majority of them, if to be satisfactory as puzzles, call for very careful setting out and cutting, entailing the same degree of skill that is demanded for high-class cabinet work. for this reason several examples may well find a place in a volume dealing with woodwork joints. as a rule, these puzzles should be made in hardwood, such as dark walnut or beech, as in whitewood the joints are soon liable to wear. [illustration: fig. 369.--sketch of the completed chinese puzzle.] chinese puzzle.--the ingenious puzzle of the chinese type shown in fig. 369 is probably older than many of us could guess, but as it is one that can be made by any woodworker we give full directions as to how it may be constructed. the complete article may be called, in form, a six-pointed pyramid. it is made up of twenty-one different pieces, each cut from wood 1/2 in. wide and 1/2 in. thick; 3/8 in. wood may be used if preferred. for the purpose either sycamore or white maple is the most useful. [illustration: fig. 370., fig. 371., fig. 372. the three cross pieces.] [illustration: fig. 373.--key piece.] the pieces required are as follows:-fig. 370.--six pieces, 3-1/2 ins. long, with a half slot cut in the centre as shown. this slot must be exactly the width of the wood's thickness, and cut exactly half way through, so that, if two pieces are placed across by means of the halved joint, their surfaces will be flush. the slot must also be exactly in the centre. fig. 371.--six pieces, size 2-1/2 ins. long, with a half-cut centre slot similar to that of fig. 370. fig. 372.--six required, these being 1-1/2 ins. in length, and with slots in the middle as before. fig. 373.--one of these last six requires special treatment, as it forms the key block of the puzzle. after its slot has been cut, one half of the narrow part must be sawn away, as shown in fig. 373. the inner edge must also be gently rounded. the special use of this vital piece, which we will call the "key," will be fully explained presently. fig. 374.--then, in addition to these, there are three central bars to make. like the other parts they are 1/2 in. by 1/2 in., but are each 4-1/2 ins. long, and are cut as shown in fig. 374. the end projections _a_ are 1/2 in. long, and the cut-away part is exactly half the depth of the wood. two of the three pieces (x and y in fig. 374) are similar, but the slot _b_ of the third one (z) is only 1/4 in. wide instead of 1/2 in. as will be noticed, this 1/4-in. slot is _not_ in the centre, but corresponds with the right-hand half of the larger slots of x and y. [illustration: fig. 374.--the central bars.] in making these twenty-one pieces, what should be borne in mind is that the different parts fit closely into each other. consequently the slots, in width, must be cut so as to grip the thickness of the wood; in depth they must be exactly half this thickness. fitting the puzzle.--the three central bars must first be joined, as those form the skeleton framework of the structure. fig. 375 shows them in position, but as it is a puzzle in itself as to how they can be got thus some explanation is necessary. [illustration: fig. 375.--the three central bars in position.] [illustration: fig. 376.--how to adjust the bars. (note position of projecting ends, _a_.)] first stage.--first take the bars x and y (see fig. 374) and arrange them as shown in fig. 376. it is most important that the projections _a_ of x face upwards, and that the projections _a_ of y face towards the centre. then take the bar z and bring it flat into the slot of x. the little slot of z, however, must remain _above_ the slot of x. then slide the bar y along to the centre, so that the part lettered _c_ slips into the little slot of bar z. this may seem confusing to read, but it is easy to follow when the pieces are in one's hand. the result of this rather clever arrangement is that the six arms of fig. 375 are all exactly the same length, width, and thickness. they are also arranged so that in each arm may be clasped one piece each of figs. 370, 371, and 372. the three central arms may, of course, be set up in a different order, and here we have merely chosen the way that is the most simple to describe and illustrate. [illustration: fig. 377.--beginning to place on the cross pieces.] [illustration: fig. 378.--placing the key piece to overlap end projection of central bar.] second stage.--in the remaining part of the work the chief difficulty is to keep the puzzle from falling to pieces before the key finally locks it. take the longer cross parts, fig. 370, and clasp one to each arm. the six need not all be put on meanwhile, but only those which are most easily handled. the next size (fig. 371) may then be put on. in the ordinary course each arm could be completed with its three cross pieces till the sixth was attempted, and here the reader would find that, at the last moment, his attempt was frustrated. he could not get the last small piece in, as other bars lock the puzzle. here it is that the "key" comes in. the key piece.--when the writer fits up the puzzle he finds that three of the arms may straight away be fitted complete with their three cross parts. these are the ones where the longer cross piece (fig. 370) _lies flush with the back of the central bar_ (see fig. 377). this is easily found out when at work on the puzzle. in the case of the other three arms there is, of course, a gap caused by the long slots of the central bars. adjust the parts on the first-named three arms, and then deal with the fourth arm, putting in all three cross parts. for the little one here, use the "key." by placing the "key" so that it _overlaps the end projection_ of the arm (see fig. 378) a space is left at the centre, and means is thus afforded for getting in the three cross parts on the remaining two arms. this practically ends the puzzle. while the "key" is in its overlapping position the parts may be separated, but if it is _turned round on its narrow neck_, so that it is in exactly the same position as the other five small cross parts, it locks the whole thing so tightly that nothing but sheer force could loosen the twenty-one pieces. so far as the order of putting together is concerned, there are many equally satisfactory ways, these being determined by the ease or difficulty that one experiences in holding the half-finished puzzle. it all comes to the same in the end, and the "key" must be placed on one bar before the last three arms can be completed. the "key," moreover, must be on one of the bars where a gap is left at the centre, and not on one where fig. 370 lies flush against the central arm as in fig. 377. undoing the puzzle.--to take the puzzle to pieces all that is required is to turn the "key" half round and push the other two cross bars on that arm towards the outer point. the cross bars below may then be removed, and the whole structure falls to pieces. the double dovetail puzzle (fig. 379) consists of two pieces of wood (usually one dark and the other light) which, upon examination, appear to be dovetailed together from each face. this interlocking arrangement is obviously impossible, and the solution of the puzzle is only apparent on examining fig. 380, where it will be seen that the joint fits together diagonally. at fig. 381 are given the diagrams for setting out. draw the outline of the elevation, plan and end view. the end view in the first instance is indicated by 3, 4, 5 and 6, and it measures 1-7/8 ins. square. a 1-7/8-ins. square is simply used because 2-ins. wood generally finishes this size after it is planed up. set out a square (a, b, c, d) which stands corner-ways in the larger square (3, 4, 5, 6). project the lines d a and c b upwards as at 1, and on to this drawing (1), set out the dovetail according to your own idea of length, width and bevel. project the four points of your dovetail downwards into the end view, and where these lines cut a, b, and d, c draw them downwards and rebate them into your original plan. this will give the true shape of the two dovetails and it is to this shape that you will cut your joint. the joint is in due course glued up, and next day you will plane and waste off the four corners of your model. the end view shows one corner shaded d, 3, a; this and the other three corners are wasted away. the result is that the dovetails are thrown into a plane different from that in which they were made, showing as fig. 379. [illustration: fig. 379.--double dovetail puzzle.] [illustration: fig. 380.--the two parts separated.] [illustration: fig. 381.--elevation, plan and end view, showing how the puzzle joint may be correctly set out.] [illustration: fig. 382.--dovetail puzzle. the finished joint.] [illustration: fig. 383.--sketch of dovetail piece.] (note that dovetail is cut on slant, the thickness at front being less than at back. see dotted line on plan below.) [illustration: fig. 384.--plan, looking upwards.] [illustration: fig. 385a.--front elevation.] [illustration: fig. 385b.--back elevation.] the model calls for very accurate workmanship and the joints must not be _undercut_ during the sawing and chiselling operations. the completed model measures 6 to 7 ins. the dovetail puzzle joint illustrated at fig. 382 has perhaps caused more argument and controversy amongst woodworkers than any wooden joint. it may be neatly made in maple, walnut, or mahogany, and afterwards glued up. the question everyone asks is: how was it put together? [illustration: fig. 386.--variation of the dovetail puzzle.] take two pieces of wood such as mahogany, walnut or birch, about 6 ins. long by 1-7/8 ins. wide and 1-1/4 ins. thick. truly plane them up and then set out and make the tenon and dovetailed piece (fig. 383). next mark out and cut the cross bar to fit its corresponding piece. the joint will go together in a somewhat diagonal direction as it is pushed into position from the back; when closed it will appear as at fig. 382. for guidance, a plan, part elevation and back elevation are added. an improvement after you have gained experience in the making of this joint is to make a similar joint, leaving the face (b, fig. 386) blind; it then does not show the bevelling of the dovetail at the end c. in other words, keep the line c, say, 1/4 in. back from the face of b. the joint should be glued up and it will then appear to the average worker that it is an impossible proposition. (see fig. 401, page 208.) [illustration: fig. 387.--a simple variation of the dovetail puzzle.] carefully note that the edges a, a are parallel to each other in spite of the fact that they slope in one direction. a further variation of the puzzle is seen in fig. 387. here the joint is much simpler, and can easily be followed from the illustration. [illustration: fig. 388.--six-piece joint puzzle.] cross puzzle.--fig. 388 illustrates a six-piece puzzle joint, similar in some respects to fig. 369, but very much simpler. both a back and front view of the piece d is shown for clearness of illustration. the method of assembling the pieces is as follows: hold piece b upright, and fit piece d across; at the same time note that the small _x_ marks are opposite each other. take piece e and, holding it as shown, slide it up the piece b (see arrow) until e engages d and the small _o_ marks are opposite each other. piece c is now fitted behind d, and then piece f will slide in position and push downwards. the key-piece a is now put in position, and the puzzle is completed. [illustration: fig. 389.--mortising puzzle, showing how the parts fit.] mortising puzzle.--the ordinary mortising exercise is, after the first two or three attempts, generally voted as uninteresting, but, although the simple puzzle shown in fig. 389 is practically an exercise in mortising, yet, forming as it does a puzzle, it becomes a fascinating piece of work. the puzzle is composed of three pieces of wood, each 4 ins. long, 1-1/2 ins. wide, and 1/2 in. thick. in each piece a mortise 1-1/2 ins. by 1/2 in. should be cut as shown at 1, fig. 390. in one piece, marked 2, a groove is cut on one side, 3/8 in. wide, and in another piece (3) a similar slot, but 1/2 in. wide, is cut, and this is continued on the other side of the groove to a depth of 1/8 in. the three pieces should be set out on a 13-ins. by 1-1/2-ins. by 1/2-in. length of wood, as shown at fig. 391, and when ready sawn apart. [illustration: fig. 390.--the three parts, with sizes marked.] [illustration: fig. 391.--how to cut the parts.] the puzzle is put together as shown at fig. 389. in the first place, hold no. 1 piece upright as shown at a, then take no. 2 piece with slot uppermost and push it through the opening in no. 1 piece until the nearest side of the slot projects 1/8 in. as indicated at b. next place no. 3 piece on with the slot at the back as shown at c, and push it down until it touches the bottom of the opening in no. 2 piece as illustrated at d. the only thing to do now is to push no. 2 piece as far as it will go to make the figure as shown at e. in this puzzle the parts should fit together fairly tight, but should not be too stiff. [illustration: fig. 392.--chinese cross puzzle.] [illustration: fig. 393.--method of putting together.] [illustration: fig. 394.--the six pieces, each 4 ins. by 1 in. square.] chinese cross.--fig. 392 shows a variation of the chinese cross, which is perhaps the most fascinating of all woodwork puzzles. take six pieces of hardwood (fig. 394) and accurately plane and saw them so that each piece will measure 4 ins. by 1 in. by 1 in. bearing in mind that all the cuts are multiples of 1/2 in., set out, saw and chisel five of the pieces to agree with the sketches 1, 1a, 2, 2a and 3. leave the key piece intact. the puzzle is of course to fit all the six pieces together so as to form the chinese cross or block given at fig. 392. as a clue to the method of assembly we give another sketch (fig. 393) showing four of the pieces fixed together. the reader can, if he so desires, make the puzzle to a smaller scale by using six pieces of wood each measuring 2 ins. long by 1/2 in. by 1/2 in. [illustration: fig. 395--diagonal chinese cross puzzle. (two pieces required of a, three of b and one of c.)] diagonal chinese cross.--at fig. 395 is given a sketch of a completed chinese block or cross puzzle in which the various pieces of wood go together diagonally. plane up a piece of hardwood (which may be about 14 ins. or 15 ins. long) so that it measures on its end 1/2 in. square. cut the wood into six pieces which measure about 2-1/4 ins. long, and then proceed to mark out, saw and pare up with the chisel two pieces like sketch a, three pieces like b, and one key piece as c. now fit these together to make the completed cross. the solution is left to the reader. fig. 396 shows a combination of six pieces which, when fitted together, will make the chinese cross similar to fig. 392. plane up the strip of hardwood (birch preferred) so that it measures 1/2 in. square at the end and proceed to mark out and make two pieces like d, two like e, one like f, and one piece like g. put the pieces together to form the chinese cross. again the reader is left to solve the problem of fitting. [illustration: fig. 396.--another chinese cross. (two pieces required of d, two of e, and one each of f and g.)] square puzzles are of endless variety. four of these are shown, all simple to make, but not equally simple to solve. the only material required for each is a 5-ins. square piece of 1/8-in. fretwood or plywood; or, if preferred, pieces of different colour may be used. the diagrams are given exactly half size, and the lines may be set out direct on the wood. it will be noticed that all four puzzles are strictly geometrical in character. [illustration: fig. 397.--six-piece square puzzle. (for guidance in setting out, the centre of top line is marked at a.)] [illustration: fig. 398.--five-piece square puzzle. (in setting out, note that the angles b b are right angles.)] [illustration: fig. 399.--ten-piece square puzzle. (for guidance in setting out, the centre of the four outlines are lettered at c, c, c, c.)] [illustration: fig. 400.--six-piece square puzzle. (the centres of the four outlines are lettered at d, d, d, d.)] fig. 397 is made up of six pieces and is the simplest of the group to solve. although containing only five pieces, fig. 398 will be found to give more trouble. fig. 399, with ten pieces, is undoubtedly the most trying puzzle, and will be found as baffling as many jig-saw pictures. fig. 400, again, presents only moderate difficulties. if the reader prefers, he may cut the squares to the size illustrated instead of enlarging them. [illustration: fig. 401.--blind dovetail puzzle joint (see page 199).] index angle, mitre, 163, 164 angles for dovetails, 134 astragals, 128, 129 back flap hinges, 115, 116 barefaced (_see under_ tenon). barred door joint, 55 barrow-wheel joints, 20 battening, 188 bevelled dovetailing, 149 bevelling, guide block for, 161 birdsmouth joints, 181 blind lap-dovetailing, 145 boards, weather, 176 bolts for scarf joint, 107, 108 boring away waste, 41, 42 box, laminated core, 175 box lid, hingeing, 113 boxes, dovetails for, 133 brace and bit, use of, 41, 42 brass astragal, 129 bridle joint, mitred, 36, 37 bridle joint, oblique, 37, 38 bridle joints, 35 bridle joints, setting out, 39 butt hinge, 110, 111 butt hinge, rising, 115, 116 butting mitred joint, 8 buttoning, 184 carcase work, dovetailing, 149 card table hinges, 115, 116 chair joint, interlocking, 91 chinese cross puzzle, 203 chinese cross puzzle, diagonal, 204 chinese puzzle, 189, 190 chisel used in dovetailing, 137, 138, 153 chiselling (bridle joints), 45 chiselling (halved joints), 30, etc. chiselling (mortise and tenon joints), 89, etc. circular frames, 172 clamping, 80, 82 close joint hingeing, 125 cogged joints, 181 column joints, 179 combing joint, 55 core box, laminated, 175 corner dovetail, 152 corner joints, halved, 14 corner tongued joints, 55, 56 cornice frame dovetailed, 143, 144 cornice pole, dowelling, 97, 98 cornice pole joints, 177 corrugated steel fasteners, 185 cot joints, 178 countersink bit, 96 cradle for planing, 52 cradle for planing dowels, 94 cramping glued joints, 11, 12 cramping tongued and grooved mitre joint, 56, 57 cross halving joints, 18, 23 cross puzzle, 200 cross puzzle, chinese, 203 cross puzzle, diagonal, 204 cross tongues, 51, 52 curved work, joints for, 172 diagonal cross puzzle, 204 dogs, iron, 10, 11 donkey's ear shooting board, 327 door frames, semicircular head, 173, 175 door joints, barred, 55 doors, "bound," 109 doors, hingeing, 116-119 doors, shutting joints of, 127, 129 dovetail angle template, 134, 154 dovetail, corner, 152 dovetail grooving, 160 dovetail halved joints, 17, 19, 20 dovetail, housed and mitred, 145 dovetail joint, the 132 dovetail puzzles, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199 dovetail, secret mitred, 146 dovetail-wedged tenon joint, 75 dovetailed keys, 147, 148 dovetailed scarf joint, 103, 104 dovetailing, bevelled, 149 dovetailing, blind lap, 145 dovetailing, lap, 133 dovetailing, oblique, 151 dovetailing, through, 132 dovetails, frame, 143 dovetails, machine made, 159 dovetails, sawing, 141, 155 dovetails, setting out, 151 dowel cradle for planing, 94 dowel plate, steel, 93 dowel rounder, 96 dowel with groove, 94, 95 dowelling frames, 100 dowelling joints, 93 dowelling table legs, 101 dowels, making, 93 drawbore pinning, 78 drawer bottom joint, 188 drawer joints, dust-proof, 131 drawer ploughslips, 10, 11 drawers, dovetailing, 133, etc., 156 dreadnought file, 81, 82 drop table joint, 20 dust-proof drawer joints, 131 fall fronts, hingeing, 119 fasteners, corrugated steel, 185 feather tongues, 51, 52 fencing, joint for, 71 file, dreadnought, 81, 82 finger joint hinge, 122, 123 fished joint, 105, 106 flap (back) hinges, 115, 116 floor boards, 48 fly rails, 120, 121 fox-wedging, 76 frame dovetails, 143 frame joints, oxford, 26, 27 frame, mirror, with bridle joints, 37 frames, circular, 172 frames, dowelling, 100 frames for oil paintings, 184 gate joint, 68, 69 gauge, marking, 28, 29, 40 gauge, marking dovetails with cutting, 135 gauging boards for dowelling, 97, 98 gauging for hinges, 110, 111 glued joint, the, 1 glueing dowelled joints, 97 glueing rubbed joints, 2 grooved joints (_see_ tongued and grooved), 48 grooves, ploughing, 58 grooving, dovetail, 160 halved and dovetailed joints, 17, 19, 20 halved and mitred joints, 16 halved joint, the, 13 halved joints, setting out, 28 halved scarf joint, 103, 104 halving joints, cross, 18, 23 hammer head tenons, 80 handscrews, 11, 12 haunched tenons, 65 hinge, butt, 110, 111 hinge, finger joint, 122, 123 hinge, knuckle joint, 122, 123 hinge recesses, 112 hinge, rule joint, 125 hinged cornice pole, 177 hinged joints, 109 hingeing box lid, 113 hingeing, close joint, 125 hingeing doors, 116-119 hingeing draught screens, 121 hingeing fall fronts, 119 hingeing, open joint, 124 hinges, gauging for, 110, 111 hinges, various, 110, 114, 115, 116 hook joints, 130 housed and mitred dovetail, 145 interlocking chair joint, 91 iron dogs, 10, 11 japanese self-wedging tenon joint, 72 joint, drawer bottom, 188 joint, fished, 105, 106 joint, interlocking chair, 91 joint, tabled scarf, 107 joint, tie beam scarf, 106 joints, barefaced tenon, 64 barred door, 55 barrow wheel, 20 battened, 188 birdsmouth, 181 bridle, 35 butting mitred, 8 cogged, 181 column and pillar, 179 combing or locking, 55 cornice pole, 177 cot, 178 cross halving, 18, 23 dovetail, 132 dovetailed and wedged tenon, 75 dowelling, 93 dust-proof drawer, 131 fencing, 71 for curved work, 172 garden gate, 68, 69 glued, 1 halved, 13 halved and dovetailed, 17, 19, 20 haunched tenon, 65 hinged, 109 hook, 130 ladder, 177 laminated, 10, 11, 172, 175 lap, 13 light-tight, 131 meeting, 129 miscellaneous, 176 mitre-faced tenon, 77 mitre bridle, 36, 37 mitre halved, 16 mitred, 163 mitred and tenoned, 72, 73 mitred and tongued, 56, 57 mortise and tenon, 64 notched, 180 oblique bridle, 37, 38 oblique halved, 15, 23 ogee-shaped, 8 open slot mortise, 80 partition, 24, 25 ploughing for tongued and grooved, 58 puzzle, 189 rafter and tie beam, 182 rafter (tenon), 77 rebated door, 129 roof, 34, 37, 38 roof (tenon), 77 rubbed, 1 saddle, 180 sash bar, 79 scarf, 103 screen, 114, 121 scribed and tenoned, 72 setting out bridle, 39 setting out halved, 28 setting out tenon, 83 shouldered tenon, 70, 71, 79 shutting, 127 skirting and muntin, 178 t, 14, 18 tie, 22, 23 tongued and grooved, 48 tongued corner, 55, 56 trestle, 24 tusk tenon, 74, 75 weather board, 176 wheelwright's self-wedging tenon, 75 keyhole screwing, 187 keying, dovetail, 147 keying, veneer, 178 keys, dovetailed, 147 knuckle joint hinge, 122, 123 ladder joints, 177 laminated joints, 10, 11 lamination, 175 lap dovetailing, 133 lap dovetailing, blind, 145 lap joints, 13 laths, winding, 3 lid, hingeing box, 113 light-tight joints, 131 locking (inter) chair joint, 91 locking joint, 55 marking gauge, 28, 29, 40 matchboarding, 49 meeting joints, 129 mirror frame with bridle joints, 37 mitre box, saw used in, 171 mitre bridle joint, 36, 37 mitre, curved, 163, 164, 168, 169 mitre faced tenon joint, 77 mitre halved joints, 16 mitre sawing block, 165 mitre, setting out a curved, 168, 169 mitre template, 170 mitre trap, screw, 165, 166 mitred and housed dovetail, 145 mitred and tenoned joint, 72, 73 mitred butting joint, 8 mitred dovetail, secret, 146 mitred frames, dowelling, 99, 100 mitred joint, the, 163 mitred tongued joints, 56, 57 mitres, curved, 169 mortise and tenon joints, 64 mortise, open slot, 80 mortising, 87 mortising puzzle, 201 mouldings, mitreing, 165, 171 muntin joint, 178 notched joints, 180 oblique bridle joint, 37, 38 oblique dovetailing, 151 oblique joints, halved, 15, 23 ogee-shaped joint, 8 open-joint hingeing, 124 open slot mortise, 80 oxford frame, halved joints for, 26, 27 partition joints, 24, 25 patera covers, 183 pelleting, 182 piano front joint, 9, 11 pinning, 73 pinning, drawbore, 78 pins, dovetail, 136 pivot hinges, 114, 115, 116 plane, old woman's tooth, 161, 162 plane, the plough, 58, 59, 60 planes, tongueing and grooving, 61 planing, cradle for, 52 planing mitred work, 165 plinth frame dovetailed, 143, 144 plough plane, the, 58, 59, 60 ploughing for tongued and grooved joints, 58 ploughslips, glueing, 10, 11 plugging, 186 pole joints, cornice, 177 puzzle, chinese cross, 203 puzzle, cross, 200 puzzle, diagonal chinese cross, 204 puzzle joints, 189 puzzle, mortising, 201 puzzles, dovetail, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 208 puzzles, square, 205 rafter and tie beam joints, 182 rafter joint (tenon), 77 rebated door joints, 129 reversible screen hinge, 114, 115 rising butt hinge, 115, 116 roof joints, 34, 37, 38 roof joints (tenon), 77 roof work, scarfed joints used in, 103, 104, 106 rubbed joint, 1 rule joint hinge, 125 saddle joints, 180 sash bar joints, 79 sawing block for mitreing, 165 sawing (bridle joints), 41, etc. sawing dovetails, 141, 155 sawing for hinge recesses, 112 sawing (halved joints), 30, 31, etc. sawing (tenons), 84, etc. scarf joint, fished, 105, 106 scarf joint for heavy timber, lapped and bolted, 107, 108 scarf joint, tabled, with straps, 107 scarf joints, 103 scarf joints, tie beam, 106 screen hinges, 114, 115, 116 screens, hingeing draught, 121 screwing, slot or keyhole, 187 screws, hiding with pateras, 183 scribed tenon joint, 72 secret mitred dovetail, 146 setting out dovetails, 151 shooting board, 7, 10, 11 shooting board for mitreing, 165, 166, 167 shoulders, 14, etc., 19, 23 shoulders of tenons, tongueing, 63 shoulders, sawing, 45 shoulders (tenon), 70, 71, 79 shoulders, tenon with tongued and grooved, 79 shutting joints, 127 sideboard pillar joints, 179 skirting and muntin joint, 178 skirting, mitred, 163 skirting mould, double, 56, 58 slot screwing, 187 spandrel, jointing shaped, 9, 11 spandrel with tongued joint, 52, 53 sprocket wheel, 68 square puzzles, 205 steel fasteners, corrugated, 185 stiles, shutting and meeting, 128 stopped bridle joint, 37, 38 stopped dovetail halving, 17 strap hinge, 114, 115 straps for scarf joints, 107, 108 stump tenons, 65 t joints, halved, 14, 18 table (card) hinges, 115, 116 table frame, laminated, 174, 175 table framing, 79 table joint, drop, 20 table leg with bridle joint, 36 table legs, dowelled, 101 table tops buttoned, 184 table with circular rim, joint for, 25 tabled scarf joint, 107 template, dovetail angle, 134, 154 template for mitreing, 170 tenon (and mortise) joints, 64 tenon joint, dovetailed and wedged, 75 tenon joint, mitred and moulded, 72, 73 tenon joint, scribed, 72 tenon joint, self-wedging, 72 tenon joint with mitred face, 77 tenon joint with tongued and grooved shoulders, 79 tenon joints, barefaced, 64 tenon joints, drawbore pinning for, 78 tenon joints, setting out, 83 tenon joints, shouldered, 70, 71, 79 tenon joints, tusk, 74, 75 tenoned scarf joint, 103, 105 tenons, hammer head, 80 tenons, haunched, 65 tenons, inserted, 81, 82 tenons, stump or stub, 65 tenons, tongueing shoulders of, 63 tenons, twin, 72, 73, 80 through dovetailing, 132 tie beam and rafter joints, 182 tie beam scarf joint, 106 tie joint, 22, 23 tongue slips, 130 tongued and grooved joints, applications of, 52 tongued and grooved joints, 48 tongued and grooved joints, ploughing for, 58 tongued joints, corner, 55, 56 tongueing and grooving planes, 61 tongues, cross and feather, 51, 52 tongues, loose, 55 toothing plane, 161, 162 trestle joint, 24 try square, 9, 28 tusk tenon joints, 74, 75 twin tenons, 72, 73, 80 twist bit, 96 vee'd matchboarding, 49, 50 vee'd scarf joint, 105 veneer keying, 178 wall plugs, 186 weatherboards, 176 wedges for tenon joints, 67 wedging, fox, 76 wedging frames, 184 wheel joints, barrow, 20 wheel, sprocket, 68 wheelwright's self-wedging tenon joint, 75 winding laths, 3 printed in great britain by the whitefriars press, ltd., london and tonbridge. the woodworker series woodwork joints: how made and where used (_revised edition_). with 400 illustrations and index. 3/6 net. cabinet construction (_revised edition_). with 25 plates, over 300 illustrations and index. 3/6 net. carpentry for beginners. with over 300 illustrations and index. 3/6 net. practical upholstery. with over 100 illustrations and index. 3/6 net. staining and polishing (_revised edition_). illustrated, and with appendix of recipes and index. 3/6 net. furniture repairing and re-upholstery. with 175 illustrations, 30 photographic plates and index. 3/6 net. wood turning. fully illustrated (with enlarged details) and with index. 3/6 net. wood carving. with over 200 illustrations and index. 3/6 net. period furniture. 200 illustrations and index. 3/6 net. household repairs and renovations (_revised edition_). illustrated. 3/6 net. timbers for woodwork. illustrated, with index. 3/6 net. woodwork tools, and how to use them (_revised edition_). with 275 illustrations and index. 3/6 net. furniture designs (_new series_). 46 pages of designs. 2/6 net. dining room furniture designs (_new series_). 2/6 net. bedroom furniture designs (_new series_). 46 pages of designs. 2/6 net. modern bedroom suite designs (_new series_). 2/6 net. living-room furniture designs. 24 designs. 2/6 net. cabinet designs (_new series_). over 50 designs. 2/6 net. table designs. 46 pages of designs. 2/6 net. bureau and bookcase designs (_new series_). 2/6 net. light carpentry designs (_new series_). 46 pages of designs. 2/6 net. toy and model designs. 46 pages of designs. 2/6 net. outdoor woodwork designs. 46 pages of designs. 2/6 net. door making. fully illustrated, and with a series of special designs. 2/6 net. the woodworker. 6_d._ monthly. free specimen sent on application. evans brothers limited, montague house. russell square, london, w.c.1 the woodworker monthly: price sixpence _a free specimen copy sent on receipt of postcard_ in this magazine the man who does bench work at home will find month by month the precise guidance he needs for efficient, economical work. the principal features include practical directions, illustrated by working drawings, for the construction of plain and ornamental furniture and all kinds of indoor and outdoor woodwork. joint making, tool manipulation, staining and polishing, repairing, craft problems and everyday difficulties are also regular features dealt with in an eminently practical way. the contributors to the woodworker are expert craftsmen who know exactly where the home woodworker's difficulties lie, and who, from long experience, are able to impart their knowledge to others. if you have not yet seen the woodworker, send a postcard for a specimen copy. published monthly price sixpence (_free specimen copy sent on receipt of postcard_) the woodworker annual volume, 370 pages, 6_s._ 6_d._ net _from any newsagent or direct from_ evans bros., ltd., montague house, russell square, london, w.c.1 south kensington museum art handbooks. edited by william maskell. no. 3.--furniture ancient and modern. _these handbooks are reprints of the dissertations prefixed to the large catalogues of the chief divisions of works of art in the museum at south kensington; arranged and so far abridged as to bring each into a portable shape. the lords of the committee of council on education having determined on the publication of them, the editor trusts that they will meet the purpose intended; namely, to be useful, not alone for the collections at south kensington but for other collections, by enabling the public at a trifling cost to understand something of the history and character of the subjects treated of._ _the authorities referred to in each book are given in the large catalogues; where will also be found detailed descriptions of the very numerous examples in the south kensington museum._ w. m. _august, 1875._ ancient and modern furniture and woodwork by john hungerford pollen with numerous woodcuts [illustration] _published for the committee of council on education_ by chapman and hall, 193, piccadilly london. dalziel brothers, printers, camden press, n.w. contents. chapter page i furniture ancient and modern 1 ii antique: egypt, nineveh and greece 4 iii the romans 17 iv byzantine art 29 v the middle ages 41 vi the fifteenth century 59 vii the renaissance in italy 66 viii renaissance in england, flanders, france, germany, ans spain 78 ix tudor and stuart styles 85 x furniture of the eighteenth century 103 xi changes of taste and style 116 appendix: names of the designers of woodwork and makers of furniture 133 index 140 list of woodcuts. page egyptian chair 4 assyrian chairs 7 greek chair 10 greek chairs 11 greek couches 13 greek mirror 14 greek chariot 15 pompeian interior 19 roman tripod 22 roman candelabra 23 roman candelabra 24 roman table 26 roman couch 27 roman ceremonial chair 28 roman _sella_ 28 roman kitchen utensils 30 st. peter's chair 35 the chair of king dagobert 43 anglo-norman bedstead 46 the coronation chair 49 interior of english mediæval bedroom 51 anglo-saxon dinner-table 52 dinner-table of middle-class, fifteenth century 53 table of fifteenth century 53 travelling carriage of fifteenth century; "tullia driving over the body of her father" 55 oriental panels 57 a royal dinner-table of the fourteenth century 58 french panel; fifteenth century 60 venetian cornice 68 portion of carved italian chest 69 venetian chair 71 italian bellows 72 another example 73 knife-case; 1564 76 carved panels 80 french table; sixteenth century 81 french panel; 1577 82 english panel; about 1590 86 french cabinet; sixteenth century 88 italian oak pedestal 90 venetian mirror-frame 91 german arm-chair; seventeenth century 93 english bracket; about 1660 97 english doorway; about 1690 98 venetian looking-glass 100 holy-water stoup 101 english dinner-table; 1633 102 italian distaff 106 roman _triclinium_ 117 bedstead; fifteenth century 118 the great bed of ware 119 bedstead at hampton court 120 mediæval room 120 cradle; fifteenth century 121 folding chair; fifteenth century 122 italian chair; sixteenth century 123 antique roman tables 125 folding table; english, 1620(?) 126 mediæval chest 127 roman carriages 130 english carriage; fourteenth century 131 state carriages 132 furniture, ancient and modern. chapter i. the study of a collection of old furniture has an interest beyond the mere appreciation of the beauty it displays. the carving or the ornaments that decorate the various pieces and the skill and ingenuity with which they are put together are well worthy of our attention. a careful examination of them carries us back to the days in which they were made and to the taste and manners, the habits and the requirements, of bygone ages. the kensington museum, for example, contains chests, caskets, cabinets, chairs, carriages, and utensils of all sorts and of various countries. some of these have held the bridal dresses, fans, and trinkets of french and italian beauties, whose sons and daughters for many generations have long gone to the dust; there are inlaid folding chairs used at the court of guido ubaldo, in the palace of urbino, and of other italian princes of the fifteenth century; buffets and sideboards that figured at mediæval feasts; boxes in which were kept the jesses and bells of hawks; love-tokens of many kinds, christening-spoons, draught and chess men, card boxes, belonging to the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries; carriages of the london of cromwell and hogarth, and of the dublin of burke; panelling of the date of raleigh; a complete room made for a lady of honour to marie antoinette. besides these memorials of periods comparatively well known to us, we shall find reproductions of the furniture of ages the habits of which we know imperfectly, such as the chair of dagobert, and various relics illustrating the old classic manners and civilisation, as they have come down to us from roman and greek artists, and brought to light by the discoveries at herculaneum and pompeii. the field through which a collection of old furniture stretches is too wide to be filled with anything like completeness; but the south kensington collection is already rich in some very rare examples, such as carved chests and cabinets, decorated with the most finished wood carving of flanders, france, and italy, as well as of our own country. as wood is the material of which furniture for domestic use has generally been made, there are, of course, limits to its endurance, and not much furniture is to be found anywhere older than the renaissance. objects for domestic use, such as beds, chairs, chests, tables, &c., are rare, and have not often been collected together. the museum of the hôtel de cluny, in paris, is the best representative collection of woodwork anterior to the quattro or cinque cento period--_i.e._ the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries. some carved and gilt carriages belonging to the last century are also there; and a set of carriages, carved and gilt, made for state ceremonials, used during the latter part of the last century and down to the days of the empire of napoleon iii. are, or were till the war of 1870, kept at the trianon at versailles. many cabinets and tables in boule work, vernis-martin work, and in marquetry by riesener, gouthière, david, and others, in the possession of sir richard wallace, were lately exhibited in the museum at bethnal green, and examples by the same artists from st. cloud and meudon are in the louvre in paris. a fine collection of carriages, belonging to the royal family of portugal, is kept in lisbon. these are decorated in the "vernis-martin" method. several old royal state carriages, carved and gilt, the property of the emperor of austria, are at vienna. in order to take a general review of the kinds, forms, and changes of personal and secular woodwork and furniture, as manners and fashions have influenced the wants of different nations and times, it will be well to divide the subject in chronological order into antique; egyptian, ninevite, greek, roman:--modern; early and late mediæval:--renaissance; seventeenth and eighteenth century work: to be followed by an inquiry into the changes that some of the pieces of furniture in most frequent use have undergone. chapter ii. antique: egypt, nineveh, and greece. considering the perishable nature of the material, we cannot expect to meet with many existing specimens of the woodwork or furniture of ancient egypt. there are to be found, however, abundant illustrations of these objects in the paintings and sculptures of monuments. the most complete are on the walls of the tombs, where we see detailed pictures of domestic life, and the interiors of houses are shown, with entertainments of parties of ladies and gentlemen talking, listening to music, eating and drinking. the guests are seated on chairs of wood, framed up with sloping backs, of which specimens are in the british museum; others are on stools or chairs of greater splendour, stuffed and covered on the seat and back with costly textiles, having the wooden framework carved and gilt, generally in the form of the fore and hind legs of tigers, panthers, and other animals of the chace, sometimes supported, as in the accompanying woodcut, on figures representing captives. [illustration] the british museum contains six egyptian chairs. one of these is made of ebony, turned in the lathe and inlaid with collars and dies of ivory. it is low, the legs joined by light rails of cane, the back straight, with two cross-bars and light rails between. the seat is slightly hollowed, and is of plaited cane as in modern chairs. another is square, also with straight back, but with pieces of wood sloped into the seat to make it comfortable for a sitter. small workmen's stools of blocks of wood hollowed out and with three or four legs fastened into them may also be referred to, and a table on four legs tied by four bars near the lower ends. the egyptians used couches straight, like ottomans; with head boards curving over as in our modern sofas, sometimes with the head and tail of an animal carved on the ends, and the legs and feet carved to correspond. these were stuffed and covered with rich material. the egyptians did not recline at meals. their double seats, [greek: diphroi], or bisellia, were such as were used by the greeks and romans. they had shelves and recesses, chests and coffers, made of pine or cedar wood, and of a material still used in egypt, the _cafass_--palm sticks formed into planks by thin pegs or rods of harder wood passing through a series of these sticks laid together. "of their bedroom furniture," says sir gardner wilkinson, "we know but little." they used (he tells us) their day couches probably, or lay on mats, and on low wooden pallets made of palm sticks. these last had curved blocks, which served for a pillow, forming a hollow to receive the head. examples in alabaster and wood are in the louvre and in the british museum. their materials for dress were of the most delicate and costly description. the robes of the ladies were often transparent, and the gold and silver tissues, muslins, and gossamer fabrics made in india and asia were probably also used in egypt. all these, as well as their jewels and valuables, imply corresponding chests and smaller coffers. small toilet boxes elegantly carved into the form or with representations of leaves and animals, are preserved in the louvre and in the british museum and other collections. they were generally of sycamore wood, sometimes of tamarisk or sont (acacia), and occasionally the more costly ivory or inlaid work was substituted for wood. larger boxes may also be seen in the louvre, some large enough to contain dresses. they are square, with flat, curved, or gable tops, painted on the surface, and generally lifted from the ground by four short legs or prolongations of the rails that form the framework. these boxes are dovetailed, and secured by glue and nails. their chariots and the harness of their horses were rich in proportion, the former painted, inlaid with ivory and gold, or with surface gilding, containing cases for their bows and arms, and made of wood filled in with the lightest materials, perhaps canvas stiffened with preparations of lac in the japanese manner, and put together with a skill that made the carriage-makers of egypt famous in their day. it will be sufficient to add that the great jewish kings had their chariots supplied from egypt. solomon paid about £75 of our money for a chariot, and of these he kept (for war purposes alone) a force of fourteen hundred, with forty thousand horses. mummy cases of cedar, a material readily procured and valued for its preservative qualities, are to be seen in many collections, and examples can be examined in the british museum. they are richly decorated with hieroglyphic paintings executed in tempera, and varnished with gum mastic. the furniture of nineveh is not so elaborately or completely represented as that of egypt, where the preservation of sculpture and painting was helped out by a climate of extraordinary dryness. but the discoveries of mr. layard have thrown on the details of ninevite domestic life light enough to give us the means of forming a judgment on their furniture. "ornaments," says mr. layard, "in the form of the heads of animals, chiefly the lion, bull, and ram, were very generally introduced, even in parts of the chariot, the harness of the horses, and domestic furniture." in this respect the assyrians resembled the egyptians. "their tables, thrones, and couches were made both of metal and wood, and probably inlaid with ivory. we learn from herodotus that those in the temple of belus in babylon were of solid gold." [illustration] [illustration] according to mr. layard, the chair represented in the earliest monuments is without a back, and the legs tastefully carved. this form occurs in the palace of nimrúd, and is sculptured on one of the bas-reliefs now in the british museum. often the legs ended in the feet of a lion or the hoofs of a bull, and were made of gold, silver, or bronze. "on the monuments of khorsabad and by the rock tablets of malthaiyah we find representations of chairs supported by animals and by human figures, sometimes prisoners, like the caryatides of the greeks. in this they resemble the arm-chairs of egypt, but appear to have been more massive. this mode of ornamenting the throne of the king was adopted by the persians, and is seen in the sculpture of persepolis." the woodcut represents such a chair, from a bas-relief at khorsabad. the lion head and lion foot were used by other oriental nations. the throne of king solomon was supported by lions for arms, probably in the same position as the horses in the khorsabad chair; and lions of gold or chryselephantine work stood six on each side on the six steps before the throne. the forms of furniture of a later date in the sculptures of nineveh at khorsabad are of an inferior style. "the chairs have generally more than one cross-bar, and are somewhat heavy and ill-proportioned, the feet resting upon large inverted cones, resembling pine-apples." all these seats, like the [greek: diphroi] and _sellæ_ of important personages in greece and rome, were high enough to require a footstool. "on the earlier monuments of assyria footstools are very beautifully carved or modelled. the feet were ornamented, like those of the chair, with the feet of lions or the hoofs of bulls." the tables seem in general to have been of similar form and decoration to the thrones or seats, the ends of the frame projecting and carved as in the woodcut above, only on a larger scale. the couches were of similar form, but made of gold and silver, stuffed and covered on the surface with the richest materials. the tables and the chairs were often made in the shape also found in greece and rome, with folding supports that open on a central rivet like our camp-stools, and like the curule chairs which were common not only in rome but throughout italy during the renaissance. a large piece of wood of pine or cedar is in the british museum. it is of a full red colour, the effect of time. cedar was probably most in use; but both in egypt and nineveh, as also in judæa under solomon and his successors, woods were imported from europe and india; ebony certainly, perhaps rosewood, teak, and indian walnut. ebony and ivory were continually used for inlaying furniture. of their bedroom furniture we can say little, nor do we know of what kind were the cabinets or chests made to preserve their dresses and valuables. it is probable, however, that these were occasionally as rich and elaborate as any of their show or state furniture. of hebrew furniture we can give few details. it is probable that the jews differed but little from the assyrians in this respect. the throne of solomon has been already noticed. in the story of judith the canopy and curtains of the bed of holofernes may have been taken by the chronicler from familiar examples at home, or may have been strictly drawn from traditional details. in the figurative language of the canticles, the bed of solomon is of cedar of lebanon, the pillars of silver, the bottom of gold. ordinary bedroom furniture is spoken of in the chronicles, when the shunamite woman, a person of great wealth, built for the prophet elias "a little chamber on the wall, and set therein a bed, a table, a stool, and a candlestick." ivory wardrobes are mentioned in the 45th psalm, but of what size or form we cannot determine. in the book of esther allusions are made to persian furniture decorations, white, green, and blue hangings fastened with fine linen to silver rings and pillars of marble. the beds were of gold and silver, &c. the bed of og, king of bashan, was nine cubits long by four, and was of iron: it was preserved as a trophy. as the chariots of solomon were made in egypt, and the artists employed on the temple came from tyre, it is not unreasonable to suppose that furniture was either made by foreign workmen, or that the hebrews borrowed freely the forms and decorations of surrounding asiatic nations. though specially and purposely jealous of any innovation or interference with religious rites and observances, we have no cause to think that they objected to the use of furniture or utensils such as they found first during the long sojourn in egypt, and afterwards in other countries. they are said in earlier times to have spoiled the egyptians with reference to the ornaments and jewels carried away at the migration. we know that moses was "learned in all the wisdom of the egyptians;" and two particular artists, and two only, are named in the book of exodus as qualified to execute the sacred vessels and utensils. whatever their technical qualifications were, these had been acquired in egypt. in any attempt to picture to ourselves the kind of furniture and objects of daily use apart from chariots, arms, &c., that surrounded the greeks in early ages, it will be necessary to bear in mind the close connection which that people must have had with the asiatic races, and the splendour and refinement that surrounded the wealthy civilisation of the oriental monarchies. they were so continually the allies or the rivals of the various states in asia minor, and pushed out into that fertile region so many vigorous colonies, that it cannot be doubted that the splendid stuffs, beds, couches, thrones, chariots, &c., used by greeks on the asiatic continent or in europe, had much of eastern character in form and method of execution; perhaps, at first, in decoration also. this woodcut represents a chair of assyrian character on a bas-relief from xanthus, in the british museum. [illustration] much that is oriental figures in poetic accounts of the arms, furniture, and equipments of the greek heroic ages. the chiefs take the field in chariots. these could have been used but in small numbers on ground so uneven as the rocky territories of the morea. the beds described by homer, the coverlids of dyed wool, tapestries, or carpets, and other instances of coloured and showy furniture, were genuine descriptions of objects known and seen, though not common. generally the furniture of the heroic age was simple. two beds of bronze of tartessus, one dorian and one ionian, the smallest weighing fifty talents, of uncertain date, were kept in the treasury at altis, and seen there by pausanias towards the end of the second century. the chariots differed little except in the ornamental carving, modelling, or chasing, from those of egypt. the oldest remaining models of greek furniture to which we can point are the chairs in which the antique figures in the syrian room at the british museum are seated. these are dated six, or nearly six, centuries before christ. they represent chairs with backs, quite perpendicular in front and behind. the frame-pieces of the seats are morticed into the legs, and the mortices and tenons are accurately marked in the marble, the horizontal passing right through the upright bars. these early pieces of furniture were probably executed in wood, not metal, which was at first but rarely used. the woodcuts show the different forms taken from antique bas-reliefs. [illustration] the chest or coffer in which cypselus of corinth had been concealed was seen by pausanias in the temple of olympia. it was made about the middle of the sixth century b.c. the chest was of cedar, carved and decorated with figures and bas-reliefs, some in ivory, some in gold or ivory partly gilt, which were inlaid on the four sides and on the top. the subjects of the sculpture were old greek myths and local legends, and traditions connected with the country. this coffer is supposed to have been executed by eumelos of corinth. the great period of greek art began in the fifth century b.c.; but those were not days favourable to the development of personal luxury among the citizens. an extreme simplicity in private manners balanced the continual publicity and political excitement of greek life. the rich classes, moreover, had little inducement to make any display of their possessions. the state enjoyed an indefinite right to the property of its members; the lawgiver in plato declared "ye are not your own, still less is your property your own." in sparta the exclusive training for war admitted of no manner of earning money by business. in athens the poorer class had so exclusively the upper hand of the rich that the latter had to provide the public with entertainments of sacrificial solemnities, largesses of corn, and banquets. "the demos," says the author of the "gentile and the jew," "understood the squeezing of the rich like sponges." greece was the paradise of the poor. it is therefore to be expected that the sculpture of the day, though employed sometimes upon the decoration of thrones or state seats, chariots, chests, looking-glasses, tripods, as the painting was on walls, vases, and movable pictures on panels, should have been employed mostly in temples and, with occasional exceptions, on objects of some public use. the chest described above was kept as a relic, and the elaborately carved thrones in the temples were those of the statues of gods and heroes. ivory and gold laid over a substructure of olive wood were the materials quite as frequently used by great sculptors as marble or bronze for statues which did not form parts of the actual decorations of their architecture. in later times these materials were used in sumptuous furniture. the greeks used couches for sleeping and resting upon, but not for reclining on at meals, till the macedonian period. we give two or three examples, from marbles: one of which resembles the modern sofa. women sat always, as in rome, sometimes on the couch at the head or foot, on which the master of the house or a guest reclined, generally on chairs. besides chairs like the one represented here, the greeks made arm-chairs; and folding chairs of metal. in the parthenon frieze jupiter is seated in a square seat on thick turned legs, with a round bar for a back, resting on short turned posts fitted into the seat. the arms are less high than the back; they are formed by slight bars framed into the uprights at the back, and resting on winged sphinxes. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] mirrors of mixed metal alloys, silver, tin, and copper, have come down to our times in great numbers. they were made occasionally in pure silver, and in gold probably among the greeks as they were in later times among the romans. the cases are of bronze, and engraved with figure designs of the highest character. there is, however, no proof that these were used as furniture in houses, as in rome. they are hand mirrors, and the description of them, as works of art, belongs rather to that of antique bronzes. the woodcut shows the usual type, with the richly ornamented handle. [illustration] designs of the greek couch, whether for sleeping or for reclining at meals, are abundant on tomb paintings, and sculptures, and on the paintings of vases. in the british museum we may see a large vase in the second vase room, on which a couch for two persons is arranged with a long mattress covered with rich material, lying within what appears to be a border of short turned rails with a cushion on each end, also covered with rich striped material. a long low stool decorated with ivory lies below the couch as a kind of step. the legs, as in many vase representations, are thick turned supports with lighter parts below, and a turned knob at the foot. on another vase dionysus reclines on a thick round cushion at the head of the couch, while ariadne sits on it. figures feasting or stretched in death on similar couches can be seen in two beautiful and perfect funeral chests in the ægina room. all these pieces of furniture seem made of or decorated with ivory, and furnished with coloured cushions or coverings of an oriental character. tripods were made of bronze in great number for sacred use, and probably also as the supports of brasiers, tables, &c., in private houses. the tables were of wood, marble, and metal; the supports being either lion or leopard legs and heads, or sphinxes with lifted wings, a favourite form in greek ornamentation. with regard to greek houses generally, their arrangements differed very little from the earlier houses of the romans. the bas-relief in the british museum--bacchus received as a guest by icarus--represents a couch with turned legs, the feet of which are decorated with leaf work; a plain square stool, perhaps the top of a box, on which masks are laid, and a tripod table with lion legs. the houses in the background are tiled. the windows are divided into two lights by an upright mullion or column, and a bas-relief of a charioteer driving two horses ornaments a portion of the wall, and may be intended for a picture hung up or fixed against the wall. the whole shows us an athenian house, decked for a festive occasion, and garlands and hangings are festooned round its outer walls. the greek chariot was of wood, probably similar to that of the egyptians. it had sometimes wheels with four strong spokes only, as in the woodcut. the chariot wheel of the car of mausolus, in the british museum, has six. the ninevite wheels have sometimes as many as twelve, as may be seen in the sculptured bas-reliefs of the narrow assyrian gallery of the british museum. [illustration] the woods used by the greeks for sculpture were ebony, cypress, cedar, oak, _smilax_, yew, willow, _lotus_, and citron. these materials were rarely left without enrichments of ivory, gold, and colour. the faces of statues were painted vermilion, the dresses, crowns, or other ornaments were gilt or made in wrought gold. chapter iii. the romans. the splendour that surrounded the personal usages of the earlier races of antiquity, the egyptians, ninevites, persians, greeks, and tuscans, was inherited by the romans. not only did they outlive those powers, but they absorbed their territory as far as they could reach it; they affected to take in their religions and deities to add to their own system; they drained the subject populations for slaves, and eagerly adopted from them every art that could administer to the magnificence and luxury of their own private life. they have left both written records in their literature and actual examples of their furniture, made in metal or of marble. the discovery of herculaneum and of pompeii has given us not only single pieces of furniture, but very considerable remains of houses, shops, streets, fora or open public places of assembly, theatres, and baths. it is in such evidences of roman social life that we shall find the materials for our present inquiry. the romans spent their earlier ages in unceasing struggles for independence and dominion: and so long as the elder powers of italy survived to dispute the growth of roman greatness, there could not be much expansion of private wealth or splendour in the houses of roman citizens. though surrounded by splendid social life among the etruscans, the roman people long remained exceptionally simple in personal habits. it was after the punic wars that oriental luxuries found their way into italy along with the carthaginian armies. tapestry is said to have been first brought to rome by attalus, the king of pergamus, who died b.c. 133 possessed of immense wealth, and bequeathed tapestries, generally used in the east from the early ages, to the roman citizens. when augustus became emperor the conquest of the world was complete. thenceforward military habits and simplicity of individual life were no longer necessary to a state that could find no political rivals. the great capital of the world absorbed like a vast vegetable growth the thought, the skill, and the luxuries of the whole world. nothing was too valuable to be procured by the great roman nobles or money-makers, and nothing too strange not to find a place and be welcome in one or other of their vast households. while this was so at rome in chief, it must be remembered that other capitals were flourishing in various countries, as wealthy, as luxurious in their own way and degree, only less in extent and means, and lacking that peculiar seal of supremacy that gives to the real capital a character that is never attained in subordinate centres of civilisation. antioch was such a centre in the east; alexandria in the south. both these great cities contained wealthy, refined, and luxurious societies. both were known as universities and seats of learning. antioch was the most debauched and luxurious; alexandria the most learned and refined. they did not exactly answer to the distinct capitals of modern kingdoms and states, such as we now see flourishing in europe, to london, paris, vienna, berlin, or st. petersburg, because no one supreme state or city predominates over them; and further still, no one draws the pick and choice of the intellect and refinement of the whole of europe to absorb them into itself as rome did in the old world. but, in those days, antioch and alexandria, one at the head of the wealth and splendour of asia, the other representing greek learning grafted on the ancient scientific and artistic traditions of egypt, must have contributed much to the general fusion of "ideas" and notions on art and personal manners and customs in the capital of the roman empire. the roman house was of traditional plan, and consisted generally of two or more square enclosures surrounded by arcades, open to the air in the centre, but which openings could be closed in summer or winter by awnings when the courts were not large enough to include a garden, as the inner enclosure usually did. the house had in front a _vestibulum_, an open space covered by a verandah-shaped roof, sometimes enclosed by lattices, sometimes open. an _ostium_ or lobby inside the entrance-door, deep enough to contain a small porter's lodge on one side, led to an inner door which opened on the _atrium_. this court had an opening to the air, and a tank for rain water was sunk in the middle. fountains with jets or falls of water were not uncommon, the ancients being well acquainted with the principle that water if brought from an elevation in pipes will force its way up to its natural level. inside the _atrium_ was the _nuptiale_, the nuptial bed, and here were kept in earliest times the _penates_, household or family divinities, and the family hearth, though these sacred emblems were banished in the imperial times to distant parts of the house, and statues between the columns that supported the central roof supplied their place. the _atrium_ was the general reception-room, like the hall in mediæval houses, but not the dining-room. to this succeeded an inner open court, with porticoes or corridors running round, supported on columns, and with a fountain or basin, shrubs and flowers in the centre, like the courts of the alhambra. this court provided four halls in the four corridors, which could be screened off by tapestries and curtains. the centre was shaded in summer by canvas or carpet awnings. in winter a wooden roof could be pushed over the open space. between the two halls or courts was a chamber called the _triclinium_, or dining-room. these rooms were roofed with timber richly painted and gilt. the roofs either hung on beams projecting from the walls, or were supported by pillars, or were carried up to a high opening, sloping back to the walls so as to admit more light to the rooms, alcoves, or screened portions furthest removed from the opening. occasionally they were covered in wholly with a testudo-shaped roof, and in such cases lighted, perhaps, by dormers, though it is not quite clear how light was provided for in such constructions. roman rooms were not floored with boards but paved with marble in large pieces, or in mosaic work made of small dies or squares. coarse specimens of such work manufactured in our own times are laid down in the museum at kensington, and fragments of the old work may be seen there on the walls. occasionally these mosaics represent the house watch-dog chained, or the fable of ganymede, or hunting scenes, sometimes finished with the utmost nicety. the _triclinium_ took its name from the three couches or sofas, on each of which three persons reclined during meals. later, and in sumptuous palaces, several dining-rooms were built out beyond the inner courts. the engraving, a reconstruction, will give a fair idea of the general character of a richly furnished roman house. first, is the _atrium_, into which smaller chambers open; next, the _triclinium_, to the left of which is a cabinet; and beyond is the _peristylium_, with its lofty colonnades. this last apartment was large and open; often planted with shrubs and trees, or containing statues, flowers in pots and vases, and surrounded by a corridor. as these courts were of various sizes they were, no doubt, in rome on a scale out of all proportion to those found at pompeii; were fewer or more in number, and rooms were added as the proprietor could acquire ground for building, often a difficulty in the older parts of the city. something of this ground plan survives in a few of the very ancient roman churches, as in that of s. pudenziana, formerly the house of the senator pudens, with vestibules, open courts, &c. [illustration] around the inner court, in the sumptuous roman houses and the country villas of the patricians, were built other rooms, dining-halls, no longer called _triclinium_ but _triclinia_ in the plural, as admitting more than the number of nine persons reclining on the conventional three couches, to dine at once. in the city itself room was probably wanting in private houses for such expansion, the houses being in streets already laid out. in the villas there was no such restriction. these halls were built to face different quarters of the compass and to be used according to the season. _verna_ and _autumnalis_ looked to the east, _hyberna_ to the west, _æstiva_ to the north. _[oe]ci_ were other rooms still larger; and glass windows were to be found in them. in a painting now in the kensington museum, n^{o.} 653, given by the emperor napoleon the third, glazed windows can be distinguished, divided by upright mullions and transoms of wood, such as were constructed in english houses in the seventeenth century. the sleeping-rooms, _cubicula_, were small closets rather than rooms, closed in general by curtains or hangings, and disposed about the sides of the rooms between the courts, or round the outer courts themselves. besides the living and sleeping chambers, there were store-rooms for various kinds of food. wearing apparel was kept in _vestiaria_, wardrobe rooms, fitted especially to store them in. it is doubtful whether the dresses were in chests: more probably in presses, or hanging on pegs. the ornamental woodwork in some of these rooms was rich in the extreme. the outer vestibule was protected by an overhanging balcony or by the projecting rafters of the roof of the first portion of the house, according as rooms were built over that portion or not. it was in some instances enclosed by carved or trellised woodwork. the doors were generally in two halves and could be closed with locks, which in the age of the empire were thoroughly understood, with latchets secured by a pin or with a wooden bar. the term _obserare_ was used when the security of a bar was added. the hinge was a pin or peg at the top and bottom which turned in a socket. metal hinges strapped over the wood frame were not unknown: and bronze hinges are in the collection of the british museum. the decoration of the door, which was of wood, consisted principally of bronze mounts. the doorposts were ornamented with carving, sometimes inlaid with tortoiseshell and other rich materials. the woodwork was painted. bedrooms were closed with doors; oftener by curtains. the windows were generally closed with shutters, hinged and in pairs. they were some six feet six inches above the level of the street, not beyond reach of the knocks and signals of friends outside. wooden benches were usually provided in the vestibule. besides the inlaid door frames, the ceilings of all the roman rooms were very richly decorated. in more simple constructions the wood joists of the floor above, or the structure of the roof when no room surmounted it, were shown and painted; but in richer houses the timbers were covered with boards, and formed into coffers and panels, painted, gilt, and inlaid with ivory. this splendid system of decoration dates from the destruction of carthage. curved bearers from the upper part of the walls were added to form one kind of ceiling (_camara_), for which vitruvius gives directions; and glass mosaics, like those used in the pavements, were inlaid on a plaster bed in the coffers. the cornices were of carved wood, or of plaster carved or modelled; the wood was always covered with a preparation of gesso, and gilt and painted like the walls. an examination of the remains of roman glass found at pompeii and elsewhere, and of which excellent examples may be studied in the kensington museum, seems to point to the use not only of mosaics made of dies, but of mouldings, borders, and panels moulded in coloured glass of magnificent hues, and with the finest stamped ornaments. these were occasionally gilt, or were made in relief, or with a coat of opaque white glass over the translucent material, which could be cut and modelled in the manner of cameos, and helped further to decorate the ceiling, always one of the most splendid features of the room. the walls, when not painted, were sometimes hung with mirrors of glass blackened, or of silver, or of slabs of obsidian. they were of various sizes, sometimes large enough to reflect persons at full length. in the case of portable pictures, frames were added round them. borders were certainly painted round frescoes. it is not to be supposed that paintings which could be exposed for sale, moved about, and hung up, could be finished round otherwise than by ornamental mouldings, or framework sufficient to protect and properly set them off. [illustration] among the ornamental pieces of furniture were tripods, three-legged frames, forming the supports of tables, of altars, of braziers, sometimes of pieces of sculpture. these were generally of bronze, and original pieces obtained in various parts of italy can be seen in the bronze room of the british museum. some of these much exceed the height of high modern tables. they are light, and ornamented on the upper ends with animal or other heads; some with the beginning of a hind leg about halfway down. they were, however, frequently movable, and, like the piece in the cut on the preceding page from an example in the british museum, were made to contract by folding; the stays which connect the legs internally slipping up and down them by means of loops. such pieces might serve as table legs, or would hold altar pans or common fire pans or support pots of flowers. [illustration] besides tripods the reception rooms were ornamented with candelabra on tall stands of most graceful form and proportions. it will suffice to point to more than a dozen of examples in the british museum; and the woodcuts are from examples in other collections. the stems are a fluted staff or a light tree stem, commonly supported on three animal legs spread at the base, and branching out on the tops into one, two, or more boughs or hooks, with elegant modelled decorations or ending in flat stands. one has a slight rim round the dish or stand, on which a candelabrum or wax candlestick could be placed. in other cases the lamps were hung by their suspensory chains to the branches described. other candelabra stands were of marble, six, eight, ten, or more feet in height, hybrid compositions of column caps, acanthus leaves and stems, on altar bases, &c., in great variety of design, of which engravings may be studied in the work of piranesi. casts, n^{os.} 93, 94 (antiques), are in the south kensington museum. we do not know in what kind of repositories or pieces of furniture the ancient romans kept their specimens of painting or their vases, some of which formed their most valued treasures. it is generally supposed that they were set on shelves fastened to the wall. on such shelves small images, boxes of alabaster or glass, and ornamental vases of all kinds were kept. craters, sculptured vases on a large scale and made of bronze or marble, were also mounted on pedestals and ranged as ornaments with the statues. bronzes and statues, pieces of sculpture that had fixed places, stood either along the walls of the reception rooms or under the eaves of the _compluvium_, whence light was obtained to set them off to advantage, and where turf, flowers, and fountains were in front of them. a vase or crater, nearly eight feet high, is in the hall of the british museum, brought from the villa of hadrian at palestrina; and in the entrance-hall of nero's house there was a colossus 120 feet high, and long arcades and a tank or basin of water. but objects on this scale scarcely belong to the descriptions of what might be found ordinarily in houses of the great patricians. sometimes a couch and a table of marble were placed close to the fountains in these delightful portions of the house. tables were of many varieties in rome, and enormous expenses were incurred in the purchase of choice pieces of such furniture. they were made of marble, gold, silver, bronze; were engraved, damascened, plated, and otherwise enriched with the precious metals; were of ivory, and of wood, and wood decorated with ivory; and in many other methods. engraved (p. 26) is a very beautiful table found at pompeii, and now at naples. tripods, terminal and other figures, made of bronze or marble; winged sphinxes, or leopards' and lions' legs, columns and other architectonic forms, were the supports on which these tables were fastened. some had one central support only, in a few instances finished with animal heads of ivory. _abaci_ were small tables with raised rims to hold valuables. many tables were of cedar and on ivory feet. horace speaks of maple, so also does pliny, as a favourite wood for tables: birds'-eye maple especially was much prized. the planks and disks that could be cut from the roots and the boles of trees that had been either pollarded or otherwise dwarfed in growth in order to obtain wavy grain, knotted convolutions, &c., were in request. veneers of well-mottled wood or of precious wood, small in scantling, were glued on pine, cedar, &c., as a base. these pollard heads, root pieces, &c., were bought at high prices, specially those of the _citrus_ or _cedrus atlantica_. [illustration] the point held to be desirable (says pliny) in the grain of tables was to have "veins arranged in waving lines or else forming spirals like so many little whirlpools. in the former arrangement the lines run in an oblong direction, for which reason they are called _tigrinæ_, tiger tables. in the latter case they are called _pantherinæ_, or panther tables. there are some with wavy, undulating marks, and which are more particularly esteemed if these resemble the eyes of a peacock." next in esteem to these was the veined wood covered or dotted, as it were, with dense masses of grain, for which reason such tables received the name of _apiatæ_, parsley wood. but the colour of the wood is the quality that was held in the highest esteem of all; that of wine mixed with honey was the most prized, the veins being peculiarly refulgent. the defect in that kind of table was _lignum_ (dull log colour), a name given to the wood when common-looking, indistinct, with stains or flaws. the barbarous tribes, according to pliny, buried the citrus wood in the ground while green, giving it first a coating of wax. when it came into the workman's hands it was put for a certain number of days beneath a heap of corn. by this process the wood lost weight. sea-water was supposed to harden it, and to act as a preservative. this wood was carefully polished by hand-rubbing. as much as £9,000 (a million of sesterces) was paid for one table by cicero. of two that had belonged to king juba, sold by auction, one fetched over £10,000. these were made of citrus (_thuya articulata_ or _cedrus atlantica_). we hear of two made for king ptolemæus of mauritania, the property of nomius, a freed man of tiberius, formed out of two slices or sections of the _cedrus atlantica_ four feet and a half in diameter, the largest known to pliny; and of the destruction of a table, the property of the family of the cethegi, valued at 1,400,000 sesterces. [illustration] the roman patricians and their ladies sat on chairs and reclined on couches when not at meals. in the _atrium_ under the broad roofed corridors, and in the halls not used for eating, were couches, such as the couch of which we give a woodcut, of bronze or of precious woods; the bronze damascened with ornaments of the precious metals, or of metal amalgam; the wood veneered or inlaid with marquetry or tarsia work of ivory, ebony, box, palm, birds'-eye maple, beech, and other woods. the chairs were of different kinds and were used for various occasions. the _atrium_ contained double seats, single seats, and benches to hold more than one sitter; chairs that either folded or were made in the form of folding chairs, such as could be carried about and placed in the chariot, _curules_. the woodcut shows the general fashion of a state or ceremonial chair; from the marble example in the louvre. [illustration] this woodcut is of the _sella_, a seat or couch, made of wood, with turned legs; it is intended, probably, for one person only, and has no need of a footstool. it has been covered with a cushion. [illustration] _scamnum_ was a bench or long seat of wood, used in poorer houses instead of the luxurious _triclinium_ of the men or arm-chairs of the women, for sitting at meals or other occasions. seats were placed along the walls in the _exedræ_ or saloons; marble benches in most cases, sometimes wooden seats; particularly also in the alcoves that were constructed in the porticoes of baths and public buildings, where lectures of philosophers were listened to. the romans had hearths in certain rooms. numerous passages in ancient writers, to which it is needless to refer, concur in showing that the hearth was a spot sacred to the _lares_ of the family, the altar of family life. it was occasionally made of bricks or stone, and immovable, on which logs could be heaped. it seems doubtful whether chimneys were used in the roman houses; probably occasionally. writers on roman antiquities speak of such rare constructions used, perhaps, as ventilators to the kitchen. the usual method of warming was by means of a brazier, of which an example found at cære, in etruria, is preserved in the british museum. it is a round dish on three animal legs, with swing handles for removing it. another, square in form, is reproduced in a casting in the south kensington museum collection, n^{o.} 70, standing on animal legs and damascened round the sides with gold ornaments. the romans had also kitchen braziers with contrivances for heating pans, water, wine, &c., by charcoal. n^{o.} 71 at south kensington is a casting of such a piece, having a round metal receptacle, like a small cask, on its end, and a raised horse-shoe frame, on which a pan could be placed, with fire space in the middle. these braziers were filled with charcoal heated thoroughly by the help of the bellows, to get rid of the noxious gases. it has been said that the dresses of the romans were preserved, as in mediæval castles, in a separate room or wardrobe, and this room must have been fitted with apparatus for hanging shelves and lockers. they had besides for keeping valuables, and usually placed in the sleeping-room of the master or mistress of the house, cupboards and chests of beech ornamented with metal, some large enough to contain a man. in these receptacles they conveyed their property to and from country houses, and on visits. enormous numbers of slaves moved to and fro with the family, and the chests were carried on men's shoulders, or in waggons of various shape and make. the most important action of the luxurious roman day was the dinner. couches were arranged for the guests, and the room was further provided with stools or low benches, side tables, and the movable table used for each course. these tables were put down and removed from the supports on which they stood. the side tables were of marble or of wood, covered with silver plates, inlaid, veneered, and ornamented in various ways; some were used for serving the dishes, others for the display of plate. sculptured objects of plate, partly ornamental, were put on the table and removed with the courses. petronius describes an ass of corinthian bronze with silver paniers as the centre piece of one course; sauces dropped from the paniers on luscious morsels placed beneath. a hen of wood with eggs within and a figure of vertumnus are also named by the same author as centre pieces. these were replaced on the sideboard or removed with the course in trays. [illustration] closely connected with the dining-room was, it need scarcely be said, the kitchen; and we give woodcuts of kitchen utensils, from the originals preserved at naples. mention should be made of tapestries and carpets before leaving the subject of roman house furniture. carpets, _tapete_, blankets, or other woollen coverlids for sofas or beds, were made at corinth, miletus, and a number of seats of fine wool manufacture. it is too large a question to go into in detail, and woven fabrics belong to a different class of objects fully described in another hand-book, upon textiles. these tapestries played a great part in the actual divisions of the roman rooms. bedrooms, it has been said, were often closed with curtains only, and the corridors and smaller rooms were closed at the ends and made comfortable by the same means. at the dinner detailed by petronius the hangings on the _triclinia_ are changed between pauses in the meal. the feelings consonant with the day or occasion were symbolized or carried out in these external decorations. mention is made by seneca of ceilings made so as to be moved, and portions turned by machinery; perhaps the changed panels showed different colours and decorations according to the day, and to the hangings which were used. the same author alludes to wood ceilings that could be raised higher or lower by machinery, "_pegmata per se surgentia_ et tabulata _tacite in sublime crescentia_," making no noise in the operation. these contrivances were reserved for dining-rooms, where the diversions were of the freest description and the guests prepared for any exciting or sensational interludes. the romans required some of their furniture for out-door use. besides the curule chairs and lofty seats which were carried into theatres or baths, and other places of public resort, they used litters. the sofas or couches were sometimes carried on the necks of six or more slaves, and served as litters. but special contrivances like the indian palanquins were made with or hung under poles, with curtains or shutters. stations of such conveyances for public use were established in rome. the subjects of the carving and ornamentation of roman furniture were the classic legends mainly derived from the greek mythology. roman house walls were, however, in later years profusely decorated with conventional representations of architecture, and panels richly coloured on which were painted figures of dancers, cupids, gods and heroes; sometimes commonplace landscapes and domestic scenes. their solid furniture was decorated with masks, heads of heroes, legs and feet of animals, and foliage, generally the leaves of the acanthus, of an architectonic kind. the great achievement of the romans in woodwork of a constructive kind was the machinery contrived for public shows, such as the cages shot up out of the sand of the arena of amphitheatres, of which the sides fell down, leaving at liberty the beasts wanted for fights or for the execution of criminals. of such constructions probably nothing in the middle ages, when timber abounded and the use of it was thoroughly understood, exceeds the following; a description by pliny of a device of c. curio, in africa, when celebrating the funeral games in honour of his father:-"he caused to be erected close together two theatres of very large dimensions and built of wood, each of them nicely poised, and turning on a pivot. before mid-day a spectacle of games was exhibited in each, the theatres being turned back to back, in order that the noise of neither of them might interfere with what was going on in the other. then, in the latter part of the day, all on a sudden, the two theatres were swung round and, the corners uniting, brought face to face; the outer frames too were removed (_i.e._ the backs of each hemicycle) and thus an amphitheatre was formed, in which combats of gladiators were presented to the view; men whose safety was almost less compromised than that of the roman people in allowing itself to be thus whirled round from side to side." the following woods were in use amongst the romans:-for carpentry and joiner's work, _cedar_ was the wood most in demand. _pine_ of different kinds was used for doors, panels, carriage building, and all work requiring to be joined up with glue, of which that wood is particularly retentive. _elm_ was employed for the framework of doors, lintels and sills, in which sockets were formed for the pins or hinges on which the doors turned. the hinge jambs were occasionally made of _olive_. _ash_ was employed for many purposes; that grown in gaul was used in the construction of carriages on account of its extreme suppleness and pliancy. axles and portions which were much morticed together were made of _ilex_ (_holm oak_). _beech_ also was in frequent use. _acer_ (_maple_) was much prized, as has been already stated, for tables, on account of the beauty of the wood and of the finish which it admits. _osiers_ were in use for chairs as in our own times. _veneering_ was universal in wood furniture of a costly kind. the slices of wood were laid down with glue as in modern work, and they used tarsia or picture work of all kinds. _figwood_, _willow_, _plane_, _elm_, _ash_, _mulberry_, _cherry_, _cork wood_, were amongst the materials for the bed or substance on which to lay such work. wild and cultivated _olive_, _box_, _ebony_ (corsican especially), _ilex_, _beech_, were adapted for veneering boxes, desks, and small work. besides these, the romans used the syrian _terebinth_, _maple_, _palm_ (cut across), _holly_, _root of elder_, _poplar_; horn, ivory plain and stained; tortoiseshell; and wood grained in imitation of various woods for veneering couches and other large pieces of furniture, as well as door frames, &c., so that this imitation of grains is not entirely a modern invention. woods were soaked in water or buried under heaps of grain to season them; or steeped in oil of cedar to keep off the worms. the _cedars_ of crete, africa, and syria were the best of that class of timber. the best _fir_ timber was obtained from the jura range, from corsica, bithynia, pontus, and macedonia. the romans had admirable glue, and used planes, chisels, &c. their saws, set in frames, had the teeth turned in opposite directions to open the seam in working. there are some curious historical records of the endurance of particular wood structures. the cedar roof of the temple of diana of ephesus was intact at the end of four centuries in pliny's time. her statue was black, supposed to be of ebony, but according to other authorities of vine, and had outlasted various rebuildings of the temple. the roof beams of the temple of apollo at utica were of cedar and had been laid 348 years before the foundation of rome; nearly 1,200 years old in the time of pliny, and still sound. the emperor philip celebrated the secular games (recurring every 100 years), with great pomp, for the fifth time in the year 248. we may consider this event, for our present purpose, as a convenient finish of the classic period of antique art, and of the reflections of it in the woodwork and furniture and the surroundings of private life. ten centuries had elapsed since romulus had fortified the hills on the banks of the tiber. "during the first four ages" (says gibbon) "the romans, in the laborious school of poverty, had acquired the virtues of war and government; by the vigorous exertion of these virtues, and by the assistance of fortune, they had obtained in the course of the three succeeding centuries an absolute empire over many countries of europe, asia, and africa. the last three centuries had been consumed in apparent prosperity and internal decline." chapter iv. byzantine art. we may take as the next period for illustration the centuries that witnessed the break up of the old roman constitution and the gradual formation of a new order of society down to the end of the first ten centuries of our era. seven hundred and fifty years out of those ten hundred belong in great part to mediæval history. the misfortunes of italy, and the incessant state of war, invasion, and struggle in that peninsula were too destructive of personal wealth and the means of showing it in costly furniture to leave us any materials from thence for our present subject. the history of furniture and woodwork, as applied to civil and social uses, now belongs to such civilisation as took its origin and its form from constantinople. art of these centuries is called byzantine. [illustration] the woodcut is from the chair of st. peter in rome, the oldest and most interesting relic of antique furniture in existence; that is, of furniture made of wood and kept in use from the days of ancient rome. but it has had repairs and additions, and a description of it shall be referred to in another section. byzantine art is a debased form of the classic, but with a large mixture of greek; not of the old classic greek type which had long been exhausted, but of that asiatic greek which derived so much of its splendour from the rich but unimaginative decorations of persia. the objects actually executed at constantinople or by byzantine artists now remaining can scarcely be included in a treatise on furniture. they are mostly caskets and other small pieces executed in metal or in ivory. accounts of many interesting pieces of byzantine sculpture will be found in the "description of the ivories in the south kensington museum." amongst them the diptychs of the consuls are not only the most important, but the most interesting to a treatise on furniture, as we see in them consular seats and thrones of many varieties. we may select amongst other examples the following, which can be studied in the museum or referred to in that work. for instance, n^{o.} 368 (fully described in mr. maskell's "ivories") is one leaf of a consular diptych of anastasius paulus probus sabinianus pompeius. the consul is represented seated on a chair of very ornate character. it is like the old folding curule chairs of rome, but with elements both of greek and egyptian ornamentation, such as belong to the massive marble seats, supported by lions or leopards, with the heads sculptured above the upper joint of the hind legs. in the mouths of these lions' heads are rings for the purpose of carrying the chair, and the top frame is ornamented with little panels and medallions containing winged masks and portrait heads of the consul and his family or of members of the imperial family. on each side of the seat are small winged figures of victory standing on globes and holding circular tablets over their heads. these probably represent the front of the arms, and are supposed to have a bar stretching from the heads or the circular tablets to the back of the seat. this feature too is a continuation of types that are to be found on greek vases and in the chairs of both nineveh and egypt. a low footstool with an embroidered cushion on it is under the feet of the consul, and another cushion, also embroidered, covers the seat. this represents a chair of the sixth century. a seat still more like the curule chair, but with a high back, is represented in another ivory, n^{o.} 270, in the south kensington collection. this piece is a plaque or tablet with a bas-relief of two apostles seated. the chairs are formed of two curved and recurved pieces each side, which are jointed together at the point of intersection. one pair of these pieces is prolonged and connected by straight cross-bars, and forms a back. two dolphins, with the heads touching the low front pieces and the tails sloping up and connected with the back, form the arms. this belongs to the ninth century. the lyre back, a form not unknown in old greek and thence adopted among roman fashions, is also to be seen in chairs on ivories and in manuscripts. round cushions were hung on the back, others covered the seat. these are seen also figured in the mosaics of venice, and later of monreale in sicily which retained much of the byzantine spirit. the art of sicily continued longer subject to constantinople than that of most of its italian provinces, and venice preserved her old traditions far into the period of the european revival of art. the beds, as represented in manuscript illuminations, belong chiefly to religious compositions such as the nativity, or visions appearing to saints in their sleep. they are couches in the old roman form, or are supported on turned legs, from the frames of which valances hang down to the ground. sometimes a curtain acts as a screen at the head or on one side, but testers are wanting. chariots and carriages of all sorts remained more or less roman in type. there were a greater number of waggons or carriages for the conveyance of women and families than had been in use in ancient times. christianity had materially altered the social position of women, and they appeared in public or moved about with their families without the restraints which in the old roman society forbad their appearance in chariots and open carriages, and made the covered couch or closed litter the usual conveyance for ladies of rank in rome. several forms of chariots or carriages of this larger kind can be seen in the sculptures of the column of theodosius in constantinople. the art and the domestic manners and customs that had been in fashion in rome maintained themselves with some modifications in constantinople. the life there was more showy and pompous, but it was free from the cruelties and the corruption of the elder society. it was founded on the profession of christianity, and the numbers and magnificence of the religious hierarchy formed an important feature in the splendid social aspect of the greek capital. the games of the circus, without the cruelties of gladiatorial combats, were maintained. chariots were in constant use, much wealth was spent on their construction, and chariot races were kept up. furniture, such as chairs, couches, chests, caskets, mirrors and articles of the toilet, was exceedingly rich. gold and silver were probably more abundant in the great houses of constantinople than they had been in rome. as the barbarous races of the east and north encroached on the flourishing provinces of the roman empire, constant immigration took place to constantinople and the provinces still under its sway. families brought with them such property as could be easily moved, gold of course and jewels; and, naturally, these precious materials were afterwards used for the decoration of their furniture and dress. the ancient custom of reclining at meals had ceased. the guests sat on benches or chairs. at the same time the "triclinia aurea," or golden dining room, was still the title of the great hall of audience in the palace at constantinople. the term only served to illustrate the jealous retention of the old forms and names by the emperors and patricians. the last branch of the ancient empire did little for the arts of painting and sculpture, though it long preserved the old traditions of art, gradually becoming more and more debased with every succeeding generation, whilst outward splendour was increased because of the greater quantity of the precious metals that had accumulated or been inherited during so many centuries. the decay of art and skill in the old world was, however, counterbalanced by the rise of new societies, which were gradually being formed in various parts of the empire. these consisted partly of the races of huns, goths, saxons, and others, who had invaded italy and settled themselves in it, partly of the old municipal corporations, who defended their property and maintained their privileges in the great walled towns of italy. the cities profited to a great extent by this infusion of new blood; and became the parents of the future provinces of italy, so rich in genius and industry, so wealthy and powerful in peace and war. the most important of them was venice, and it is in venice that, in the later middle ages, we find the birthplace of most of the art with which the furniture and utensils of home and warlike use were so profusely decorated. we point to constantinople as the last stronghold of the old arts of the roman period, but it is because it was from the greeks that the new states borrowed their first notions of art. nearly all the early art we meet with throughout the west in manuscripts and ivories bears a byzantine character. a remarkable piece of monumental furniture has survived from these early centuries of the christian era, half byzantine and half western in character, the chair of st. maximian of ravenna, preserved in the treasury at ravenna, and engraved and described in the "arts somptuaires" of m. du sommerard. ravenna was the portion of the empire that most intimately connected the east with the west. the domed churches of san vitale, san giovanni in fonte, the tomb of galla placidia, the round church of santa maria, built by theodoric, together with the great basilica of saint apollinare in chiasse, and others of the latin form, unite the characteristics of the eastern and western architecture. what is true of architecture can also be pronounced as to painting, sculpture, textile fabrics, and all decoration applied to objects, sacred or domestic, that were in daily use. but events occurred in the declining state of the empire that went far to transfer what remained of art to northern europe. the sect of the iconoclasts, or image-breakers, rose into power and authority under the emperor leo the isaurian, who published an edict in 726 condemnatory of the veneration and use of religious images and paintings. during a century this principle was at work, and it caused the destruction not only of innumerable antique statues, such as those defaced in the parthenon of athens, but the loss of vast quantities of ivory and wood sculpture and precious objects of all kinds. many artists took refuge in western europe, and were welcomed in the rhenish provinces of the empire by charlemagne. how much ancient and domestic art in the form of bronze or other metal furniture, such as chairs, thrones, tripods, &c., whole or in fragments, survived the taking of constantinople by mahomet ii. we cannot conjecture. perhaps the royal palaces, or still more possibly the mosques which have been the banks and depositories of family treasures under mahometan rule, may contain valuable bronzes, ivories, and carved wood, relics of the luxurious life of the latter days of the greek empire, and such evidences may some day come to light. no doubt, however, much antique art and much that belonged to the first eight centuries of our era survived the ordinary shocks of time and war, only to be destroyed by the quiet semi-judicial action of a furious sect protected by imperial decrees, after the manner in which mediæval art suffered under the searching powers of fanatical government commissioners in our own country, in the sixteenth century. it is to the impulse which the lombard and frankish monarchs gave to art in western and northern europe by the protection of greek refugee sculptors and artists that we should trace the beginnings of the northern school called rhenish-byzantine. chapter v. the middle ages. we cannot easily determine on a date at which we can assign a beginning to mediæval art. it differs from the art that succeeded it in the sixteenth century in many respects, and from the late classic art that preceded it still more widely. that peculiar character which we call romantic enters into the art of mediæval times, as it does into the literature and manners of the same ages. it took a living form in the half religious institution of chivalry. the northern nations grew up under the leadership of monks quite as much as under that of kings. they lived in territories only partially cleared from forests, pushed their way forward to power pioneered by the great religious orders, and their world was one surrounded by opportunities of endless adventures. but this romantic standard, though it took its rise from the times in which the christians carried their lives in their hands, under the persecuting emperors, did not pervade europe for many centuries. classic art, in its decay, still furnished both forms and symbols, such, _e.g._, as that of orpheus, to the new societies, and the names of jupiter, mercury, and saturn, have survived as the titles of days of the week. the two art traditions overlapped each other for a while. mediævalism grew very gradually. we have just said that charlemagne welcomed byzantine artists to the rhine. it must be remembered, however, that the roman empire had been firmly planted beyond the alps, and that gaul produced good roman art in the second and third centuries. architecture, sculpture, bronze casting, and the numberless appliances of daily life were completely roman in many parts of france and britain. the theatres and amphitheatres of arles and orange and the collections in various museums are enough to show how extended this character was. it was not till the old traditions had been much developed or modified by oriental influences that a thorough mediæval character of art was established in italy, france, germany, and england. to the last it remained semi-classic in rome itself. we can give reference to few specimens of household furniture or to woodwork of any kind before the eleventh century, with a great exception to be noticed presently. ivories, in any form, belonging to these ages are rare. the best objects are byzantine. anglo-saxon ivories, though not unknown, are all but unique examples. ivory was probably rarely employed for any objects of secular use, unless on mirror cases, combs, or the thrones of kings; on horns, caskets, sword hilts, and the like. metallurgy in the precious metals and in bronze, including the gilding of bronze, was probably the one art that survived the departure, if it had not even preceded the invasion, of the romans in britain. it is scarcely probable that tin and copper ores would have been sought for from britain if manufactured ornaments of metal had not found their way in the first instance from this country to the south. be that, however, as it may, the art of metallurgy survived the downfall of such architectural and sculpturesque skill as had been attained in england under roman traditions; and that metal thrones, chairs, and other utensils were made here as in gaul can hardly be doubted. there is an interesting collection, lately bequeathed by mr. gibbs, of saxon ornaments in gold, bronze, and bronze ornamented with gilding and enamel, in the south kensington museum. these objects were dug up chiefly at faversham, a village in kent. most of these antiquities are _fibulæ_, brooches, and buckles, or portions of horse trappings, bosses, &c., and not recognisable as parts of bronze furniture, such as the chair of dagobert. but it is difficult to examine these personal ornaments and not believe that during the saxon occupation bronze thrones, tripods, mirrors, and other objects of household use were also made. the earliest example of mediæval furniture in the kensington museum is a cast of the chair known as that of dagobert, in the louvre. a full description and history of this chair is to be found in the large catalogue, n^{o.} 68: and we here give a woodcut of it. this work (it is said) was executed by a monk. [illustration] when we consider the rapacity of the barbarian inroads into italy and rome, and the amount of spoil carried bodily away from constantinople, rome, and the great municipal centres of italy, it is remarkable that so little precious furniture should have survived in other parts of europe. the goths under adolphus in the fifth century carried an immense plunder into gaul and spain. "when the treasuries, after the conquest of spain," says gibbon, "were plundered by the arabs, they admired, and they have celebrated, a table of considerable size, of one single piece of solid emerald [that is, glass], encircled with three rows of fine pearls, supported by three hundred and sixty-five feet of gems and massy gold, estimated at the price of five hundred thousand pieces of gold,"--probably the most expensive table on record. it is the value of the materials that has prevented the preservation of many such objects, while the chair of dagobert is of gilt bronze only. early mediæval art, included under the general name of gothic, continued down to the twelfth century full of romanesque forms and details. figures were clothed in classic draperies, but stiff and severe with upright lines and childish attempts to indicate the limbs or joints beneath. nevertheless, the work of these centuries, rude and archaic as it is, is full of dignity and force. the subjects were often sacred, sometimes of war or incidents of the chase. these last were commonly mixed with animals, lions and dogs, or eagles and hawks, or leaves of the acanthus and other foliage. throughout these ages the foliated sculpture, the paintings of books and carving of ivory, and no doubt of wood also, was, moreover, composed in endless convolutions, such as may be seen on sculptured stones in ireland and on the norwegian doors of the twelfth century. whether the different convolutions are formed by figures or dragons, or by stalks of foliage twined and knotted together in bold curved lines, symmetrically arranged, each portion is generally carefully designed and traceable through many windings as having a distinct intention and purpose. ornamental work was thus apparently conventional, but made up of individual parts separately carried out, and in some degree, though not altogether, realistic: a character gradually lost after the early thirteenth century till the new revival in the sixteenth. the tenth century was not favourable to the development of the requirements or comfort of personal life. towards the year one thousand a superstition prevailed over many parts of europe that the world would come to an end when the century was completed; and many fields were left uncultivated in the year 999. the eleventh century made a great advance in architecture and other arts, but down to the norman invasion our own country was far behind the continental nations in the fine arts; metallurgy only excepted. the anglo-saxons perhaps advanced but very slowly, as the century wore on to the period of the norman conquest; and manners remained exceedingly simple. early illuminations, though conventional, give us some details of anglo-saxon houses. they were of one story, and contained generally only one room. the addition of a second was rare before the norman conquest. the furniture of the room consisted of a heavy table, sometimes fixed; on which the inhabitants of the house and the guests slept. a bedstead was occasionally reserved for the mistress of the house. bedsteads when used by the women or the lord of the house were enclosed in a shed under the wall of enclosure and had a separate roof, as may be seen in many manuscripts. in the bayeux tapestry a bed roof is tiled, and the framework shut in with curtains. in many instances such a design represents only a tester with posts. otherwise beds of straw stuffed into a bag or case were spread on the table, and soldiers laid their arms by their heads ready for use in case of alarm. benches, some with lion or other heads at the corners, like elongated chairs or settles (with backs, for the lord and lady of the house), were the usual seats. thrones, something like that of dagobert, were the property of kings. king edward the confessor is seated on such a chair (metal, and in the roman shape) in the bayeux tapestry, and folding chairs of various forms, more or less following classical types, were used by great personages. benches were also used as beds; so were the lids or tops of chests, the sack or bag being sometimes kept in it and filled with straw when required. the tables were covered with cloths at dinner. stained cloths and tapestries, commonly worked with pictorial designs, were used to hang the walls of the house or hall. they were called wah-hrægel, wall coverings. personal clothing was kept in chests of rude construction. silver candlesticks were used in churches. candles were stuck anywhere in houses, on beams or ledges. with regard to carriages during the saxon and anglo-norman period, carts on two wheels were common for agricultural use, and served to transport the royal property. four-wheeled cars drawn by hand labour are used for carrying warlike stores in the bayeux tapestry. in the battle of the standard the standard of the english host was carried on a wheeled car or platform, and remained as the head-quarters or rallying point during action. the norman invasion of england caused a new advance in the luxury and refinement, such as it was, of daily life. the houses began to grow--upper rooms or rooms at the side of the great hall were added, called solars (solaria), the sunny or light rooms. these seem to have been appropriated to the ladies. in due time they added a parloir or talking room, a name derived from the rooms in which conversation was allowed in monasteries where silence was the general rule. in the upper rooms fireplaces were made occasionally, but not always chimneys. in the halls, when the upper room did not cover the whole under room or when an upper room was not constructed, fire was made in the centre of the floor. stairs were of wood. glass was all but unknown in the windows of houses, and wooden shutters kept out the weather. the houses of landowners in england were called manoir or manor. the furniture was simple and consisted of few objects. the table was on trestles; the seats were benches. _armaria_, armoires, cupboards or presses, either stood in recesses in the wall or were complete wooden enclosures. these had doors opening horizontally. the frames were not panelled. the doors were ledge doors of boards, nailed to stout cross bars behind, and decorated with iron hinges and clamps beaten out into scrolls and other ornaments. [illustration] bedrooms were furnished with ornamental bed testers, and benches at the bed foot. beds were furnished with quilts and pillows, and with spotted or striped linen sheets; over all was laid a covering of green say, badgers' furs, the skins of beavers or of martin cats, and a cushion. a perch for falcons to sit on was fixed in the wall. a chair at the bed head, and a perch or projecting pole on which clothes could be hung, completed the furniture of the anglo-norman bedroom. in the foregoing woodcut from willemin there is no tester, but carving on the posts, and the coverings are of the richest description. woodwork was decorated with painted ornament or with fanciful work on the hinges; and nails and clamps were applied to hold it together, rather than with sculpture, down to the fourteenth century; and in england, france, and germany, oak was the wood employed for furniture. both in england and in the countries which had retained old artistic traditions on the continent, such as italy, france, and spain (which profited by the skill of the moors in painted decoration), colour was used not less on walls and wood than on metal and pottery. tapestry was an important portion of the furniture of all houses of the richer classes. during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries mediæval art in europe reached its greatest perfection. the classic traditions were at last forgotten everywhere except in rome itself, where a chain lingered almost continuous between the old ideas and those which succeeded in the sixteenth century. elsewhere the feeling in sculpture, whether of wood or other materials, was in unison with the pointed architecture and reigned unchallenged. all sorts of enrichments were used in the decoration of furniture. a chest of the time of john is preserved in the castle of rockingham. it is of oak richly decorated with hammered iron plates, hinges, &c. the jewel chest of richard of cornwall was long preserved in the state treasury of aix-la-chapelle, and is now at vienna. it belongs to the first half of the century, and was left at aix when richard was crowned king of the romans. the body is of oak decorated with wrought-iron hinges, lock, and clamps, and with bosses of metal on which are enamelled heraldic shields. the construction of woodwork gradually became more careful and scientific. panelled framework came into use, though seldom for doors of rooms. with this method of construction the chests were put together that formed the chief article of furniture during two centuries in the mediæval sleeping, sitting, or private room. in the middle of the thirteenth century eleanor of provence was escorted on her journey to england by an army of ladies, knights, nobles and troubadours, from provence to the shores of the channel. kings were continually making progress in this manner through their dominions, like the indian governors of our own days, and carried their furniture and property in chests, called standards, on the backs of mules or sumpter horses. portable furniture and hangings were the principal objects of household use on such occasions. a precept in the twentieth year of the reign of henry the third directed that "the king's great chamber at westminster be painted a green colour like a curtain, that in the great gable frontispiece of the said chamber a french inscription should be painted, and that the king's little wardrobe should be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain." the queen's chamber was decorated with historical paintings. remains of similar wall decoration are in tolerable preservation still in one of the vaulted rooms of dover castle. till the fourteenth century candles were generally placed on a beam in the hall, whether in the castle of a king or baron. frames of wood with prickets were also suspended for the lighting of rooms, or were fixed to the sides of the fire-place when that was made in the wall and had a chimney constructed for it. more generally, as regards halls, the hearth was in the middle of the room and a lantern just above it in the roof acted as a chimney. iron chandeliers, or branches, were ordered to be fixed to the piers of the king's halls at oxford, winchester, and other places. though the royal table might be lighted with valuable candlesticks of metal, they were not in general use till a century later. besides the numerous rows of tallow candles pieces of pine wood were lighted and stuck into iron hasps in the wall, or round the woodwork at the back of the dais to give more abundant light. the wardrobe was a special room fitted with hanging closets, and in these clothes, hangings, linen, as well as spices and stores, were preserved. this arrangement was common in all large castles during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. great preparations were made in the bedrooms of queens of england to which they retired before the birth of children. henry the third directed that his queen's bedroom should be freshly wainscoted and lined, and that a list or border should be made, well painted with images of our lord and angels, with incense pots scattered over it; that the four evangelists should be painted in the chamber, and a crystal vase be made to keep his collection of relics. room panelling was introduced into england during the same reign. henry ordered a chamber at windsor castle to be panelled with norway pines specially imported; the men worked day and night. the boards were radiated and coloured, and two clear days only were allowed for the fixing and completion. [illustration] edward the first married a spanish queen, and household furniture was further developed under his reign in many particulars. pottery for the table was imported from spain, and oriental carpets were introduced; a luxury naturally borrowed from the extensive use of them by the moors in that country. italian artists had already been invited to england. master william, the florentine, was master of the works at guildford castle. john of st. omer was another foreign artist employed by henry the third. to the former of these we probably owe the introduction into this country of the method of gilding and tooled gold work, with which wood was decorated. specimens of the work are still discernible on the famous coronation chair (of which we give a woodcut, p. 49) in westminster abbey; made about the year 1300. the decoration and comfort of furnished houses during henry's reign was further promoted by the general use of tapestry. queen eleanor is traditionally and incorrectly said to have first brought this kind of furniture into houses; it was certainly adopted for churches at earlier periods, and hangings of various materials, stained or embroidered, were employed as far back as the anglo-saxon times. tapestries and cypress chests to carry them probably became more general in eleanor's reign. amongst the particulars collected in the history of the city companies and by the record commission are lists of the royal plate, showing that objects of personal use besides table plate were made in silver and gold. we find mention of pitchers of gold and silver, plates and dishes of silver, gold salts, alms bowls, silver hannapers or baskets, a pair of knives with enamelled silver sheaths, a fork of crystal, and a silver fork with handle of ebony and ivory, combs and looking-glasses of silver. edward had six silver forks and one of gold. ozier mats were laid over the benches on which he and his queen sat at meals. these were also put under the feet, especially in churches where the pavement was of stone or tiles. in the furniture of bedrooms linen chests and settles, cupboards and the beds themselves were of panelled wood. the next woodcut shows the interior of a well-furnished bedroom, from a manuscript life of st. edmund written about the year 1400. [illustration] chests served as tables, and are often represented with chess-boards on them in old illuminations, and husband and wife sitting on the chest and using it for the game, which had become familiar to most european nations. chests of later date than the time of edward, of italian make, still show the same use of the lids of coffers. as the tops of the coffers served for tables, and for seats they began in the thirteenth century to be furnished with a panelled back and arm-pieces at either end. this development of the chest was equally common in france. it does not seem to have been placed on legs or to have grown into a cabinet till a later period. the raised dorsal or back of the seats in large rooms was a protection from the cold, and in the rude form of a _settle_ is still the comfort of old farm and inn kitchens in this country; it became the general type of seats of state in the great halls, and was there further enlarged by a canopy projecting forwards to protect the heads of the sitters, panelled also in oak. in the fifteenth century in many instances this hood or canopy was attached to the panelling of the upper end of the hall, and covered the whole of that side of the dais. the backing and canopy were sometimes replaced by temporary arrangements of hangings, as in modern royal throne rooms, the cloth being called cloth of estate and generally embroidered with heraldic devices. panelled closets called _dressoirs_ or cupboards, to lock up food, were general in properly furnished rooms; a cloth was laid on the top at meals, with lights, and narrow shelves rose in steps at the back for the display of plate, the steps varying in number according to the rank of the persons served. tables used at meals were generally frames of boards, either in one piece or folding in the middle. these were laid on trestles, as in the woodcut from an early manuscript in the bodleian library, and could be removed as soon as the dinner was over, so that the company might dance and divert themselves. somewhat later, about the year 1450, the tables although still on trestles were made more solidly, even for the use of people of the middle class. [illustration] all houses, however, even of kings could not be completely or even comfortably furnished in such a manner, far less those of feudal lords, not princes or sovereigns. the kings moved incessantly to their various strongholds and manors in time of peace to collect dues and revenues, much of which was paid in kind and could only be profitably turned to account by carrying the court to different estates and living on their produce as long as it lasted. orders were continually sent to sheriffs to provide food, linen and other requisites, while hangings and furniture were carried by the train in its progress. much of the household belongings of persons of wealth was, therefore, of a movable kind. we engrave (p. 53) a very curious table standing on a pedestal shaped like a chalice, from a manuscript of the beginning of the fifteenth century. the ladies are playing at cards. [illustration] [illustration] a most oppressive privilege was exercised in france, which went beyond the legal right of the lord or owner to the rents of his estates whether paid in money, agricultural produce, or manufactures carried on in his towns or villages. this was the _droit de prisage_, a privilege of seizing furniture of all kinds by the hands of stewards and others for the use of the king. chairs, tables, and beds particularly were included in these requisitions. the _droit de prisage_ was modified at various times in consequence of the remonstrance of the commons at so oppressive an exaction; but as late as the year 1365 charles the fifth seized beds. in 1313 philippe le bel entertained the english king and his queen at pontoise with no other furniture than such as had been seized in this manner. a fire broke out in the night during their stay, the furniture was consumed, and the royal personages escaped in their shirts. it was not till 1407 that this privilege was finally abandoned. though the usual conveyance during the thirteenth century was a horse litter for women of rank, and men rode on horseback, yet covered and open carriages or waggons were not unknown in that and in the following century. a charette containing a number of maids of honour in attendance on anne of bohemia at her public reception in london in 1392, was upset on london bridge from the rush of the crowd to get a sight of the queen, and her ladies were not without difficulty replaced. these charettes, cars, or waggons were covered carts on four wheels, like country waggons of our days, panelled at the sides, and the tilt covered with leather, sometimes with lead, and painted. [illustration] we must not pass without a very brief notice the large constructions of roofs of wood begun as early as the twelfth, and continued and improved through the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the period during which the finest efforts of mediæval gothic art were embodied all over the north and over parts of the south of europe. the older part of westminster hall dates from the reign of rufus, and the walls of the present building belong to that period, though faced at a later time. how the roof of the enormous space, sixty-five feet diameter, was at first constructed there is no evidence to show. it had, perhaps, a row of arches down the middle, like the great hall of the palace of blois, said to be of the thirteenth century, or huge kingposts supporting the ties between rafters, which in that case may have been as long as those of the later roof. the present roof, work of the fourteenth century, marks the beginning of a change in the style of architecture that accompanied and caused great changes in furniture and household woodwork. the ties are supported by curved braces that descend like arches on the stone corbels made in the wall to receive them. these braces take two flights, being tied back where they meet by hammer beams into a lower part of the rafter. the lower brace upholds another upright or collar post which supports the junction of these beams with the rafter, at its weakest part. a rich subdivision of upright mullions with cusped arch heads fills up the spandrels between these braces and the beams they support, and adds stiffness as well as decoration to the whole. such constructions were not only more scientific than those of older date, but they are more pompous and complicated, and have a greater apparent affinity with the architecture of the day. this architectural character, from the date of the change to the third period of pointed architecture, began to show itself in furniture and wood structure of every kind. until then a certain originality and inventiveness were preserved in the decoration both of architective woodwork and furniture, notwithstanding the strictest observance of the rules and unities of architectural law in buildings, ecclesiastical and civil. small sculpture, such as that on ivories and utensils made of metal, or that which decorated woodwork as well as stone, and the general forms of furniture, were designed without immediate imitation of architectonic detail. figure sculpture of great dignity remains in ivories of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, illustrative of the general character given to things of daily use which were not, probably, nearly so numerous as in a later age, and were each carefully elaborated for the person for whom they were made. we need go no further than some of the objects in the kensington museum, such as the statuettes and caskets of ivory, english and french work of that time. we can point to few large pieces of furniture, except the coronation chair, illustrating the fashions of this early period. examples of wooden movable furniture are extremely rare in this country. there are large semicircular cope chests in the cathedrals of wells, york, and other cities. these are merely chests or boxes in which the copes are spread out full size, one over the other, and the only decoration consists in the floriated ironwork attached to the hinges. [illustration] [illustration] we must not omit to remark that some examples of very beautiful oriental panelling of this period are to be seen in various collections. the woodcuts represent the fittings of a series of such panels from a mosque at cairo, now at south kensington, n^{o.} 1,051; and a single piece to show the detail. the delicacy of the carving and the apparent intricacy of the geometrical arrangement are very remarkable. [illustration: a royal dinner table, from a manuscript of the fourteenth century.] chapter vi. the fifteenth century. in discussing the great wood structures such as screens, house fronts, roofs, and other large pieces of mechanism, which developed in boldness and variety in the fifteenth century, we must not forget that the abundance of oak timber in the north of europe both suggested much of this timber art and admitted of bold features of construction from the size of the logs and the tenacity of the material. a large portion of england and perhaps an equal proportion of ireland were covered with dense forests of oak. the eastern frontier of france, great portions of burgundy, and many other districts in france, germany, flanders, and other northern countries, were still forests, and timber was to be had at low prices and in any quantity. spanish chestnut had been introduced probably by the romans into england. though churches, castles, and manors were built of stone or brick, or both, yet whole cities seem to have been mainly constructed out of timber. the london of the fifteenth century, like a hundred other cities, though abounding in noble churches and in great fortified palaces, yet presented the aspect of a timber city. the houses were framed together, as a few still are in some english towns and villages, of vast posts sixteen to twenty-four inches square in section, arching outwards and meeting the projecting floor timbers, and so with upper stories, till the streets were darkened by the projections. the surfaces of these posts were covered with delicate tracery, niches and images. in the streets at chester an open gallery or passage is left on the first floor _within_ the timbers of the house fronts. in the court of st. mary's guild in coventry, whole chambers and galleries are supported on vast arches of timber like bridges. oriels jutted out under these overhanging stories, and the spaces between the framing posts were filled in, sometimes with bricks, sometimes with laths and mortar, or parts (as the century wore on) more frequently with glass. in london and rouen, in blois and in coventry, these angle posts were filled with niches and statuettes or fifteenth century window tracery sunk into the surfaces. the dark wooden houses were externally a mass of imagery. in the great roofs of these centuries, such as the one spoken of at westminster, the hammer beams were generally carved into figures of angels gracefully sustaining the timber behind them with outstretched wings; and these figures were painted and gilt. a magnificent example remains intact in the church of knapton in norfolk. [illustration] the number of excellent workmen and the size and architectural character of so much of the woodwork of the day contributed to give all panelled work, no matter of what description, an architectural type; and furniture shared in this change. coffers and chests, as well as standards or stall-ends in churches, and bench-ends in large rooms and halls, were designed after the pattern of window tracery. the panel in the above woodcut from a french chest of this date, is a very delicate and beautiful example. little buttresses and pinnacles were often placed on the angles or the divisions between the panels. at south kensington, the buffet, n^{o.} 8,439 and the chest, n^{o.} 2,789, with other pieces are of this kind; also a grand cabinet of german make in the same collection. this last, n^{o.} 497, is of the rudest construction, but a few roughly cut lines of moulding and some effective ironwork give it richness and dignity that are wanting in many pieces more scientifically made and more decoratively treated. the quantity of tapestry employed in these centuries in fitting up houses and the tents used either during a campaign or in progresses from one estate to another was prodigious, and kept increasing. lancaster entertained the king of portugal in his tent between mouçal and malgaço, fitted up with hangings of arras "as if he had been at hertford, leicester, or any of his manors." as early as 1313, when isabel of bavaria made her entry into paris, the whole street of st. denis, froissart tells us, "was covered with a canopy of rich camlet and silk cloths, as if they had the cloths for nothing, or were at alexandria or damascus. i (the writer of this account) was present, and was astonished whence such quantities of rich stuffs and ornaments could have come, for all the houses on each side of the street of st. denis, as far as the châtelet, or indeed to the great bridge, were hung with tapestries representing various scenes and histories, to the delight of all beholders." the expense incurred in timber work on these occasions may be estimated from the long lists of pageants, and the scale on which each was prepared on this and like occasions. of the early italian furniture of the mediæval period there is at south kensington one fine specimen, a coffer of cypress, covered with flat surface imagery filled in with coloured wax composition. it dates from the fourteenth century. the better known italian furniture of the quattrocento or "fourteen hundred period," _i.e._ the fifteenth century, is gilt and painted. the richness of this old work is owing to the careful preparation of the ground or bed on which the gold is laid and the way in which the preparation was modelled with the tool. the old gold is, besides, both thicker and purer, more malleable, and less liable to suffer from the action of the atmosphere than the gold we now use for this purpose. the paintings executed on such pieces of furniture as offered suitable surfaces to the artist, boxes and coffers (and, for church uses, reliquaries), are equal to the finest works of that kind and of the same period. many artists worked in this way. dello delli was the best known in regard to such productions. his work became so entirely the fashion that, according to vasari, no house was complete without a specimen of it. andrea di cosimo was another. it need not be said that such men and their contemporaries had a number of pupils similarly employed. every piece of painted furniture attributed to dello delli cannot be warranted. there are, however, specimens which we believe to be from his hand in the kensington collection, and numbers of fronts and panels and fragments of great merit which illustrate his style. besides this kind of decoration, the venetians had derived from persia and india another beautiful system of surface ornament; marquetry, a fine inlay of ivory, metal, and woods, stained to vary the colour. the work is in geometric patterns only. it is found on the ivory boxes and other objects sculptured in that material, and attributed to italian as well as to byzantine sources. in the fifteenth century florence also came prominently to the front in the manufacture of these and other rich materials; as well as of ivory inlaid into solid cypress wood and walnut, known as certosina work. the style is indian in character, and consists in geometric arrangements of stars made of diamond-shaped pieces: varied with conventional flowers in pots, &c. the name certosina is derived from the great certosa, charterhouse, or carthusian monastery between milan and pavia: where this kind of decoration is employed in the choir fittings of the splendid church of that monastery. we are inclined to the belief (as already said) that the manufacture of geometrical work of this kind was originally imported from persia by the venetians. there are in the kensington museum some very interesting old chairs made for the castle of urbino, and part of the furniture of guidobaldo ii., whose court, like that of réné, king of provence, was the resort of troubadours, poets, and philosophers. these chairs are covered with geometric marquetry of white and stained ivory, &c., the very counterpart of the bombay work now brought to this country. that manufacture, in the opinion of dr. birdwood, was also of persian origin and thence found its way to bombay. the persians continued long into the last century the inlaying of ivory in walnut wood, and their geometric marquetry is still made. the forms of chairs in use in italy early in the fifteenth century were revivals of the old roman folding chair. the pairs of crosspieces are sometimes on the sides, sometimes set back and front, and in that case arm and back pieces are added. generally we may say that the fine italian furniture of that day owed its beauty to inlaying, surface gilding, tooling and painting. gilt chests and marriage trays, inlaid tables, and chairs are also to be seen at south kensington. as in italy, so in england, france, germany, and later in spain, the splendour hitherto devoted to the glory of ecclesiastical furniture, utensils, or architectural decoration was gradually adopted in the royal and other castles and houses. state rooms, halls of justice, sets of rooms for the use of the king or his barons were furnished and maintained. the large religious establishments also demanded the skill of artists and workmen, and to a greater extent north than south of the alps. many monastic houses in the north of europe were seats of feudal jurisdiction. these communities executed great works in wood, stall-work, presses, coffers, &c., as large and continuous societies alone are able to carry through tasks that want much time for completion. all this helped to encourage the manufacture of woodwork of the finest kind. hence the mediæval semi-ecclesiastical character maintained sway in every art connected with architecture and furniture longer in northern countries than in italy, where both old traditions and monumental remains recalled rather the glories of antique art, and where the revival of classic learning had begun. as regards english art it is certain that, partly from the influence of foreign queens, partly from foreign wars, and partly from the incessant intercourse with the rest of europe kept up by religious houses, many of the accomplishments of other countries were known and practised here by foreign or native artists. it is true that the wars of the roses, more bloody and ruinous than any experienced in this country, delayed that growth of domestic luxury which might have been expected from the then wealth of england. but when henry the seventh established a settled government, and from his time downwards, the decorations and the accumulation of furniture in houses, libraries, and collections of works of art rapidly increased. many of the books in the "king's library," and many pictures and movables still in possession of the crown, may be traced to that day. it is difficult, indeed, to imagine the england which leland saw in his travels. it must have been full of splendid objects, and during the reign of henry the feudal mansions, as well as the numerous royal palaces of windsor, richmond, havering, and others, were filled with magnificent furniture. mabuse and torrigiano were employed by the king, and this example found many imitations; artists, both foreign and english, made secular furniture, as rich and beautiful as that of the churches and religious houses which covered the country. taste in furniture, as in architecture, both in continental europe and in these islands had nevertheless passed the fine period of mediæval design. the "gothic" or pointed forms and details had become uninventive and commonplace. the whole system awaited a change. the figure sculpture, however, of the latter years of this century, though life-sized statues had lost much of the dignity and simplicity of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, was approaching the realization of natural form, which it attained in such excellence in the succeeding century. the ingenuity and raciness of the smaller figure carving both in stall-work of churches and on the tops and fronts of boxes and caskets, in panel-work of cabinets or doors, &c., during the last half of the fifteenth century are scarcely surpassed by the more academic and classical figure design of the sixteenth. carvers on all kinds of wood furniture and decoration of houses delighted in doubling their figures up into quaint and ingenious attitudes, and if the architecture was latterly tame, though showy and costly, imagery continued to be full of individuality and inventiveness. chapter vii. the renaissance in italy. there are few matters regarding art more worthy of consideration than the narrowness of the limits that bound human invention: or, to speak more exactly, we should say the simplicity of the laws and principles in obedience to which the imaginations of men are exercised. the return of the painters, sculptors, and architects to the old types of classical art after the reign of the gothic seems at first sight as if in the arts there could be nothing new under the sun: as if the imagination, so fertile in creation during many centuries since the establishment of christianity, had been utterly worked out and come to an end, and that there was nothing left but to repeat and copy what had been done ages before. there is, however, in reality more connection between classic and mediæval art than appears on the surface, and although all the great masters of the revival studied eagerly such remains of antique art as were discovered in italy during the early years of the renaissance, they only came into direct contact with or absolute imitation of those models occasionally; and the works of that age have a grace that is peculiarly their own, and an inventiveness in painting and sculpture, if not in architecture, that seems, when we look at such cities as venice and florence, inexhaustible. the renaissance began in italy many years before the year 1500. most changes, indeed, of manners or arts which are designated by any century are perhaps more correctly dated twenty years before or after its beginning, and in the notices which we are here putting together we are compelled to make divisions of time occasionally overlap each other. the revival of learning in italy was accompanied by other circumstances which had a powerful influence on the arts, and particularly on the sumptuary arts of the century. it has been already remarked that while the nations of europe were more or less convulsed with war it was not easy or possible for the inhabitants, even the wealthy, to do much in furnishing dwelling-houses with any kind of comfort. rich furniture consisted in a few costly objects and in hangings such as could be carried about on sumpter horses or in waggons, and, with the addition of rough benches, tables, and bedsteads, could make bare walls look gay and comfortable, and offer sufficient accommodation in the empty halls of granges and manors seldom lived in, for the occasions of a visit or a temporary occupation. churches indeed were in those ages respected by both sides in the furious contests that raged throughout europe. the violation of holy places was a crime held in abhorrence by all combatants, and the treasuries and sacristies, therefore, of churches were full of examples of every kind of accomplishment possessed by the artists of the day. they contained objects collected there during many generations, as was the case of shrines like that of the virgin del pillar in spain, of which the offerings so long preserved have been very lately sold and dispersed, and represented the art of many successive ages. but in private houses it was scarcely possible to have any corresponding richness, though in the instance of kings and potentates there was often much splendour. as in england the fifteenth century saw the close of a series of great wars and the establishment of one powerful government, so during its conclusion and the beginning of the next century a similar disorder gradually gave place to tranquillity in italy. the practices of painting gilt furniture of all kinds, and of modelling terra-cotta work on the wood, were not altogether new accomplishments or confined to the artists of one city. when, therefore, the french having been driven out of italy, the popes were in security in rome and the accomplished medici family reigned in florence, those states as well as urbino, ferrara, and other independent cities were free from the perpetual attitude of defence against foreign invasion; they could indulge their enthusiasm for classic art, and the impulse given to the study of it found a ready response, as great noblemen while building palaces and digging gardens came upon statues, frescoes, vases, bronzes, and many glorious remnants of antiquity. in the various italian states were artists well skilled and carefully trained, and there was no difficulty in finding distinguished names with whole schools of enthusiastic admirers behind them who, with these precious objects in their view, formed their style on the old classic models. we are to consider such acquirements here only so far as they came to be applied to secular woodwork (of which this cornice from venice is an example) and the objects of daily use; to coffers, chests, caskets, mirrors, or cabinets, sideboards of various kinds, seats, tables, carriages and furniture of every description. [illustration] the best artists of the day did not hesitate to give their minds to the making of woodwork and furniture in various materials and employed every kind of accomplishment in beautifying them. of this fine renaissance period there are so many examples in the south kensington collection, and some of them of such excellence, that the student need scarcely have occasion to travel beyond the limits of that museum to illustrate the quattrocento and cinquecento furniture and woodwork. many materials were employed by the renaissance artists. wood first and principally in making furniture, but decorated with gilding and paintings; inlaid with agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli and marbles of various tints; with ivory, tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl; and with other woods. they also made many smaller objects, such as mirror cases in iron, damascened or inlaid with gold and silver. for many years, however, mirrors continued to be of polished metal, the enrichment being devoted to the outer case. glass mirrors were not common till a somewhat later period. as the general material of furniture in the sixteenth century continued to be wood, its chief decoration was sculpture. the number of remarkable pieces of carved wood furniture belonging to this period in the museum is considerable. the most striking are the chests, cassoni, large coffers for containing clothes or ornamental hangings and stuffs that were kept in them when not in use. rooms, however large, of which the walls, floors, and ceilings are decorated, do not require many substantial objects in addition; and these chests, with a table and chairs placed against the wall, nearly complete the requirements of great italian halls and corridors. [illustration] the general form of the carved chests is that of a sarcophagus. they are supported on claw feet, and have masks, brackets, or caryatid figures worked into the construction as in the accompanying woodcut, leaving panels, borders, or other spaces for historic sculpture. the subjects are sometimes from scripture, often from the poems of ovid. they are carved in walnut wood, which is free in grain and very tenacious: and the work, like most of the old furniture carving, is helped out with gilding. sometimes the ground, at others the relieved carvings are touched or completely covered with gilding. most of these fine chests are in pairs, and probably formed parts of still larger sets, fours or sixes, according as they were intended for the wall spaces of larger or smaller rooms or portions of wall between two doors. carved chests commonly in use, and given to brides as part of their dowry or as presents to married couples, or simply provided as the most convenient objects both for receptacles and occasionally for seats, were often made at less cost in cypress wood. they are generally decorated with surface designs etched with a pen on the absorbent grain of that wood, the ground being slightly cut out and worked over with punches shaped like nail heads, stars, &c. cypress chests were especially used for keeping dresses or tapestries; the aromatic properties of that timber being considered as a specific against moth. this kind of chest, when intended to hold a bridal trousseau, was occasionally made with small drawers and receptacles inside for fans, lace, combs, or other feminine ornaments. allusions to cypress chests in england are numerous in the wardrobe and privy purse accounts of edward the fourth and his successors. the tables of this period are sometimes solid (as n^{o.} 162, which is covered with spirited designs of mythological subjects). dinner tables were "boards" fastened on trestles, according to the old usage already alluded to, and could be removed when the meal was over; or several could be laid together, as in our modern dining-room tables, to meet the demands of the noble hospitality exercised in those days. the italian chairs of the quattrocento period have been spoken of above. we have, however, another very rich and effective form of chairs usual in the sixteenth century, and which were in general use in venice. in these the seat is fastened into two planks, one before and one behind, as in the woodcut. the planks are richly carved, and a third plank is let in to form a back. the several portions, particularly the back, were sometimes sufficiently thick to admit of carving in massive relief. the flanks of the back piece are usually grotesque monsters, and the arms of the owner carved on a scutcheon in the centre. they seem to have been generally richly gilt. they also formed the decoration of a great corridor or hall, and were used without cushions. [illustration] the frames of pictures were bold and rich. those of the previous century had been mostly imitative of small gothic shrines, being generally for religious subjects and for use in churches or oratories. in the cinquecento period they were square panels, carved and richly gilt. there are in the kensington museum remarkable examples of frames made for mirrors, either for the sitting-rooms or saloons of the lady of the house, or for her bedroom. three of these are type pieces of such productions. n^{o.} 7695 is a square frame carved in walnut, standing on a foot, and meant to be carried about. from the daisies in relief on the foot it may perhaps be ascribed to marguerite of valois, and have been used in the court of provence. nothing in the collection surpasses the elegance and perfection of the ornamental work on the mouldings. the mirror itself is of polished metal. another is in a circular frame, n^{o.} 7694, shaped like a shield, and meant to be hung up. it was probably made for a duchess of ferrara. there are classical details of architectonic kind on the edges of the carving, which is highly finished. the mirror itself is of metal, and the back has figures on it in relief and is solidly gilt. the third of these, n^{o.} 7226, is larger. in design it is like a monumental mural tablet, with a carved rich finish on the four sides, and the mirror furnished with a sliding cover in the form of a medallion, containing a female head of singular nobleness and beauty. in this case the material is walnut relieved by broad surfaces of inlaid wood. we may also mention the superb soltykoff mirror, n^{o.} 7648. this is an example of metal work throughout, the case, stand, and sliding cover being of iron damascened with gold and silver in every variety of that costly process. [illustration] some of the richest pieces of carved walnut furniture belonging to this period are the bellows. as these are characteristic of the italian style of the period in furniture of various kinds, we give woodcuts of two examples in the south kensington collection. they are generally of walnut touched with gilding; and in the form still familiar to ourselves, which is as old as the classic times. [illustration] besides furniture carved in this way out of solid wood, there were other materials used and other methods of decorating household furniture. the tarsia or inlaid work has been alluded to. the first methods were by geometrical arrangements of small dies; but magnificent figure designs had been executed in inlaid wood in the early period of the renaissance, and before it. work of this kind was made in two or three woods, and much of it is in pine or cypress. the large grain is used to express lines of drapery and other movements by putting whole folds or portions of a dress or figure with the grain in one direction or another, as may be required. the picture is thus composed of pieces inclined together; a few bold lines incised and blackened give such outlines of the form as are not attainable by the other method, and slight burning with an iron is sometimes added to produce tone or shadow. "'tarsie' or 'tarsiatura,'" says mrs. merrifield, "was a kind of mosaic in woods. this consisted in representing houses and perspective views of buildings, by inlaying pieces of wood of various colours and shades into panels of walnut wood. vasari speaks rather slightingly of this art, and says that it was practised chiefly by those persons who possessed more patience than skill in design; that although he had seen some good representations in figures, fruits, and animals, yet the work soon becomes dark, and was always in danger of perishing from the worms and by fire. tarsia work was frequently employed in decorating the choirs of churches as well as the backs of seats and the wainscoting. it was also used in the panels of doors." another method of ornamentation dependent on material that came into use in this century was the pietra dura or mosaic panelling of hard pebbles. the work is laborious and costly. not only are the materials (agate, carnelian, amethyst and marbles of all colours) expensive, but each part must be ground laboriously to an exact shape and the whole mosaic fitted together, a kind of refinement of the old marble work called alexandrinum. besides being formed into marble panels for table tops and cabinet fronts, pietra dura was let into wood, and helped out with gay colours the more sombre walnut or ebony base of the furniture. vasari, speaking of particular pieces of furniture of his day, mentions a "splendid library table" made at the expense and by the order of francesco de' medici in florence. this table was "constructed of ebony," that is, veneered with ebony, "divided into compartments by columns of heliotrope, oriental jasper, and lapis lazuli, which have the bases and capitals of chased silver. the work is furthermore enriched with jewels, beautiful ornaments of silver, and exquisite little figures, interspersed with miniatures and terminal figures of silver and gold, in full relief, united in pairs. there are, besides, other compartments formed of jasper, agates, heliotropes, sardonyxes, carnelians, and other precious stones." this piece was the work of bernardo buontalenti. another piece of such work is described as a table "wholly formed of oriental alabaster, intermingled with great pieces of carnelian, jasper, heliotrope, lapis, and agate, with other stones and jewels, worth twenty thousand crowns." another artist, bernardino di porfirio of leccio, executed an "octangular table of ebony and ivory inlaid with jaspers." this precious manufacture has been patronised in the grand ducal factories down to recent times, and is continued in the royal establishments of the king of italy. a feature which was strongly developed in the sixteenth century furniture is the architectural character of the outlines. it has already been observed that in the fifteenth century, chests, screens, stall fronts, doors and panelling followed or fell into the prevailing arrangements of architectural design in stonework, such as window tracery, or wall tracery. but in the cinquecento furniture an architectural character, not proper to woodwork for any constructive reasons, was imparted to cabinets, chests, &c. they were artificially provided with parts that imitated the lines, brackets, and all the details of classic entablatures which have constructive reasons in architecture, but which, reduced to the proportions of furniture, have not the same propriety. these subdivisions brought into use the art of "joinery." the parts obviously necessary for the purpose of framing up wood, whether a box or chest, a door, a piece of panelling, or a chair, offer certain opportunities for mouldings or carvings; some are the thicker portions forming the frames, some the thin flat boards that fill up the spaces. to add a variety of mouldings, such as subdivide the roofs of temples or their peristyles, is, of course, to depart from the carpenter's province and work, and rather to take furniture out of its obvious forms for the express purpose of impressing on it the renaissance type. [illustration: knife case. dated 1564.] the artists of that time did this with the object of designing "in character," and special models, such as the old triumphal arches, and sarcophagi, at rome, were in view in these designs. on both arches and tombs sculptured bas-reliefs abounded. figures reclined over the arches, and were arranged in square compositions in the panels, for which the upper stories of the arches made provision. the renaissance cabinets fell into modifications of this ideal. a century later they grew into house fronts, and showed doors, arches, and balustrades inside, with imitative paved floors, looking-glasses set at angles of 45°, so as to make reflections of these various parts; and in this humorous fashion the inside of a walnut or ebony cabinet was turned into the model of an italian villa. again, in place of the running foliated borders and mouldings having a continuous design, or of compositions of foliage, animals, &c., forming in each arch moulding or cornice line a homogeneous line or circle, the renaissance arabesques introduced an entirely new method of decoration. in arabesque ornament all sorts of natural objects are grafted on a central stalk, or, as in the best work, on something like the stem of a candelabrum. the resources of this method are limited only by the fancy and skill of the artist, who grafts here a mask, there a leaf on his stem, and so on. the temptation is the license and discordance that come in when no unity is needed in a piece of ornament, and no continuous effort of mind required to think out and execute one definite idea in designing it. the central stem leads to an exact balance or reversal of one half of each element in the ornament, so that one half only of a panel or border has to be _designed_. in the hands of great artists this kind of ornamentation has been used with consummate grace. chapter viii. the renaissance in england, flanders, france, germany, and spain. in the foregoing sketch of the furniture, designs, and manufactures of central italy, we have described the history of contemporaneous furniture throughout europe. pope leo the tenth gave every encouragement to the reviving arts in rome, and left that capital the great nursery of art down to our day. to italy the great princes of europe sent the most promising artists of their dominions, or encouraged such resort. most of these men were architects and sculptors. classical learning and splendid living were both encouraged by henry the eighth. he is, probably, to be credited with the impulse given to the court and the country in the direction of the arts and accomplishments of italy. if jean de mabuse had been patronised by henry the seventh, his successor offered tempting terms to primaticcio to exchange the service of his brother king, francis, for his own. other artists, contemporaries of raphael and his scholars, found their way to england; to these we must add the great master of the german or swiss school, holbein. that the artists both of holbein's and of the italian schools designed furniture in this country we have proofs in the drawing for a panelled chimney-piece now in the british museum, and the woodwork of king's college chapel in cambridge. another piece of furniture of this date, showing the mixed character of italian and holbeinesque design, is the very fine "tudor" cabinet at south kensington. though the court of henry and the palaces of his wives were furnished with splendour, and works of art, especially those of the gold and silversmith, and jewellery, found their way from foreign parts to such great houses, the general manners of the country changed less in these respects than was the case in france and the more wealthy states and courts of germany. in the portrait pictures of henry and his family we see furniture of a renaissance character, but in the great monuments of the woodwork of the day the old style prevailed throughout the reign. the roofs, magnificent specimens of wood construction, were still subdivided, and supported by king posts, queen posts, hammer beams, arches connecting these portions and tracery panels in the spandrels, as in the two previous centuries. all parts were carved and coloured. the architecture of country houses began to change from the old form of a castle or a fortress to that of the beautiful and characteristic style to which we give the name of tudor. moats were retained, but still the principal features of the building were the depressed arches and perpendicular window mullions that had been long familiar in england, and were suggested by the wooden houses so general in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. the woodwork also and the panelling of halls and chambers retained the upright lines and mouldings forming the various "linen" patterns. leafwork and heads, busts of the reigning princes, or of heroes such as the cæsars, filled up the more ornamental sections, giving a certain classical element which was not fully developed till later: and most of the renaissance ornamentation of this reign has a flemish rather than an italian character. the woodcuts on the next page show a series of panels of different countries, many of which are to be found introduced with slight variations in english work of about the same period. flanders was in advance of this country in renaissance art. this remark extends to ornament of all kinds, whether of church woodwork, glass-painting, or domestic furniture. still the flemish work of this renaissance, or (speaking of england) this early tudor period retains a mixture of details of the pointed style that makes us sometimes doubtful how to characterise the style of individual pieces. we may point to sideboards and chests in illustration. belgium abounds in examples of this transition period. [illustration: english, 15th century.] [illustration: flemish, 16th century.] [illustration: french, 16th century.] [illustration: german, 15th century.] [illustration: italian, 16th century.] in france, the most advanced and most luxurious and cultivated of the transalpine courts, the renaissance art had advanced far beyond that of england. not only had francis the first and the medici princesses invited famous artists out of italy, but they aimed at imitating florentine luxuries and refinements as completely as they could. admirable schools of ornamental art, such as that of the limoges enamellers and carvers in ivory, were and had been long established in france. classic sculpture was produced of great merit in all materials. primaticcio and cellini founded new schools of architects, painters, and sculptors in france. they employed pupils, and the most promising found their way to rome and florence, associated themselves with the great masters then practising, and brought back all the instruction they could obtain. [illustration] jean goujon stands at the head of these french masters. besides being a sculptor and architect, there is little doubt of his having designed and even sculptured wood furniture. probably the carved woodwork of the king's bedroom and adjoining rooms in the old louvre are by his hand. bachelier, of toulouse, did the same, and pieces are attributed to him now in the kensington museum. philibert de l'orme was another artist in a similar field. both goujon and bachelier showed the influence of the great italian masters in their work. the table engraved (p. 81) is a very elegant example of french sixteenth century furniture. [illustration] [semper festina lente 1577 a. reid. del.] the woodwork in the renaissance houses--the panelling and fittings of the rooms--was designed by the architect, and was full of quaint, sometimes extravagant imagery. for example, the architectural and decorative plates of jacques androuet du cerceau will give some idea of the dependence of all these details on the architects of the day. this author published designs for marquetry or wood mosaics, as well as for all sorts of woodwork. a glance at the heavy cabinets of the later sixteenth century, of french origin, will show how completely great pieces of furniture fell into the same character of forms. shelves are supported on grotesque figures, while in the mouldings, instead of simple running lines worked with the plane, as in fifteenth century woodwork, we see the egg and tongue, acanthus leaves, dentils and other members of classical architecture, constantly recurring. the ornaments of french woodworkers show a fondness for conventional bands or straps interspersed with figures and other ornaments. the panel, of which we give a woodcut, is french, and dated 1577. it contains armorial bearings and a monogram, said to be of the aldine family. in 1577, however, aldus manutius the elder was dead, and his son did not live in france. germany and spain took up the renaissance art in a still more italian spirit than england or france. parts of italy as well as spain were under the same ruler; they both, as far as regards art, felt the influence of powerful imperial patronage. we are only concerned with their art here as it refers to woodwork. german wood carvers were more quaint, minute, and redundant as to decoration. something of the vigour, manliness, and inexhaustible sense of humour of the germans characterises their woodwork, as it does other art, of which ornament forms the main feature. the well-known "triumph of maximilian," though a woodcut only, may be taken as a type of german treatment. the great cities of the empire are full of carved woodwork, house fronts, and gables. timber was abundant. the imagery of the period, in wood as in stone, is intentionally quaint, contorted, humorous. it would be essentially ugly but for the inexhaustible fecundity of thought, allegory, and satire that pervades it. it should be added also that designers and architects had an immense sense of dignity, which we recognise immediately when we see their architectural compositions as a whole. depths and hollows, points of light, prominences and relative retirement of parts in their arrangements of carved ornament, were matters thoroughly understood; and they succeed in imparting that general agreeableness which we call "effect" to the mind of the observers. as regards spanish art we cannot do better than adopt the statements of señor j. f. riaño, who says that "the brilliant epoch of sculpture in wood belongs to the sixteenth century, and was due to the great impulse it received from the works of berruguete and felipe de borgoña. he was the chief promoter of the italian style, and the choir of the cathedral of toledo, where he worked so much, is the finest specimen of the kind in spain. toledo, seville, and valladolid were at that time great productive and artistic centres. as a specimen of wood carving of the italian renaissance period, applied to an object of furniture, the magnificent wardrobe by gregorio pardo (1549) outside the chapter house at toledo may be mentioned as one of the most beautiful things of its kind. these various styles of ornamentation were applied to the cabinets 'bufetes' of such varied form and materials which were so much the fashion in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. the most characteristic of spain are such as are called 'vargueños.' these cabinets are decorated outside with fine ironwork, and inside with columns of bone painted and gilt. the other cabinets or escritoires belonging to that period, which are so frequently met with in spain, were to a large extent imported from germany and italy, _while others were made in spain in imitation of these_" (the italics are ours), "and as the copies were very similar it is difficult to classify them. it may be asserted, however, that cabinets of inlaid wood were made in great perfection in spain at the end of the sixteenth century, for in a memorial written by a maker of tapestry, pedro gretierez, who worked for queen isabella, he says, 'the escritoires and cabinets brought from germany are worth 500, 600, and 700 reales each, and those of the same kind made in spain by spaniards are to be had for 250 and 300 reales.' besides these inlaid cabinets others must have been made in the sixteenth century inlaid with silver. an edict was issued in 1594 prohibiting, with the utmost rigour, the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in order not to increase the scarcity of silver. the edict says that 'no cabinets, desks, coffers, brasiers, shoes, tables, or other articles decorated with stamped, raised, carved, or plain silver, should be manufactured.'" chapter ix. tudor and stuart styles. the list of reigns supplies more convenient dates than the beginning or the end of a century for marking changes of national tastes in such matters as furniture. the names of kings or queens are justly given to denote styles, whether of architecture, dress, or personal ornaments, and utensils of the household. society in most countries adopts those habits that are first taken up by the sovereign. in england, the reign of elizabeth was pre-eminently a period during which the tastes, even the fancies, of the queen were followed enthusiastically by her people. elizabethan is the name of the style of architecture gradually developed during her reign. italian taste, though not perhaps so pure as it had been a few years earlier, had become far more general; classical details, however, were mixed even more in england than in other countries (flanders excepted) with relics of older styles, the love of which was still strong in this country. the fireplaces and the panelling of our old houses, crewe hall, speke in lancashire, haddon hall in derbyshire, kenilworth castle, raglan castle, and many other old buildings, are thoroughly characteristic of this mixed classical revival. the fashion is quaint and grotesque, the figure sculpture being good enough to look well in the form of caryatid monsters, half men, half terminal posts or acanthus foliations, but not sufficiently correct or graceful to stand altogether alone. specimens, however, of very good work can be pointed out, and we give here some of the details of a panelled room brought lately from exeter, and now in the south kensington collection. we may say that the character of the woodwork throughout this period consists in actual architectural façades or portions of façades, showy arrangements wherever they are possible of the "five orders" of architecture, or of pedimental fronts. doorways and chimney fronts are the principal opportunities in interiors for the exercise of this composing skill. panelling remained in use in the great halls and most of the chambers of the house, but the linen pattern, so graceful and effective, went out of fashion. the angles of the rooms, the cornices, and spaces above the doors were fitted with groups of architectural cornice mouldings, consisting of dentil, egg and tongue, and running moulds, and sometimes room walls were divided into panels by regular columns. [illustration] heraldry, with rich carved mantlings and quaint forms of scutcheons (the edges notched and rolled about as if made of the notched edges of a scroll of parchment), was a frequent ornament. grotesque terminal figures, human-headed, supported the front of the dresser--the chief furniture of the dining-room and of the cabinet. table supports and newels of stair rails grew into heavy acorn-shaped balusters. in the case of stair balusters, these were often ornamented with well-cut sculpture of fanciful and heraldic figures. inlaid work also began to be used in room-panelling as well as furniture; bed heads and testers, chest fronts, cabinets, &c., were inlaid, but scarcely with delicacy, during the early elizabethan period. the art was developed during the reign of james, when, in point of fact, the larger number of the tudor houses were erected. when the tudor period was succeeded by that of the stuarts the same general characteristics remained, but all the forms of carving grew heavier and the execution coarser. the table legs, baluster newels, and cabinet supports, had enormous acorn-shaped masses in the middle. the objects themselves, such as the great hall tables, instead of being moveable on trestles, became of unwieldy size and weight. the general character of flemish work was much of the same kind and form. it is not easy to distinguish the nationality of pieces of flemish and english oak furniture of this period. the flemings, however, retained a higher school of figure carvers, and their church-stall work and some of their best things are of a higher stamp and better designed; and where figure sculpture was employed this superiority is always apparent. a good example of flemish panelling can be studied in the doorway at south kensington, n^{o.} 4329. their furniture is represented by an excellent specimen, amongst others, of this mixed period in the cabinet, n^{o.} 156. though large and heavy, and divided into massive parts, the treatment of ornament is well understood on such pieces. the scroll-work is bold but light, and the general surface of important mouldings or dividing members is not cut up by the ornamentation. the panels are very generally carved with graceful figure subjects, commonly biblical. as the years advanced into the seventeenth century flemish work became bigger and less refined. diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on the square, turned work was split and laid on, drop ornaments were added below tables and from the centres of the arches of arched panels; all these unnecessary ornaments were mere additions and encumbrances to the general structure. [illustration] our own later jacobean or stuart style borrowed this from the flemish. the flemings and the dutch had long imported woodwork into england, and it is to that commerce that we may trace the greater likeness between the late flemish renaissance carving and corresponding english woodwork, than between the english and the french. dutch designs in furniture, though allied to the flemish, were swelled out into enormous proportions. the huge wardrobe cabinets made by the dutch of walnut wood with ebony inlaid work and waved ebony mouldings are still to be met with. the panels of the fronts are broken up into numerous angles and points. in france the fine architectural wood construction of the style of philibert de l'orme and so many great masters maintained itself, and a number of fine cabinets and sideboards in various collections attest the excellence of the work. the cabinet on the opposite page (n^{o.} 2573 in the kensington museum) is of late french sixteenth century work, and combines the characteristics of the heavy furniture made in the north of europe with a propriety of treatment in the ornamentation of mouldings and cornices peculiar to french architects, who continued to design such structures for the houses they built and fitted up. the descendants of catherine de' medicis and their generation were trained by italian artists and altogether in italian tastes, and no great change occurred in france in woodwork or furniture till the sixteenth century had closed. in german and in italian furniture the principal changes were in the direction of veneered and marquetry work. the same vigorous quaintness continued to distinguish german decorative detail as has been already noticed. the italians carved wood during the later sixteenth and the whole of the seventeenth centuries with extraordinary grace and vigour. the next woodcut, a pedestal in oak, shows their power in hard material: and smaller objects, such as the frames of pictures, were cut out in great sweeping leaves, perhaps of the acanthus, showing an ease and certainty in the artist that look as if he were employed upon some substance more yielding than the softest wood. chairs were cut in the same rich style, and this luxurious carving was not unfrequently applied to the decoration of state carriages. venice maintained a pre-eminence in this perhaps in a greater degree than florence, though in the valley of the arno the willow, lime, sycamore, and other soft white woods were to be had in abundance, and invited great freedom in carving. [illustration] [illustration] we may now treat of an important epoch in the history of modern furniture. venice was the seat of the manufacture of glass. in the sixteenth century workmen had received state protection for the manufacture of mirrors, which till that time had been mere hand mirrors and made of mixed metals highly polished. gilt wood frames were extensively manufactured for these venetian looking-glasses, which found their way all over europe. besides gilt frames, gilt chairs, carved consoles, and other highly ornate furniture were introduced as the century went on, and most of this took its origin from venice. the woodcut represents a small frame, n^{o.} 1605, at south kensington. another remarkable class of gilt woodwork, for which florence and other cities had found trained carvers, was the framework of carriages. in england, france, germany, and italy carriages during the seventeenth century were stately, and certainly wonderful pieces of furniture. examples of these showy carriages exist still. there is a collection belonging to the royal family of portugal, now preserved at lisbon, one or two in the museum of the hôtel de cluny at paris, dating from the time of martin and painted by him, and there are a few carriages of old date at vienna and probably in some private houses. the state-coach of the speaker is an english example of the seventeenth century. germany differed less from italy even than france in wood carving, interior room fittings, and the frequent pedimental compositions containing grotesques, or heraldic achievements on a scale of sumptuous display. the german princes were many of them skilful and intelligent patrons of art, and made collections in their residences. a well-known piece belonging to the early seventeenth century is preserved in the royal museum at berlin. this is known as the pomeranian art cabinet. it is 4 ft. 10 in. high, 3 ft. 4 in. wide by 2 ft. 10 in. deep, made of ebony with drawers of sandal wood lined with red morocco leather, and is mounted with silver and pietra dura work, and fitted inside with utensils of various kinds. the chair, of which we give a woodcut, is german of about the same date. [illustration] in the west of europe, during the seventeenth century, marquetry was extensively used, and became the leading feature of furniture decoration. inlaying had long been in use; but the new marquetry was a picturesque composition, a more complete attempt at pictorial representation. it comes before us in old furniture under various forms, and many examples of it may be studied in different collections. in this country we may consider it mainly as an imported art of the reign of william and mary, when dutch marquetry furniture became the fashion in the form of bandy-legged chairs, upright clock fronts, secrétaires or bureaux, or writing cabinets which were closed in the upper and middle parts with doors, and other pieces that offered surfaces available for such decoration. the older designs on work of this kind represent tulips and other flowers, foliage, birds, &c., all in gay colours, generally the self colours of the woods used. sometimes the eyes and other salient points are in ivory or mother-of-pearl. in france, in the earlier marquetry designs, picturesque landscapes, broken architecture, and figures are represented. colours are occasionally stained on the wood. ivory and ebony were favourite materials; as also in germany and in italy. it is to be noted that as the vigour of the great sixteenth century movement died out, the mania for making furniture in the form of architectural models died out also; nor do we find it becoming a fashion again till quite modern times, under the gothic and other revivals at the end of the last and the beginning of the present century. the architectural idea was in itself full of grandeur, and it was productive of very beautiful examples in the sarcophagus-shaped chests or cassoni, and in cabinet work, though the façades of temples and the vaults and columns of triumphal arches in rome do not bear to be too completely reduced to such small proportions. with the introduction of marquetry into more general use we recognise not only a new or renewed method of decoration, but a changed ideal of construction. boxes, chests, tables, cabinets, &c., were conceived as such. they were made more convenient for use, and were no longer subdivided by architectural mouldings and columns, all so much extra work added to the sides and fronts. about the middle of the seventeenth century a kind of work altogether new in the manufactory of modern furniture made its appearance under the reign of louis the fourteenth of france. that king rose to a position in europe that no monarch of modern times had occupied before, and the great ministers of his reign had the wisdom to take special measures for the establishment of the various arts and manufactures in which either the italians or flemings excelled the french as well as other nations. colbert, his minister of finance, amongst his commercial reforms of learned societies and schools of art, founded in 1664 an "academie royale de peinture d'architecture et de sculpture." it was into this that the designers of architecture, woodwork, ornament or furniture, were admitted. he established also the famous factory of the "gobelins" for making pictorial tapestry. the place took its name from the brothers gobelin, flemings, who had a dyeing-house in the rue mouffetard. lebrun, the painter, was the first head of it. another important name is that of jean lepautre. he has left numerous designs of ornament behind him for panelling, mirror frames, carriages, &c. lepautre was a pupil of adam philippon. this artist, whose chief calling was that of a joiner and cabinet maker, has also left designs. to colbert is due the credit of pushing forward the renewal or completion of the royal palaces; especially the château of versailles. for the furniture of this palace we find the new material employed, namely, boule marquetry, which owes its name to the maker. the orthography of proper names was still often unsettled at that time, and we find the name variously spelt. the correct way seems to have been boulle; but we shall retain the more usual mode, both for the artist and for his work. andré charles boule was born in 1642, and made the peculiar kind of veneered work composed of tortoiseshell and thin brass, to which are sometimes added ivory and enamelled metal; brass and shell, however, are the general materials. boule was made head of the royal furniture department and was lodged in the louvre. a very interesting early specimen of this work is now at windsor castle, and other early pieces belong to sir richard wallace. the date attributed to the first makes it doubtful whether boule may not have seen the same sort of work practised in other workshops. this kind of marquetry has, however, been assigned by general consent to boule. in the earlier work of boule the inlay was produced at great cost, owing to the waste of valuable material in cutting; and the shell is left of its natural colour; in later work the manufacture was more economical. two or three thicknesses of the different material were glued or stuck together and sawn through at one operation. an equal number of figures and of matrices or hollow pieces exactly corresponding were thus produced, and by counter-charging two or more designs were obtained by the same sawing. these are technically known as "boule and counter," the brass forming the groundwork and the pattern alternately. in the later or "new boule," the shell is laid on a gilt ground or on vermilion. the brass is elaborately chased with a graver. besides these plates of brass for marquetry ornaments, boule, who was a sculptor of no mean pretensions, founded and chased up feet, edgings, bracket supports, &c., to his work in relief, or in the round, also in brass. the original use of these parts was to protect the edges and angles, and bind the thin inlaid work together where it was interrupted by angles in the structure. afterwards brass mounts, more or less relieved, were added to enrich the flat designs of the surfaces. classical altars, engraved or chased as mere surface decoration, would receive the addition of claw feet actually relieved. figures standing on such altars, pedestals, &c., were made in relief more or less bold. in this way boule's later work is not only a brilliant and rich piece of surface decoration, but its metallic parts are repoussé or embossed with thicknesses of metal ornament. in boule work all parts of the marquetry are held down by glue to the bed, usually of oak. the metal is occasionally fastened down by small brass pins or nails, which are hammered flat and chased over so as to be imperceptible. [illustration] in england, during the reign of charles the second and of james, french furniture was imported; the old tudor oak lingered in country houses. boule hardly found its way till the following century to england. splendid silver furniture consisting of plates embossed and repoussé, heightened with the graver and of admirable design, was occasionally made for the court and for great families. wood carving, in the manner of the school of sir christopher wren, as in the bracket here shown, was long continued in connexion with architecture and furniture. another style was carried to the highest pitch of technical execution and finish, as well as of truth of natural forms in the carving of grinling gibbons. this artist was english, but partially of dutch descent. he carved foliage, birds, flowers, busts and figures, pieces of drapery, &c., with astonishing dexterity. we find his work principally on mirror frames, wall panels, chimney pieces, &c. specimens may be seen over the communion table of st. james's church, westminster, and in the choir of st. paul's cathedral. the finest examples known are probably the carved work at petworth house in sussex, and at chatsworth. his material is generally lime and other white woods. the flowers and foliage of his groups or garlands sweep round in bold and harmonious curves, making an agreeable whole, though for architectural decorative carving no work was ever so free from conventional arrangements. his animals or his flowers appear to be so many separate creations from nature, laid or tied together separately, though in reality formed out of a block, and remaining still portions of a group cut in the solid wood. [illustration: a. reid pearson, s.c.] gibbons died in 1721. walpole mentions watson as having been his pupil and assistant at chatsworth. drevot of brussels and laurens of mechlin were other pupils: the former did not survive him. his school had many followers, for we find the acanthus carvings on mouldings, round doorways and chimney pieces, down to the middle of the eighteenth century, executed in england with a masterly hand. specimens of such work have been recently acquired in the kensington museum, the fruits of the demolition of old london, continually in progress. the border of this page represents one of these admirable pieces; a door and frame from a house in lincoln's-inn. nothing can surpass the perfect mastery of execution. all the work is cut clean and sharp out of wood which admits of no tentative cuts, and requires no rubbing down with sand paper, and in which errors are not to be repaired. lengths of these mouldings were worked off by hand, evidently without hesitation and without mishap. country houses abound with this fine though unpretending work, and give ample evidence of the existence of a school of fine workmen, carvers at the command of the architects of the day. we may here revert to an important addition to room furniture, which became european during this century. mirrors had been made from the earliest times in polished metal, but were first made of glass at venice. in 1507 andrea and dominico, two glass workers of murano, declared before the council of ten that they had found a method of making "good and perfect mirrors of crystal glass." a monopoly of the right of manufacture was granted to the two inventors for twenty years. in 1564, the mirror makers became a distinct guild of glass workers. the plates were not large: from four to five feet are the largest dimensions met with till late in the eighteenth century. they were commonly bevilled on the edges. the frames in soft wood (as in the woodcut, p. 100) are specimens of free carving during the seventeenth century. both in venice and in florence soft woods, such as willow or lime, were used. the mirror-plates were, at first, square or oblong. towards the end of the century we find them shaped at the top. in the eighteenth century they were generally shaped at the top and bottom. figures were sunk in the style of intaglio or gem cutting on the back of the glass and left with a dead surface, the silver surface of the mercury showing through as the mirror is seen from the front. the looking-glasses made in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by colonies of venetian workmen in england and france had the plates finished by an edge gently bevilled of an inch in width, following the form of the frame, whether square or shaped in curves. this gives preciousness and prismatic light to the whole glass. it is of great difficulty in execution, the plate being held by the workman over his head and the edge cut by grinding. the feats of skill of this kind in the form of interrupted curves and short lines and angles are rarely accomplished by modern workmen, and the angle of the bevil itself is generally too acute, whereby the prismatic light produced by this portion of the mirror is in violent and too showy contrast to the remainder. [illustration] in england, looking-glasses came into general use soon after the restoration. "sir samuel morland built a fine room at vauxhall in 1667, the inside all of looking-glass, and fountains, very pleasant to behold. it stands in the middle of the garden covered with cornish slate, on the point whereof he placed a punchinello." at about the same period the house of nell gwynne, "the first good one as we enter st. james' square from pall mall, had the back room on the ground floor entirely lined with looking-glass within memory," writes pennant, "as was said to have been the ceiling." "la rue st. andré-des-arts," says savarin, speaking of paris in the seventeenth century, "eut le premier café _orne de glaces_ et de tables de marbre à peu près comme on les voit de nos jours." [illustration] during the seventeenth century, tapestry, the material in use for hanging and decorating the walls of splendid rooms in france, was made also in this country. factories were set up at mortlake, where several copies were made of the raphael tapestries, the cartoons of which were in this country; and in soho fields. sometimes tapestry was hung on bare walls; occasionally it was strained over the older panelled work of the days of the tudor and stuart sovereigns, the fruitful period of country house architecture in england. [illustration: an english table and chairs of the year 1633, from a woodcut of that date.] with a woodcut (on preceding page) of a bedroom holy-water vessel we finish the account of this period. chapter x. furniture of the eighteenth century. as the eighteenth century draws on, we arrive at furniture of which examples are more readily to be met with, and we are reminded of houses and rooms more or less unaltered which have come under general observation. the fashions were led in france. boule work grew into bigger and more imposing structures as the manufacture passed into the hands of a greater number of workmen. commodes or large presses were made with edgings and mounts, in the form of "egg and tongue" and other classic or renaissance mouldings. the tops were formed into one or three pedestals, to hold clocks and candelabra. other changes were introduced to carry out the taste for gilding which then prevailed, and the broken shell-shaped woodwork, popularly known as louis quinze work, began to be adopted for the frames of large glasses and the mouldings of room panels. the panels grew tall, were arched or shaped at the top, and occupied the wall space from the dado to the moulded and painted ceilings, in narrow panels. the fantastic forms of curve, emblems of the affected manners of the day, called rococo from the words _rocaille coquille_, rock and shell curves, were well calculated to show off the lustre of gilding. the gold was admirably laid on, thick and very pure, and both in bronze gilding and in the woodwork, maintains its lustre to the present time. the severe classical grandeur of the old roll mouldings of fireplace jambs, wall and door panels, of the former reign gave way everywhere to this lighter work. much early eighteenth century furniture was bombé, or rolled about in curious curves or undulations of surface, partly to display the skill of the cabinet-makers, and partly to show off the marquetry, which formed its only decoration. another step was the introduction of mechanical applications and contrivances. the tops of tables lift off, and the action causes other portions to rise, to open, and so on. it is to be remembered that bedrooms were often used as boudoirs or studies, and that furniture which could shut private papers up without requiring that they should be put away into drawers was convenient in such rooms. as the century advanced, it became customary to form a sort of alcove at the end of bedrooms in france. the centre portion contained the bed, hidden by curtains, the spaces between it and the two walls were shut in with doors, and formed dressing closets, which could be used while the rest of the room was shut off. the bedroom then became a reception room and was thrown open with other receiving rooms of the house. bureaux or mechanically shutting tables, writing desks, and the like, under this arrangement were a necessity for small rooms. a school of painters arose in the reign of louis the fifteenth who devoted themselves to the decoration of room woodwork and ceilings; charles delafosse, antoine coypel, jean restout, and many pupils. we must associate the names of these artists with those of the le pautre family. jean died before the end of the seventeenth century, but pierre took part in the later works of the louvre and of versailles under jules hardouin mansard, "surintendant des bastiments." juste aurèle meissonnier did still more to make this showy work popular. he designed all sorts of room furniture and woodwork. it is amongst the published works of these artists that we must seek the eighteenth century designs of french fashion. painted panels were inserted into the wood ceilings, over the tops of looking-glasses, and _dessus-portes_ or the short panels between the tops of doors and the line of cornice. these are generally in chiaro scuro, or light and shade only, and represent families of cupids. nymphs and fauns, shepherdesses, and the supposed inhabitants of a fanciful arcadia, formed the general subjects of room decorations. a process belonging to the same reign should be noticed, called after the inventor, vernis-martin, a carriage painter, born about the year 1706. by carriage painter we must understand a painter of heraldic ornaments, flower borders, &c. his varnish is a fine transparent lac polish, probably derived from japan through missionaries, who had resided there before the occurrence of the great massacres which closed japan to all but the dutch traders. the work which we commonly associate with his name is generally found on furniture such as tables or book cases, as well as on needle cases, snuff boxes, fans, and étuis, on a gold ground. the gold is waved or striated by some of those ingenious processes still in use amongst the japanese, by which the paste or preparation on which their gold is laid is worked over while still soft. one or two carriages beautifully painted in vernis-martin are kept in the hotel de cluny at paris. although it is popularly held that martin declared his secret should die with him, and that he kept his word, yet it is certain that he left imitators and pupils who painted and enamelled in his manner furniture of various kinds. in sir r. wallace's collection there are two pieces, coloured green and varnished, one a table and the other a cabinet or bookcase, of vernis-martin work. there is on these no ornament excepting the varnish and the gold mounts that are added at the edges. the most beautiful objects that bear his name are the small wares, such as fans, needle books, or snuff boxes. later in the century we meet with other french names, riesener, david, and gouthière, who gained great reputation, the two first as makers of marquetry, and the latter as a founder and chaser of metal furniture mounts, such as edgings and lock scutcheons. the history of french furniture is in general the history of that of other nations. the art of wood carving was still maintained in italy and applied, as in the instance of this distaff, to utensils of all kinds. in england we had, about the middle of the century, a school of carvers, gilders, and ornamenters following the extravagant style of the french. the most prominent name is that of thomas chippendale, who worked from the middle till towards the end of the century. he was descended from a family of carvers, and inherited the skill which had been general in his craft since the days of gibbons. we find much rococo carving on bed testers, round fireplaces, over doors, &c., in our english houses built during the reign of anne and the two first georges. other pieces of furniture, such as carved tables, wardrobe cabinets, chair backs or dinner trays, go by chippendale's name. they are in mahogany, and follow the architectural moulding lines often seen in the works of sir william chambers and the brothers adam. [illustration] among the room decorations of the century we may notice the shelves for holding chinese porcelain and imitations of chinese designs in delft pottery, a taste imported by william the third and the members of his court who had lived in holland. the chimney pieces at hampton court and elsewhere are provided with woodwork to hold these ornaments. hogarth paints them in his interiors, and the rage for purchasing such objects at sales became a popular subject of ridicule. to the early eighteenth century belongs a class of furniture of which the decorations consisted of panels of old chinese and japanese lac work; fitted, as the marquetry of the day was, with rich gilt metal mounts. in england it was the fashion to imitate the japan work, and such old furniture is occasionally met with: black, with raised figure decorations of chinese character done in gold dust. a great change is observable in the french furniture, panel carving and such decorations from the period of louis the sixteenth. several causes at the time combined to give art of this kind a new as well as a healthier direction. amongst these we may mention the discoveries made at herculaneum and pompeii. it is needless to say that the peculiar cause of the destruction of both those towns had preserved in them perfect memorials, in many forms, of the social life of antiquity. decorations, utensils and furniture of all kinds that were made of metal, and had resisted the action of damp and time, were recovered in fair condition. one result, both in france and england, was a return to a better feeling for classical style. room decorations and furniture soon reached the highest point of elegance which french renaissance art of a sumptuous kind has touched since the sixteenth century. the panelling of rooms, usually in oak and painted white, was designed in severe lines with straight mouldings and pilasters. the pilasters were decorated with well-designed carved work, small, close, and splendidly gilt. the quills that fill the fluted columns still seen round so many interiors were cut into beads or other subdivisions with much care. fine arabesque work in the style of the "loggie" of raphael was partly carved in relief, partly drawn and painted, or gilt, with gold of a yellow or of a green hue; the green being largely alloyed with silver. an example of the best work of this kind may be referred to in the beautiful room brought from paris and now preserved, reconstructed, at south kensington. the houses built for members of the brilliant court of queen marie antoinette were filled with admirable work in this manner, or in the severer but still delicate carved panelling in wood plainly painted. the royal factories of the gobelins and of sèvres turned out also their most beautiful productions to decorate rooms, furniture, and table service. in the former of these, tapestries were made for wall hangings, for chair backs, seats, and sofas. rich silks from the looms of lyons, and from those of lucca, genoa, and venice were also employed for this kind of furniture both in france and flanders, germany, italy, and spain, as well as in our own country. in all these matters france led the fashions. during this brilliant period, from 1774 to 1790, we meet with the names of several artists employed for painting the panelling of rooms, the lunettes over chimney fronts, and the panels of ceilings. fragonard, natoire, boucher (the director of the academy) are among the foremost of these. their history perhaps belongs rather to that of painters than of our present subject; but they are too much mixed up with eighteenth century furniture not to find mention even in a sketch like the present. other artists such as delafosse, lalonde, cauvet and salembier designed arabesques, decorative woodwork, and furniture. the designs of many of them are still extant: and cauvet dedicated a book of them to monsieur, the king's brother. four tables with silver-gilt mounts of his design were made for the queen's house of the trianon, and afterwards removed to the favourite residence of the emperor napoleon at st. cloud. robert and barthélemy were sculptors and bronze workers who made mounts for furniture, and engravers. meissonnier, oppenord, queverdo worked in the same way. hubert robert, a painter, helped micque in all the decorations of the trianon. two or three cabinet-makers have transmitted a great name, though little seems to be known of their history. of these riesener and david roentgen were _ébénistes_, or workers in fine cabinet making. the designation is taken from the ebony and other exotic woods, which had come into more general use in europe from the end of the seventeenth century subsequently to 1695, when the dutch settled in ceylon. the french obtained ebony from madagascar, but in very small quantities. after the settlements at ceylon we find it introduced into europe on a larger scale. there are green and yellow varieties but the black wood is the most valuable, and ceylon is the country in which the greatest quantities are produced. we still find in english houses much old carved ebony furniture, mainly chairs and cabinets, dating generally from the early years of the dutch occupation. riesener used tulip (_liriodendron tulipifera_), rosewood, holly (_ilex aquifolium_), maple (_acer campestre_), laburnum (_cytisus alpinus_), purple wood (_copaifera pubiflora_), &c. wreaths and bunches of flowers, exquisitely worked and boldly designed, form centres of his marquetry panels which are often plain surfaces of one wood. on the sides, in borders and compartments, we find diaper patterns in three or four quiet colours. these conventional sides or corners of diaper work help to give point to the graceful compositions that form the principal feature in his marquetry. chests of drawers and cabinets are sometimes met with in snake wood and other varieties of brown wood, of which the grain is waved or curled without marquetry. the name of riesener is to be found stamped sometimes on the panel itself, sometimes on the oak lining of the pieces of furniture made by him. a number of exceptional examples of riesener's cabinets are described in the appendix to the detailed catalogue of furniture in the south kensington museum. the best pieces are from the collection now belonging to sir richard wallace. the most imposing of these is the rounded bureau or secrétaire, made for stanislaus, king of poland. it is beautifully inlaid on the top, ends, and back with designs emblematic of the sciences, &c., and with bust heads. the letters s. r. are put upon a broad band of decoration that runs round the lower portion of the bureau. a similar piece of furniture with gilt bronze candle branches by gouthière, on the sides, is now in the louvre. both are signed. david roentgen was born at niewid near luneville, in which latter city he worked as a contemporary of riesener, but younger by some years in age. he also made marquetry in lighter woods and of rather a gayer tone than those of riesener. both of them often worked in plain mahogany, and in such cases trusted for the effectiveness of their pieces to the excellence of the mounts of chased and gilt metal by their contemporary, gouthière. in his light marquetry david used various white woods. pear, lime, and light-coloured woods were occasionally tinted with various shades by burning. this process, originally effected by hot irons, is better and more delicately managed by hot sand. only browns and dark ochrous yellows are obtained by this means, and the more delicately toned marquetry is without hues of green or blue. those tints, however, can be obtained by steeping the wood in various chemical solutions. as a maker of gilt bronze furniture mounts gouthière had a wide reputation. he belongs to the period of louis the sixteenth. with him riesener and david worked in concert; all their best pieces are finished with the mounts of gouthière. among examples in this country is the cabinet in the royal collection at windsor. no signature has been discovered on this piece, but the exquisite modelling of the flower borders, the metal mouldings and mounts, and the crown supported by figures of cupids that surmounts the whole, leave us in no hesitation as to its authorship. gouthière modelled and chased up similar work for carriages, and mounts for marble chimney pieces, such as that in the boudoir just above referred to. the gilding on these mounts is so good and has been laid on so massively that the metal has in general suffered no substantial injury down to our own times, and can be restored to its original lustre by soap and water. indeed, the fine old work dating from the two previous reigns by andré boule and other artists, after the designs of berain, has suffered little. the boule clocks, with arched glass panels in front and spreading supports and figure compositions on the top, have in most cases come down to us clothed in their original water gilding, easily to be cleaned though looking black when they have been long left to neglect. contemporaneous with riesener in france was the italian maker of marquetry, maggiolino. in florence, venice, milan, and genoa, cabinets and commodes of marquetry were produced. german cabinet-makers manufactured the same work through the earlier part of the century. bombé or curved furniture was also made by the germans with great, we may almost say with extravagant, skill. to maintain mouldings on the angles of these curved and waving surfaces is a feat in workmanship of difficult attainment, and german cabinet-makers seem to have taken delight in exhibiting such skill. the quaint work of the minute carvings in box and other hard woods, admirably carried out during the times of the immediate pupils of dürer and the school of well-trained artists who succeeded him, was no longer to be found. the desolating wars that swept over this part of europe during the days of louis the fourteenth and frederick the great seem to have exhausted the country, and worn out the ancient industry of the cities. guilds died away, the men who composed them being required for the exigencies of war, and the wealth of the inhabitants was so reduced that the leisure to enjoy and even the means to buy fine productions of art existed no longer. few collectors have done greater service to the study of english art than horace walpole; and few have had the opportunities he enjoyed a century ago, when he was able to fill strawberry hill with a collection of mediæval, renaissance, and later works of art of every description. a lively passage, alluding to the contract for the roof and the glazing of king's college chapel, cambridge, commemorates his value for these art traditions. "as much," he says, "as we imagine ourselves arrived at higher perfection in the arts, it would not be easy for a master of a college to go into st. margaret's parish, southwark, to _bespeak_ such a roof as that of king's college, and a dozen or two of windows so admirably drawn, and order them to be sent home by such a day, as if they were bespeaking a chequered pavement." a certain sort of revival of gothic design took place in england about this period: and later in the century feeble attempts at gothic woodwork were made here and there; but there was little national taste in furniture apart from a close imitation of french fashions. a still greater change was produced by sir william chambers, the architect of modern somerset house, who wrote a book on civil architecture and room decorations. another name connected with furniture has been already mentioned, that of thomas chippendale. he published his book of designs in 1764, containing complete sides of rooms, looking-glass frames, chimney fronts, &c. he and his contemporaries designed tables, cabinets and moveable furniture of every description, including carriages, on which, indeed, furniture designers of all periods were employed. chippendale and his sons or assistants produced frames and cornices for gilding so different from his well-made wardrobes, &c., that there must have been more than one of the family engaged in superintending these dissimilar kinds of objects. he is a representative maker. the son has been sometimes credited with the mahogany woodwork of which delicacy and exactness are the characteristics. satin wood came into fashion in england during the last half of the century. both cipriani and angelica kauffmann painted medallions, cameo ornaments and borders on table tops and fronts, harpsichord cases, &c., made of satin wood or coloured in the manner of the vernis-martin work. the former decorated carlton house. mathias lock, with whom was associated a cabinet maker named copeland, also published designs of furniture of every kind. a semi-classic pompeian or roman arabesque feeling runs through the ornamentation of these pieces of furniture. they are light in make, often elegant, and more or less follow the taste prevailing in france and italy. gillow, the founder of a respectable existing firm, belongs to this period; but, as yet, nothing has come to light regarding his early history or apprenticeship. another name connected both with furniture and decorative arts of all kinds was that of robert adam; he was of scotch extraction and had travelled in italy; and his brother john built many private houses; for example, the adelphi and portland place. furniture, carriages, sedan chairs, and plate were amongst the objects for which robert, perhaps both the brothers, gave designs. classical capitals, mouldings and niches, circles and lunettes, with shell flutings and light garlands, were favourite features in their façade ornaments. the sideboards, bust terms (or pedestals), urn-shaped knife boxes; the chairs, commodes, &c., were all designed to accord with the architectural decorations. polished-steel fire-grates belong to this period, and we believe to the authorship of the brothers adam. a cabinet maker named a. heppelwhite published in 1789 a large set of designs for every sort of reception room and bedroom furniture. we see in these the mahogany chairs with pierced strapwork backs, library and pedestal tables, mechanical desks and bureaux, which continued in fashion during the early years of this century. fanciful sashed glass doors closed in the bookcases; interrupted pediments and pedestals provided space for busts round the tops of these cases. fluted legs, and occasionally lion-headed supports, uphold the tables and chairs. knife cases to set on the sideboard, and urn stools for the breakfast table, are among these designs. tea chests and tea caddies indicate that tea was then coming into general use. thomas sheraton, another cabinet-maker, published towards the end of the century an extensive "dictionary" of his trade. his designs, like those just mentioned, embrace beds, sofas, &c. mechanical dressing and washing tables, very ingeniously contrived, were among his productions. we meet with these still; of spanish mahogany, and admirable workmanship. the structure of all these pieces was light and strong. time has had little effect on wood so well seasoned and on pieces put together in so workmanlike a manner. the french revolution put a complete stop to the old arts of domestic life in france. as in the sixteenth century, so in the eighteenth the new ideas rushed extravagantly in the direction of republican antiquity and roman taste and sentiment. it was under the empire, after the italian wars and the egyptian expedition, that the means and taste for expenditure upon civil furniture and decorations revived, with an assumption of classicalism. the art of the time however, inspired by the hard paintings of david, is but a dry and affected attempt at a fresh renaissance. in furniture mounts, chairs, &c., of supposed classical designs, it is known as the art of the "empire." this country copied the fashion as soon as the return of peace opened the continent to english travellers. furniture and room decorations were designed after classical ideals, and we see chairs and tables imitating bas-reliefs and the drawings on antique vases. it is probable that collectors, such as sir william hamilton and the members of the dilettanti society, sensibly influenced the prevailing style. james wyatt the architect, about the end of the last century, rebuilt or cleared out many of our mediæval churches and houses, and took to designing what he called gothic for room decoration and furniture. sir jeffrey wyatt or sir jeffrey wyattville (as he became) made great changes at windsor castle, under george the fourth. pugin designed some flimsy gothic furniture for the same palace. at a later period of his life, however, he did much, both as a designer and a writer upon art, to turn attention to the principles on which mediæval designs of all kinds were based. we are now, perhaps, returning to renaissance art in furniture, and it is certain that collections such as those lately exhibited by sir richard wallace; the exposition retrospective in paris in 1865; the loan exhibitions of 1862 in london, and that of gore house at an earlier period; and above all the great permanent collection at south kensington, must contribute to form the public taste. in the review which we have made of what may be called the household art of so many ages, it would be difficult to assign an absolute superiority to the artists of any one generation, considering what countless beautiful objects have been made for the personal use and enjoyment of men. the sculptured thrones of ivory and gold, the seats and couches of bronze overlaid with gold and damascened with the precious metals, the inlaid chariots, tables, chests, and jewelled caskets of antiquity; the imagery, the shrines, the stalls, and roofs of the middle ages; the wood sculpture, tarsia, pietra dura, damascening and the endless variety of objects produced during the days of leonardo, michel angelo, and raphael, down to the carving of gibbons, and the splendid work of boule, riesener and gouthière, are all in various ways excellent. we must not venture to call one class of productions finer than another where the differences are so great and such high perfection has been attained in each. every style and fashion when at its best has resulted from the utmost application of mind and time on the part of trained artists; and the highest art can never be cheap, neither can any machinery or any help from mechanical assistance become substitutes for art. beauty which is created by the hand of man is not the clever application of mechanical forces or of scientific inventions, but is brought to light, whether it be a cabinet front or the venus of milo, often with pain, always by the entire devotion of the labour, the intellect, the experience, the imagination and the affection, of the artist and the workman. chapter xi. changes of taste and style. it is interesting to trace the changes that the more common and necessary pieces of furniture have undergone during successive historic ages. the social life of ancient times, even of the middle ages which come so much nearer to us in point of years, differs from that of our own in its whole aspect. yet though personal habits have so greatly altered the general wants of men remain much the same. hence such objects as beds, chairs, tables, chests, dressers, wardrobes or cabinets, carriages or litters, have been always used and maintained a certain identity. with a summary of the changes of form and methods of decoration of a few of the principal objects of personal use we shall conclude. _bedsteads and couches._ beds served often in antiquity and in the middle ages, and have served at all times, almost as much for sitting or reclining by day as for sleeping on at night. to what has been already said on the subject of antique beds little need be added. the egyptian bed and the pillow or crutch, of wood or more valuable materials, have been described. examples of the crutch are numerous in the british museum and in the louvre. "the egyptians had couches," says sir g. wilkinson, "but they do not appear to have reclined upon them more frequently than modern europeans, in whose houses they are equally common. the ottomans were simple square sofas without backs, raised from the ground nearly to the same level as the chair. the upper part was of leather, or of cotton stuff, richly coloured, like the cushions of the fauteuils, and the box was of wood painted with various devices and ornamented with the figures of captives, who were supposed to be degraded by holding so humiliating a position. and the same idea gave them a place on the footstools of a royal throne." the bed, [greek: lexos], of the greeks was covered with skins, over the skins with woollen blankets; sometimes a linen cloth or sheet was added. the finest coverlids were from miletus, carthage, and corinth. these varied in the softness of their woollen texture and the delicate disposition of the colours. later greek beds had girths of leather or string; a mattress; and a pillow. the roman bed had the side by which it was entered open, the other was protected by a shelf. the mattresses were stuffed with herbs, in later times with wool or feathers. precious counterpanes embroidered with gold were occasionally used. canopies or frames for curtains, in one form or another, have always been necessary adjuncts to beds. testers were placed on cradles, with gauze curtains to keep off flies. beds on wheels were in use for the sick in classical and mediæval times: as also a low and portable bed, _grabatum_, with mats for bedding. this is the word used in st. john's gospel, translated "take up thy bed and walk." [illustration] besides beds, couches, and stools, used in antiquity, as in our own times, we find amongst the ancients the habit, unknown since, of reclining on the left elbow at meals. the romans called the conventional arrangement the _triclinium_. the accompanying woodcut represents the plan of a _triclinium_, the guest reclining on the left elbow and the faces of each directed from 1 to 3, 4 to 6, and so on. these numbers and positions indicated a sort of superiority, or a highest, middle, and lowest to every table. a passage from horace, often quoted, enumerates the guests in this order. fundanius, who was at the top, giving an account of a dinner to his friends, says: "i sat at the top, viscus thurinus next to me; varius, if my memory serves me, below him; vibidius along with servilius balatro, whom mæcenas brought as humble companions. nomentanus was above, and porcius below the host himself." the beds of the early middle ages in england had testers with curtains, often of valuable material. these slid on rings on an iron rod. sometimes the rod, with a frame to sustain it, was on one or on three sides of the bed, and the tester wanting. sometimes the beds were slung on uprights, as cots are at sea. no great expense was incurred in the framework till the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. the splendour of state beds, or those of great people, consisted in the curtains, which were occasionally taken down, and hung up in churches on festivals. in the illuminations of manuscripts and in pictures representing scenes in which there is a bed, we find the tester strained by cords to the sides of the room or to the ceiling, as in the accompanying woodcut. the curtains ran round this frame, as in our modern four-posters; but we see them hoisted out of the way during the daytime, not round a post, only raised beyond reach. [illustration] the finest examples of bedsteads that can be called mediæval are french, and only met with in fragments, or more or less complete. this is unfortunately the case also as regards early english bedsteads. we may refer the reader to the "mobilier français" of viollet le duc, for an idea of the sumptuous carved oak bedstead of the great palaces and hotels of france. it was a frame panelled down to the ground, often containing chests, drawers, presses, or other safe places under the sleeper. the back resembled more or less the reredos of an altar, or the great panelled presses that filled the sides of sacristies. four posts supported the canopy. a bedstead of the fifteenth century was long preserved at leicester, and said to have been slept on by richard the third. the under part of it formed his military chest, and the discovery of the treasure a century afterwards occasioned a barbarous murder. none of the coin found was of a later mint than his reign. it is also said by pennant that a stump bedstead still in berkeley castle is the same on which the murder of edward the second was committed. fine examples of tudor bedsteads are preserved there. in the town of ware in hertfordshire is, and has long been, an inn under the sign of the saracen's head, "in this," says clutterbuck, "there is a bed of enormous proportions, twelve feet square. the head is panelled in the elizabethan style of arched panels, and a date is painted on it--1460. [this, however, is not authentic.] it is of carved oak. the top is covered by a panelled tester, supported on baluster columns at the feet. the bases of these rest on a cluster of four arches or supports to each column." nothing is known of the original history of the bedstead. shakespeare alludes to it in twelfth night. [illustration] to the tudor and jacobean period of heavy oak furniture succeeded the custom of supplying the place of oak-panelled testers and headboards with rich hangings either of tapestry, cut genoa, or venice velvets and other costly materials, with ostrich feathers or other ornaments on the angles. the royal beds at hampton court admirably illustrate this stately fashion, as in the accompanying woodcut. more modern changes it is unnecessary to trace. [illustration] [illustration] couches for reclining or sitting upon were, in the middle ages, rather benches with cushions on them. the king conversing with a lady in her chamber is from a manuscript of about 1390 (the "romance of meliadus") in the british museum. in the seventeenth century we find the same ornaments that were used in chair backs extended to large frames so as to form them into couches, and the same plaited cane panels. in the last century, sofas were sometimes made in the form of several chair backs, with arms at each end, the backs being pierced work or framing made of bars in fancy shapes. this work was in mahogany or satin wood, or was painted after the fashion of vernis-martin work. in all cases such pieces were made to accord with suites of chairs, tables, &c. cradles have been made in many shapes. the most approved in antiquity was that of a boat, [greek: skaphos], or a shield; in either case they could be rocked. in the fourteenth century the men of ghent destroyed the house of the earl of flanders, according to froissart, and all his furniture including the cradle in which he was nursed, which was of silver. the cradle of henry the fifth is still preserved. it is in the form of a chest, much like the cradle in the kensington museum, n^{o.} 1769; and swings on posts, one at each end, standing on cross-bars to keep them steady: but there is no higher portion, as in the example in the museum, to support a tester. a hundred years later the shape seems to have become heavier. [illustration] _chairs._ in the ancient egyptian paintings at thebes, and elsewhere, chairs are minutely represented like the throne or arm chair of the greeks, each containing one person. occasionally they used stools and low seats raised a little above the ground. some sat cross-legged on the ground, though this is more rare, or kneeling on one knee. the men and women generally were apart, but in the same room, while conversing they sat, and did not recline. wilkinson gives a full description of the old egyptian chairs and stools. the classical curule chairs were made of ivory; sometimes of solid and entire elephants' teeth, which seems to have been the typical idea of the ivory chair; sometimes the ivory was veneered on a wooden base. the foot or point of the tusk was carved into a head or beak. it is from this curved chair of state that the later chairs were derived, of which the form remained popular in italy through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. the mediæval name was _faldistorium_, rendered "faldstool," a stool or seat to support the arms when kneeling, or to act as a chair when sitting. [illustration] the earliest type of the architectural thrones or chairs of the middle ages is the ancient chair of st. peter, at rome, of which a woodcut has been given in p. 35. a full description and plates of it will be found in the "vetusta monumenta" of the society of antiquaries for 1870. another famous chair, that of st. mark, is preserved at venice, in the treasury of st. mark's. anciently this chair, like that of st. peter in rome, was covered with plates of ivory, carved panels probably fitted into frame pieces of wood as a covering to the stone. as it is now seen, however, the work is of oriental marble. it is a rudely shaped arm chair, with high back sloping upwards in the form of a pediment, truncated and surmounted by a stone, cut into an imperfect circle or oval, and having an arm or volute like the reversed angle-volute of a column projecting from the lower part of each side. the chair of st. maximian at ravenna dates from the sixth century; this is described in mr. maskell's "ivories." a magnificent fourteenth century architectural chair of silver is preserved at barcelona. the supports represent window tracery. one large arch supplies the front support, being cusped, and these cusps are again subdivided. the two sides form each a pair of windows of two lights or divisions, with a circle above, the whole cusped and having trefoil leaves on the cusps. the back is open tracery work, representing three narrow windows, with two lights or openings each. they finish in three lofty gables, crocketed outside and divided into tracery within. [illustration] chairs in england during the mediæval period were sometimes made of turned wood. sometimes they were cleverly arranged to fold up, as in our own days: the engraving (p. 122) is from a beautiful manuscript of the fifteenth century. the chair known as that of glastonbury is a square board on two pairs of cross-trestles, with a square board for a back, held to the seat by sloping arm pieces, shaped out to receive the arms of a sitter. on the edges of the seat and back tenons protrude, long enough to pass through mortices in the leg and arm pieces, which are pegged to keep them firm. like the sixteenth century curule chairs these can easily be taken to pieces for travelling. during the reigns of elizabeth and james, high-backed chairs, richly cut and pierced, with wooden, afterwards with cane, seats were used and remained in use simplified and lightened during more than a century. the woodcut (p. 123) represents the fashion of chair common in italy about the year 1620: and from thence introduced into england. the use of marquetry was not confined to tables and cabinets. rich chairs were made in this material (rarely in boule) during the eighteenth century in france, italy, and holland, from whence they came to this country. light and very elegant yellow satin-wood marquetry chairs were also then in fashion. the use of mahogany for chairs, often delicately carved and admirably constructed, was general during the last century in england. the french carved chairs of the time of louis the sixteenth covered with silk all but the legs and framework, and painted white or gilt, were made to accord with the sofas and carved woodwork of the rooms. this example was followed in england, with certain national differences. _tables._ the ancient egyptian tables were round, square, or oblong; the former were generally used during their repasts, and consisted of a circular flat summit, supported, like the _monopodium_ of the romans, on a single shaft or leg in the centre or by the figure of a man intended to represent a captive. large tables had usually three or four legs, but some were made with solid sides; and though generally of wood many were of metal or stone; and they varied in size according to the different purposes for which they were intended. often they were three-legged, the legs in a concave shape. an antique marble table of græco-roman work is preserved at naples, supported by a centaur in full relief at one end, and a sea monster, scylla it is supposed, involving a shipwrecked mariner in the folds of her tail, with indications of waves, &c., round her body. other roman tables of larger dimensions had three, four, or five supports of sphinxes, lions, and the like. we give representations of three kinds of tables from paintings on vases; and another, on three marble legs, found at pompeii. [illustration] [illustration] in the middle ages, as has been before said, tables were generally folding boards laid on trestles and moveable. the general disposition of the dining table was taken from those of abbeys and convents, and may be seen continued in some of our own colleges to this day. the principal table was on a raised platform or floor at the upper end of the hall, and thence called the "high" table. the guests sat on one side only, as in the traditional representations of the last supper, and the place of honour was the centre, the opposite side being left for the service. the principal person sat under a canopy or cloth of estate, either made for the occasion, or under a panelled canopy curving outward and permanent. occasionally mediæval tables in england were of stone or marble. of the former material a table is preserved belonging to the strangers' hall at winchester; and a wooden one in the chapter-house at salisbury. the tops of some old english tables are made with two thicknesses, the lower pulling out on either side to rest on supports drawn from the bed. a table of this description is kept at hill hall, essex; and the woodcut represents a folding table of the time of elizabeth, long preserved at flaxton hall, in suffolk. during the last century mahogany tables with delicate pierced galleries round the edge, and similar work to ornament the bed or frame, were made by chippendale and his contemporaries. many of them are light and graceful pieces of construction. others were massively made with goat-footed legs that bulge well beyond the lines of the table top, which in these cases is often a slab of marble. the workmanship is admirable. mahogany had then supplanted the use of oak for large tables. [illustration] _chests, cabinets, and sideboards._ the wardrobe, both in the roman house and the mediæval castle, was a small room suitably fitted up and provided with receptacles. chests, coffers, and caskets were also in use, and implied moveability. in later days the renaissance chests were either mounted on stands or gave place to mixed structures; and cabinets of various forms that could be kept permanently in the hall or chamber became the fashion. they were large, important objects, were never moved or carried abroad, descended from father to son, and were the monumental objects, as the panelled superstructure of the fireplace was, of halls and reception rooms. these pieces have various forms. in dining halls or rooms occasionally so used, they were cupboards, dressers, or places with a small receptacle to hold food, and a flat top with perhaps a step or shelf above it to carry plate, candlesticks, &c. when placed in receiving rooms or to hold dresses they were cabinets or wardrobes; for the conveniences of writing they are bureaux, sécrétaires, or escritoires. [illustration] we have early notices of the use of cypress chests, perhaps cabinets as some of them are fitted with drawers, in this country. john of gaunt in his will, 1397, specifies "a little box of cypress wood;" probably something like the chest engraved from a manuscript of that date: out of which the servant is taking a robe evidently richly embroidered with armorial bearings. in the memoirs of the antiquities of great britain, relating to the reformation, we find an account of church plate, money, gold and silver images, &c., delivered to henry the eighth: "paid william grene, the king's _coffer-maker_, for making of a coffer covered with fustyan of naples, and being full of drawers and boxes lined with red and grene sarcynet to put in stones of divers sorts, vi. _li._ xviij. _s._ ij. _d._," by which we may gather something of its costly construction, "and to cornelys the locke smythe for making all the iron worke, that is to say, the locke, gymours, handels, ryngs to every drawer box, the price xxxvi. _s._ iv. _d._" the marquetry invented or brought to perfection by boule was displayed in greater magnificence on cabinets of various shapes than on any other pieces of furniture. the same may be said of the marquetry cabinets in wood executed during the eighteenth century in france by riesener and david, with the help of the metal mounts of gouthière and his contemporaries. in these fine pieces the interior is generally simple and the conceits of the previous century are omitted. japan cabinets obtained through the dutch were frequently imported into england. the hinges and mounts were of silver or gilt metal, richly chased. the bureau, escritoire, or office desk, called in germany kaunitz after a princely inventor, was a knee-hole table. these tall bureaux were of general, almost universal, use in england during the last century. _sideboards._ there are several old sideboards in the kensington museum, described under the names of _dressoir_ or _dressoir de salle à manger_ in the large catalogue. they are small cupboards and would be called cabinets but for the drawers half-way down, and the rows of the shelves on the top; and are of the sixteenth century date. according to willemin, the old etiquette of france, certainly that of burgundy, prescribed five steps or shelves to these dressers for use during meals for queens; four for duchesses or princesses; three for their children and for countesses and _grandes dames_; two for other noble ladies. in the middle ages cupboards or dressers were mere covered boards or shelves against a wall on which plate was set out, and were made of three or four or more stages according to the splendour of the occasion. the cupboard dresser of more modest pretensions was considered as a piece of dining-room furniture. it was ordinarily covered with a piece of embroidery. robert frevyll bequeaths, 1521, to his "son john a stone cobard in the hall." a manuscript inventory of henry the eighth names, "item, one large cuppbord carpet of grene cloth of gold with workes lyned with bockeram, conteyning in length three yards, iii. q'ters, and three bredthes." in the herald's account of the feast at westminster, on the occasion of the marriage of prince arthur, we find "there was also a stage of dyvers greas and hannes (degrees and enhancings of height) for the cuppbord that the plate shulde stande inn, the which plate for the moost part was clene (pure) goold, and the residue all gilte and non silver, and was in length from the closet doore to the chimney." and when in the next reign henry entertained francis at calais, a cupboard of seven stages was provided and furnished with gold and silver gilt plate. before concluding these remarks on dining-room furniture something may be said on painted roundels or wooden platters. though they have long ceased to be used for their original purpose, several sets still complete remain in country houses and collections of different kinds; and three sets are in the kensington museum. they are usually twelve in number: and all seem to be of the date of the late tudor princes. they were kept in boxes turned out of a block, and decorated with painting and gilding. their size does not differ materially, all the sets varying from 5-3/8 to 5-5/8 inches. there are, however, smaller sets to be seen which range from 2-3/4 to 5 inches in diameter. the top surface is in all instances plain and the under surface painted with a border of flowers, generally alternating with knots more or less artistically drawn in vermilion: "posyes" or a couple of verses are generally added. these platters were used in the sixteenth century as dessert plates, the plain side being at the top. leland speaks of the "confettes" at the end of a dinner, "sugar plate fertes, with other subtilties with ippocrass" (a sweet wine). earthenware plates though not unknown were still very uncommon in england before the reign of elizabeth. the dinner was served on plate in royal or very great houses, on pewter and wooden trenchers in more humble and unpretending households. specimens of the latter may still be seen in our old collegiate establishments. probably the earliest instance of the use of earthenware may be found in the time of edward the first, when some dishes and plates of that material were bought from a spanish ship. pitchers, jugs and the like had been for centuries commonly made. "porselyn" is mentioned in 1587: where we read of "five dishes of earth painted, such as are brought from venice" being presented to the queen on one of her progresses. _carriages._ [illustration] the shape and decoration of carriages have changed continually, but these changes have not always been in the direction of convenience and handiness for rapid motion. our space will not allow us to enter here upon a history of the chariots of ancient nations; egyptians, greeks, or romans. a detailed account of them will be found in the introduction to the large catalogue of furniture at south kensington. the woodcut represents the roman "biga," the original of which (in marble) is in the vatican; and the "pilentum," or covered carriage, from the column of theodosius. [illustration] we know but little of the period succeeding the destruction of rome and the extinction of classic customs. in the middle ages we find carts, like those now in use for agricultural purposes in france; a long frame with spreading rails balanced on one pair of wheels of large dimensions, drawn by a string of horses. the woodcut of a family carriage is from the well-known luttrell psalter, an illuminated manuscript of the early fourteenth century. such vehicles seem to have been clumsy enough and had no springs: nevertheless they were much ornamented with various decorations. they had roofs as a protection from the weather, with silk or leather curtains; and the interior was fitted with cushions. in the "squire of low degree" the father of the princess of hungary promises, to-morrow ye shall on hunting fare, and ride my daughter in a _chare_, it shall be covered with velvet red, and cloths of fine gold all about your head, with damask white and azure blue, well diapered with lilies new your pomelles (knobs) shall be ended with gold, your chains enamelled many a fold. the oldest kind of wheel-carriages known in england were called _whirlecotes_, and one of these belonged to the mother of richard the second. whirlecotes were used also at the marriage of katherine of arragon. coaches were probably first introduced from hungary. they seem to have been square, not differing greatly in outline from the state coaches of which numerous engraved plates can be seen; and were considered as too effeminate a conveyance for men in the days of elizabeth. the coach of henry the fourth of france may be studied in the plate by van luyken that represents his murder by ravaillac, 1610. it is four-wheeled, square, with a flat awning on four corner pillars or supports, and curtains. the centre descends into a kind of boot with leather sides. the accompanying woodcut represents the carriage of the english ambassador at rome in 1688: and we add also an engraving of a state carriage of about fifty years later, still in the possession of lord darnley. [illustration] [illustration] appendix. names of designers of woodwork and makers of furniture. only very meagre notices are to be found of the artists to whom we owe the designs of modern furniture. for a hundred and fifty years after the renaissance, furniture partook so generally, and the woodwork of rooms so entirely, of the character and followed so continually the details of architecture that the history of furniture-designers is that of the architects of the day. these found in the members of guilds of carvers, carpenters, or image sculptors admirable hands to carry out the ornamental details of their woodwork, such as chimney-pieces, &c., and who made sideboards, cabinets, chairs, and tables to suit the woodwork. we have space here only for the names; in the large catalogue a brief notice of almost every one of them is also given. ------------------------------+-----------------+--------------- |country in which | names of artists. | they worked. | date. ------------------------------+-----------------+---------------- a | | | | adam, j. (and r.) |england |1728-1792. | | agnolo, b. da |italy |1460-1563. | | agnolo, d. da | " |16th century. | | agnola, j. da | " | " " | | ambrogio, g. | " |17th " | | ards, w. |flanders |15th " | | asinelis, a. |italy |16th " | | b | | | | bachelier, - |france |16th century. | | baerze, j. de |flanders |14th " | | baker, - |england |18th " | | barili, a. |italy |16th " | | barili, g. | " | " " | | barili, s. | " | " " | | baumgartner, u. |germany |17th century. | | beaugreant, g. de |flanders |16th " | | beck, s. |germany | " " | | belli, a. a. |italy | " " | | belli, g. | " | " " | | berain, j. |france |1636-1711. | | bergamo, d. da |italy |1490-1550. | | bergamo, s. da | " |16th century. | | bernardo, - | " | " " | | berruguete, - |spain |1480-1561. | | bertolina, b. j. |italy |16th century. | | beydert, j. |flanders |15th " | | blondeel, l. | " |1495-1560. | | bolgié, g |italy |18th century. | | bonzanigo, g. m. | " | " " | | borello, f. | " |16th " | | borgona, f. de |spain | " " | | botto, b. |italy | " " | | botto, g. b. | " | " " | | botto, p. | " | " " | | botto, s. a. | " | " " | | boulle, a. c. |france |1642-1732. | | boulle, p. | " |17th century. | | brescia, r. da |italy |16th " | | bross, -de |france |17th " | | bruggemann, h. |germany |15th " | | bruhl, a. |flanders |16th and 17th | | centuries. | | brunelleschi, f. |italy |1377-1446. | | brustolone, a. | " |1670-1732. | | buontalenti, b. t. | " |16th century. | | c | | | | caffieri, ph. |france |17th and 18th | | centuries. | | cano, a. |spain |17th century. | | canova, j. de |italy |16th " | | canozii, c. | " | " " | | canozii, g. m. | " | " " | | canozii, l. | " | " " | | capitsoldi, - |england |18th " | | capo di ferro, brothers |italy |16th " | | carlone, j. | " |18th " | | carnicero, a. |spain |1693-1756. | | castelli, q. |italy |16th century | | cauner, - |france |18th " | | cauvet, g. p. |france |1731-1788 | | ceracci, g. |england |18th century. | | cervelliera, b. del |italy | " " | | chambers, sir w. |england |1726-1796. | | chippendale, t. | " |18th century. | | cipriani, g. b. | " | " " | | coit, - | " | " " | | collet, a. | " | " " | | copeland, - | " | " " | | cotte, j. de |france | " " | | cotte, r. de | " |1656-1735. | | cotton, c. |england |18th century. | | cressent, - |france | " " | | d | | | | davy, r. |england |1750-1794. | | dello delli |italy |14th and 15th | | centuries | | dolen, -van |flanders |18th century. | | donatello, - |italy |1380-1466. | | dorsient, a c.; c. oc. |flanders |16th century | | ducerceau, a. |france |1515-1585. | | dugar, e. |italy |16th century. | | du quesnoy, f. h. and j. |flanders |17th " | | f | | | | faydherbe, l. |flanders |1627-1694. | | filippo, d. di |italy |16th century. | | flörein, j. |flanders |15th " | | flötner, p. |germany |16th " | | g | | | | gabler, m. |germany |17th century. | | galletti, g. |italy |18th " | | garnier, p. |france | " " | | genser, m. |germany |17th " | | gervasius |england | | | gettich, p. |germany |17th " | | geuser, m. | " | " " | | gheel, f. van |flanders |18th " | | gibbons, g. |england |17th " | | giovanni, fra |italy |16th " | | glosencamp, h. |flanders | " " | | goujon, j. |france | " " | | h | | | | habermann, - |france |18th century. | | haeghen,-van der |flanders | " " | | hekinger, j. |germany |17th " | | heinhofer, ph. | " |16th and 17th | | centuries. | | helmont, -van |flanders |18th century. | | heppelwhite, a |england | " " | | hernandez, g. |spain |1586-1646. | | hool, j. b. van |flanders |18th century. | | huet, - |france | " " | | hyman, f. |england | " " | | j | | | | john of st. omer |england |13th century. johnson, t. | " |18th " | | juni, j. d. |spain |16th and 17th | | centuries. | | k | | | | kauffmann, a. |england |18th century. | | kiskner, u. |germany |17th " | | kuenlin, j. | " | " " | | l | | | | ladetto, f. |italy |18th century. | | lalonde, - |france | " " | | lawreans, - |england |17th " | | lecreux, n. a. j. |flanders |1757-1836. | | le moyne, j. |france |1645-1718. | | leopardi, a. |italy |1450-1525. | | le pautre, j. |france |1617-1682. | | le roux, j. b. | " |18th century. | | linnell, j. |england | " " | | lock, m. | " | " " | | loir, a. |france |1630-1713. | | l'orme, ph. de. | " |16th century. | | lunigia, a. da |italy | " " | | m | | | | macé, j. |france |18th century. | | maifeis, p. di |italy |15th " | | maggiolino, - | " |18th " | | magister, o. | " |16th " | | majano, b. da | " |15th " | | majano, g. da |italy |1432-1490. | | margaritone, - | " |1236-1313. | | marot, d. |france |1650-1700? | | marot, g. | " |17th century. | | marot, j. | " |1625-1679. | | martin, r. | " |1706-1765. | | martincourt, - | " |18th century. | | meissonnier, j. a. | " |1693-1750. | | mendeler, g. |germany |17th century. | | meulen, r. van der |flanders |1645-1717. | | minore, g. |italy |15th century. | | modena, p. da | " | " " | | moenart, m. |flanders |17th " | | montepulciano, g. da |italy |16th " | | moser, l. |germany |15th " | | müller, d. | " |17th " | | müller, j. | " | " " | | n | | | | newrone, g. c. |italy |16th century. | | nilson, - |france |18th " | | nys, l. de |flanders | " " | | nys, p. de | " | " " | | o | | | | oost, p. van |flanders |14th century. | | oppenord, - |france |18th " | | p | | | | pacher, m. |germany |15th century. | | padova, z. da |italy |16th " | | panturmo, j. di | " |1492-1556. | | pardo, g. |spain |16th century. | | pareta, g. di |italy | " " | | passe, c. de |france |17th " | | passe, c. de, the younger | " | " " | | pergolese, - |england |18th " | | perreal, j. |france |15th " | | philippon, a. | " |16th " | | picau, - | " |18th " | | picq, j. |flanders |17th " | | pigalle, - |england |18th " | | piffetti, a. p. |italy |1700-1777. | | plumier, p. d. |flanders |1688-1721. | | porfirio, b. di |italy |16th century | | q | | | | quellin, a. |flanders |1609-1668. | | quellin, a., the younger | " |1625-1700. | | quellin, e. | " |17th century. | | r | | | | raephorst, b. van |flanders |15th century, | | ramello, f. |italy |16th " | | ranson, - |france |18th " | | rasch, a. |flanders |15th " | | riesener, - |france |18th " | | roentgen, d. | " | " " | | rohan, j. de | " |16th " | | rohan, j. de | " | " " | | rosch, j. |germany |15th " | | rossi, p. de |italy |15th and 16th | | centuries. | | rovezzano, b. da |england |16th century. | | s | | | | salembier, - |france |18th and 19th | | centuries. | | sangher, j. de |flanders |17th century. | | schelden, p. van der | " |16th " | | schwanhard, h. |germany |17th " | | serlius, s. |france |16th " | | servellino, g. del |italy |15th " | | sheraton, th. |england |18th " | | smet, r. de |flanders |16th " | | stoss, v. |germany |1438-1533. | | syrlin, j. | " |15th century. | | syrlin, j., the younger | " |15th and 16th | | centuries. | | t | | | | taillebert, u. |flanders |16th century. | | tasso, d. |italy |15th and 16th | | centuries. | | tasso, g. | " | " " | | tasso, g. b. | " | " " | | tasso, m. d. | " |15th century. | | tatham, c. h. |england |18th " | | taurini, r. |italy |16th " | | thomire, p. ph. |france |1751-1843. | | tolfo, g. |italy |16th century. | | toro, - |france |18th century. | | torrigiano, - |england |1472-1522. | | toto, - | " |1331-1351. | | trevigi, g. da | " |1304-1344. | | u | | | | uccello, p. |italy |1396-1479. | | ugliengo, c. | " |18th century. | | v | | | | venasca, g. p. |italy |18th century. | | verbruggen, p. |flanders |17th " | | verbruggen, p., the younger | " |1660-1724. | | verhaegen, th. | " |18th century. | | voyers, - |england | " " | | vriesse, v. de |france |17th " | | w | | | | walker, h. |england |16th century. | | weinkopf, w. |germany | " " | | willemsens, l. |flanders |1635-1702. | | william the florentine |england |13th century. | | wilton, j. | " |18th " | | z | | | | zabello, f. |italy |16th century. | | zorn, g. |germany |17th " index. adam, robert and john, 112 alexandria, ancient centre of civilisation, 17 anglo-saxon houses, 44 antioch, ancient centre of civilisation, 17 architectural style in furniture, 94 art, classic, ends in third century, 34 " byzantine, 35 " mediæval, its growth, 41 " " its perfection, 47 " romanesque, long continuance, 42 " renaissance, 66 " classic, revived in eighteenth century, 107 " " early nineteenth century, 114 atrium, 18 attalus introduces tapestry, 17 bedrooms, english, fourteenth century, 50 " french, eighteenth century, 104 beds, byzantine period, 37 " norman, 46 " egyptian, greek, &c., 116 " mediæval, 118, 119 " at hampton court, 120 bellows, renaissance, 72 bombé furniture, 104, 111 boucher, 108 boule, 95 bureaux in marquetry, 93, 104 " or knee-hole, 128 byzantine period, 35 " wealth, 38 " artists welcomed by charlemagne, 41 cabinet, french, sixteenth century, 89 " japan, 128 cafass, egyptian wood, 4 candelabra, 23, 24 candles, anglo-saxon, &c., 45, 48 carriage, anglo-saxon, 45 " fourteenth century, 54, 131 " seventeenth century, 92 " the speaker's, 132 " lord darnley's, 132 caskets, byzantine, 37 ceilings in roman houses, 21, 31 chair, egyptian, 4, 121 " nineveh, 7 " greek, 10, 11, 14 " roman, 28, 122 " of st. peter, 35 " byzantine, 37 " at ravenna, 39, 122 " in bayeux tapestry, 45 " coronation, 49 " of guidobaldo, 63 " italian, fifteenth century, 63 " folding mediæval, 122 " of silver, at barcelona, 123 " the glastonbury, 123 " italian, seventeenth century, 124 " marquetry, 124 chambers, sir william, 106 chariots, hebrew, 9 " greek, 15 " roman, 130 " byzantine, 37 chest, greek, 11 " roman, 29 " of king john, 47 " fourteenth century, 51 " for copes, 56 " fifteenth century, 60 chest, italian, 61 " renaissance, 69, 71 chimneypieces, eighteenth century, 106 chippendale, 106 cipriani, 112 cluny hôtel, carriages there, 2 colbert, his patronage of art, 94 couches, egyptian, 5 " roman, 13 " mediæval, 120 coypel, antoine, 104 cradle, mediæval, 121 cubicula, 20 cypress chests, 70, 127 dagobert's chair, 43 david, 105 delafosse, 104, 108 dilettanti society, influence, 115 dining-room, byzantine, 38 diptych of anastasius, 36 distaff, 106 doorway, english, seventeenth century, 98 "droit de prisage," 54 ébénistes, fine cabinet makers, 108 ebony used seventeenth century, 108 egyptian furniture, 5 elizabethan style, 85 flemish furniture, seventeenth century, 87 fragonard, 108 french style prevalent in eighteenth century, 103, 105 furniture, use of a collection, 1 " byzantine, still perhaps in mosques and treasuries, 40 " sixteenth century, architectural, 75 " eighteenth century, 103 " bombé, explained, 104 german artists in england, sixteenth century, 78 " work, eighteenth century, 111 gillow, 113 glass windows in roman houses, 20 " mosaics, &c., 22 " venetian, 99 glue used by the romans, 33 gouthière, 105, 110 greek manners, simple, 12 " houses, 14 grinling gibbons, 97 " best examples of his work, 97 halls in roman villas, 20 hebrew furniture, 8 heppelwhite, 113 hogarth, paintings of chimneypieces, 106 holbein, his influence, 78 holy-water stoup, 102 house, roman, 18 " greek, 14 " how warmed in rome, 29 " anglo-saxon and norman, 44, 46 " of timber, fifteenth century, 58 iconoclasts, destruction by, 40 italian coffer at south kensington, 61 " artists, sixteenth century, 68 " " in france and england, 78, 89 " carved woodwork, sixteenth century, 89 " distaff, 106 japanese lac-work, 106 kauffmann (angelica), 112 kaunitz, a kind of bureau, 128 kitchen utensils, roman, 30 knife case, sixteenth century, 76 lac-work, chinese and japanese, 106 lalonde, 108 lares, 28 lebrun, first head of the "gobelins," 95 le pautre family, 104 litters, roman, 31 lock (matthias), 112 locks in roman houses, 21 louvre, egyptian boxes, 6 maggiolino, 111 mansard, 104 marquetry, venetian, 62 " seventeenth century, 92, 93 " boule, 95 meissonnier, 104, 108 metallurgy, british, 42 micque, 108 mirror, greek, 13 " renaissance, 69 mirror frames, sixteenth century, 71 " " venetian, 91, 99 " made in england, seventeenth century, 99, 100 mosaic, roman, pavements and on walls, 19 " or pietra dura, 74 natoire, 108 nero, colossus in his house, 25 nineveh furniture, 6 nuptiale, 18 [oe]ci, 20 oppenord, 108 ostium, 18 paintings and pictures in roman houses, 22 " in thirteenth century, of rooms, 48, 49 panelling for rooms, 49 " oriental, 57 " of a chest, 60 " english, sixteenth century, 79, 80 " french, sixteenth century, 84 " english, 86 pedestal, 90 penates, 18 peristylium, 20 persian furniture, 8 " marquetry, 63 picture-frames, renaissance, 71 pomeranian cabinet at berlin, 92 pompeii, value of discoveries, 16 porcelain given to queen elizabeth, 130 pottery, time of edward i., 49 pudens, ancient house of, 20 pugin, 114 queverdo, 108 religious houses, their woodwork, 63 " " safe generally from spoliation, 67 renaissance in italy, 66 " materials employed, 69 " in england, france, &c., 78 restout, jean, 104 riesener, 105, 108, 109 robert, 108 rococo furniture, 103 roentgen, 108, 109 roman habits, at first simple, 16 " house, 18 " couches in dining-rooms, 19, 27 " locks and hinges, 21 " tables, 25 " chairs, 28 " kitchen utensils, 30 roof of westminster hall, 55 room decorations, french, eighteenth century, 107 room of marie antoinette's time at south kensington, 107 roundels, 129 salembier, 108 scamnum, 28 sculpture, architectural, &c., fourteenth century, 56 " renaissance, 69 settle or seat, fourteenth century, 51 sheraton, thomas, 113 sideboards, 128 silks for furniture, eighteenth century, 107 stuart style of woodwork and furniture, 85, 96 table, egyptian, 124 " nineveh, 8 " roman, 25, 125 " " veneered, 27 " " great value, 27 " norman, 46 " furniture of, fourteenth century, 50 " fourteenth and fifteenth century, 53, 58, 125 " sixteenth century, 71 " of francesco de' medici, 75 " french, sixteenth century, 80, 81 " english, seventeenth century, 102 " long kept at flaxton hall, 126 tapestry first brought to rome, 17 " in roman houses, 30 " in england, fourteenth century, &c., 50, 61 " gobelin, 95 tarsia, 62, 73, 74 temple of diana, 33 theatre of c. curio, 32 tigrinæ tables, 26 triclinium, 18, 117 tripods, 22 tudor cabinet at south kensington, 78 " style, 85 vase from hadrian's villa, 25 venetian mirror-frame, 91 vernis-martin, 105 vestiaria, 20 walpole (horace), opinion on mediæval art, 111 wardrobe, old english, 49 " roman, 126 wars of the roses, evil consequences, 64 wood used in nineveh, 8 " " greece, 15 " " rome, for tables, &c., 26, 32 " " by riesener, 109 woodwork, english, in thirteenth century, 48 " " sixteenth century, 79 " germany, in sixteenth century, 83 " spanish, in sixteenth century, 84 " tudor and stuart, 86 wren, sir christopher, 97 wyattville, 114 the end. dalziel brothers, camden press, n.w. * * * * * transcriber's note _ _ represents italic print. ^ represents a superscript. the table of contents was erected by the transcriber, and placed in the public domain. sundry missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired. this book, published in england, dates from 1875. some older, but still correct, spellings may be present. there is also some 16th century spelling. both hyphenated and un-hyphenated versions of some words appear in the text. 'borgoña' and 'borgona' both appear in the text, as do 'hôtel' and 'hotel'. english spelling 'rules' have only existed since the second half of the nineteenth century. illustrations which interrupted paragraphs have generally been moved to more convenient positions between paragraphs. an exception is the illustration of st. edmund's 'well-furnished bedroom' on page 51, referred to in the first part of the long paragraph beginning on page 50. it made sense to insert the illustration after 'the year 1400', as the following text began a new topic. page 21: 'valves' corected to 'halves'. 'v' would seem to be a misprint for 'h'. "the doors were generally in two halves and could be closed with locks,..." page 48: 'candesticks' corrected to 'candlesticks'. "though the royal table might be lighted with valuable candlesticks of metal,..." page 82: [illustration: semper festina lente = hurry slowly!] page 121: 'musuem' corrected to 'museum'. "... as in the example in the museum,..." note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the more than 300 original illustrations. see 15831-h.htm or 15831-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15831/15831-h/15831-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15831/15831-h.zip) the scientific american boy or the camp at willow clump island by a. russell bond [illustration: fun in swimming.] new york munn & co., publishers 1906 copyright, 1905, by munn & co., new york press of the kalkhoff company new york preface all boys are nature lovers. nothing appeals to them more than a summer vacation in the woods where they can escape from the restraints of civilization and live a life of freedom. now, it may appear to be a bit of presumption to attempt to advise the boy camper how to spend his time. surely the novelty of outdoor life, the fascinating charm of his surroundings, will provide him plenty of entertainment. but, after all, a camp generally affords but two major amusements, hunting and fishing. these have been fully covered by a vast number of books. however, there is another side of camp life, particularly in a boys' camp, which has been very little dealt with, namely, the exercise of one's ingenuity in creating out of the limited resources at hand such devices and articles as will add to one's personal comfort and welfare. it is, therefore, the aim of this book to suggest certain diversions of this character for the boy camper which, aside from affording him plenty of physical exercise, will also develop his mental faculties, and above all stimulate that natural genius which is characteristic of every typical american boy. to this end the story contains descriptions of a large collection of articles which can be made by any boy of average intelligence, not only in the camp but at home as well. the use of a narrative to connect the various incidents marks a departure in this class of book, and it is believed that the matter will thus be made more realistic and interesting. in all cases full directions are given for making the various articles. while it is not presumed that the directions will be slavishly followed, for this would defeat the general aim of the work, yet all the principal dimensions are given so that they can be used, if desired. i beg to acknowledge the courtesy of mr. daniel c. beard and mr. henry d. cochrane in supplying a number of photographs. the directions for making the lee boards (page 119) were obtained from data furnished by the latter. many of the details recorded in the chapter on tramping outfits are to be accredited to mr. edward thorpe. in the preparation of this book i have received valuable assistance from my colleague, mr. a. a. hopkins. a. russell bond. new york, october, 1905. contents chapter i. page "bill" 17 the old trunk. christmas vacation. "bill's" skate sail. willow clump island. organizing the society. chapter ii. skate sails 26 the double swedish sail. the single swedish sail. the lanteen sail. the danish sail. bat's wings. chapter iii. snow shoes, skis and swamp shoes 35 chair seat snow shoe. barrel stave snow shoe. barrel hoop snow shoe. the sioux snow shoe. the iroquois snow shoe. the ainu snow shoe. the norwegian ski. the swamp shoe or swiss snow shoe. chapter iv. tent making 44 farewell meeting. word from uncle ed. the canvas tent. adjustable ridge pole. tie blocks. the annex. chapter v. preparing for the expedition 53 tent fly. provisions and supplies. umbrella rib crossbow. megaphone. the scow. chapter vi. off to the island 63 a unique alarm clock. the trip to the island. preliminary exploration. a rustic table. the small filter. the barrel filter. the _klepalo_. chapter vii. surveying 73 the surveying instrument. spirit levels. the tripod. surveyor's chain. surveyor's rod. a simple method of surveying. mapping the island. chapter viii. swimming 84 swimming on a plank. shooting the rapids. restoring the drowned. how to work over a patient alone. chapter ix. bridge building 95 the spar bridge. the rope railway. the suspension bridge. the pontoon bridge. the king rod truss. stiffening the bridge. the king post bridge. chapter x. canvas canoes 109 uncle ed's departure. a visit from mr. schreiner. the sailing canoe. stretching on the canvas. the rudder. the deep keel. canoe sails. lee boards. indian paddling canoe. chapter xi. house building 124 the grass hut. the goblins' dancing platform. dutchy takes a dare. a path up the fissure. rope ladders. the derrick. the tree house. sliding doors. chapter xii. trouble with the tramps 138 the scow is stolen. a council of war. vengeance. a double surprise. tramp-proof boat mooring. chapter xiii. wigwagging and heliographing 144 wigwag signals. the wigwag alphabet. abbreviations. wigwagging at night. the heliograph. the single mirror instrument. the sight rod. the screen. focusing the instrument. heliograph signaling. the international telegraph code. the double mirror instrument. chapter xiv. ice boats, sledges and toboggans 158 breaking camp. the ice boat. the sledge. the toboggan. the rennwolf. ice creepers. chapter xv. the subterranean club 171 a cave-in. excavating for the cave. covering the cave. the big bug club. midnight banquets. the club pin. the combination lock. chapter xvi. scooters 183 a sail in the scow. our craft strikes the ice. the scooter scow. a sprit sail. scooter sailing. a meeting of the society. an interview with mr. van syckel. the scooter canoe. chapter xvii. an arctic expedition 193 willow clump island in winter. kindling a camp fire. the outdoor fireplace. a stone-paved fireplace. a cold night in the hut. mountain climbing. a poor shelter. a costly camp fire. a friend in time of trouble. chapter xviii. tramping outfits 203 sleeping bags. bill's "mummy case." the "a" tent. a camp chair. a camp bed. the camp bed in a shower. a nightmare. pack harness. riveting. chapter xix. the land yacht 215 the frame of the yacht. a simple turnbuckle. stepping the mast. mounting the frame on bicycle wheels. the tiller. a "leg-of-mutton" sail. a sail through the country. chapter xx. easter vacation 224 bill's cave. the barrel stave hammock. the barrel armchair. the summer toboggan. tailless kites. a five-foot malay kite. an eight-foot malay kite. the elastic belly band. putting the kites to work. the diamond box kite. chapter xxi. the water wheel 240 the water wheel. surveying for the water wheel. towers for the water wheel. the wheel. the buckets. the paddles. the receiving trough. setting up the towers. mounting the water wheel. cooling the filter barrel. the canvas bucket. mr. halliday's water wheel. chapter xxii. the log cabin 254 foundation of log cabin. a logging expedition. the log raft. the sail-rigged raft. building the log cabin. the roof of the log cabin. door and window frames. the fireplace. the proper way to build a stone wall. the floor of the cabin. the door hinges and latch. the window sash. bunks. stopping up the chinks. chapter xxiii. the windmill 273 digging the well. the windmill tower. the crank shaft. the wind wheel. a simple brake. the pump. pump valves. action of the pump. chapter xxiv. the gravity railroad 283 the car. the flanged wheels. car axles. mounting the wheels. the railway track. the carpenter's miter box. laying the track. the first railway accident. testing the track. chapter xxv. the cantilever bridge 292 frames for the cantilever bridge. erecting the towers. setting up the frames. binding and anchoring the structure. the center panels of the bridge. a serious interruption. dispossessed. farewell to willow clump island. reddy's cantilever bridge. [illustration: map of willow clump island and vicinity.] the scientific american boy. chapter i. "bill." "bill," he was it, the scientific american boy, i mean. of course, we were all american boys and pretty scientific chaps too, if i do say it myself, but bill, well he was the whole show. what he didn't know wasn't worth knowing, so we all thought, and even to this day i sometimes wonder how he managed to contrive and execute so many remarkable plans. at the same time he was not a conceited sort of a chap and didn't seem to realize that he was head and shoulders above the rest of us in ingenuity. but, of course, we didn't all have an uncle like bill did. bill's uncle ed was one of those rare men who take a great interest in boys and their affairs, a man who took time to answer every question put to him, explaining everything completely and yet so clearly that you caught on at once. uncle ed (we all called him that) was a civil engineer of very high standing in his profession, which had taken him pretty much all over the world, and his naturally inquisitive nature, coupled with a wonderful memory, had made him a veritable walking encyclopedia. with such an uncle it is no wonder that bill knew everything. of course, there were some things that puzzled even bill. but all such difficulties, after a reasonable amount of brain-work had failed to clear them, were submitted to uncle ed. uncle ed was always prompt (that was one thing we liked about him), and no matter where he was or what he was doing he would drop everything to answer a letter from the society. the old trunk. [illustration: fig. 1. the old trunk in the attic.] [illustration: fig. 2. the black walnut box.] but hold on, i am getting ahead of my story. i was rummaging through the attic the other day, and came across an old battered trunk, one that i used when i went to boarding-school down in south jersey. that trunk was certainly a curiosity shop. it contained a miscellaneous assortment of glass tubes, brass rods, coils of wire, tools, fish hooks--in fact, it was a typical collection of all those "valuables" that a boy is liable to pick up. down in one corner of the trunk was a black walnut box, marked, with brass letters, "property of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i." on my key-ring i still carried the key to that box, which had not been opened for years. i unlocked the box and brought to light the "records and chronicles of the society for the scientific investigation, exploration and exploitation of willow clump island." for hours i pored over those pages, carried back to the good old times we used to have as boys along the banks of the delaware river, until i was brought sharply back to the present by the sound of the dinner bell. it seemed that the matter contained in those "chronicles" was too good to be kept locked up in an old trunk. few boys' clubs ever had such a president as bill, or such a wonderful bureau of information as uncle ed. for the benefit of boys and boykind in general, i decided then and there to publish, as fully as practicable, a record of what our society did. christmas vacation. this was how the society came to be formed. bill, whom i met at boarding-school, was an orphan, and that's why he was sent to boarding-school. his uncle had to go down to brazil to lay out a railroad, i believe, and so he packed bill off to our school, which was chosen in preference to some others because one of the professors there had been a classmate of uncle ed's at college. bill roomed with me, and naturally we became great chums. when christmas time came, of course i invited him to spend the holidays with me. my home was situated in the little village of lamington, on the jersey side of the delaware river. here we arrived late at night on the saturday before christmas. a cold wind was blowing which gave promise of breaking the spell of warm weather we had been having, and of giving us a chance to try our skates for the first time. true to our expectations, the next day was bitterly cold, and a visit to the canal which ran along the river bank, just beyond our back fence, showed that quite a thick skim of ice had formed on the water. monday morning, bright and early, found us on the smooth, slippery surface of the canal. "us" here includes, in addition to bill and myself, my two younger brothers, jack and fred, and also dutchy van syckel and reddy schreiner, neighbors of ours. it was the custom at the first of december every year to drain out most of the water in the canal, in order to prevent possible injury to the canal banks from the pressure of the ice. but there was always a foot or two of water covering the bottom of the canal, and this afforded a fine skating park of ample width and unlimited length, while the high canal banks on each side protected us from the bitter wind that was blowing. toward noon, however, the wind shifted and swept at a terrific rate down the narrow lane between the canal banks. we could scarcely make headway against the blow. it was too much for bill, who wasn't as used to skating as we were. he sat down in a sheltered nook and commenced to think. when bill sat down to think it always meant that something was going to happen, as we soon learned. "say, jim," said he to me, "have you got any canvas up at the house?" "no," i replied. "what do you want it for?" "i want to rig up a skate sail. if you have an old sheet, that will do just as well." "well, i guess i can find you an old sheet. do you think you can make one?" "sure thing," answered bill, and off we went to the house, where i received my first lesson on the practical genius of my chum. "bill's" skate sail. [illustration: fig. 3. laying out the sail.] [illustration: fig. 4. the tape tie strings.] [illustration: fig. 5. "bill's" sail complete.] the old sheet which mother furnished us was laid out on the floor and two corners were folded over to the center, as shown in the drawing, making a triangle with base 7 feet long and sides each about 4 feet 6 inches long. the surplus end piece was then cut off, and a broad hem turned and basted all around the edges of the triangle. bill wanted to work the sewing machine himself, but mother was afraid he would break something, so she sewed down the hem for us. then, under bill's supervision, she re-enforced the corners by sewing on patches of cloth. along the diagonal a strip of heavy tape was sewed, leaving loops at intervals, which afterward were cut and provided means for tying the sail to the mast. tie strings of tape were also sewed at the corners, as shown in the illustration, and then a trip was made to the garden in search of suitable spars. a smooth bean pole of about the right weight served for the mast, and another stick with a crotch at one end served as the boom or cross-spar. the spars were cut to proper length, and the sail was then tied on, as illustrated, with the crotch of the cross-spar fitted against and tied to the center of the mast. a light rope, long enough to provide plenty of slack, was tied to the ends of the mast to assist in guiding the sail when in use. in the meantime i had procured another sheet from one of our neighbors, and bill helped me make a sail for myself. it was not until long after dark that we finished our work. willow clump island. the next day we tried the sails and it didn't take me very long to learn how to steer the device. the wind had changed again and this time blew up the canal. we took the line of least resistance, and went skimming up the ice lane like birds for several miles before we realized how far we were getting away from home. as we rounded a bend in the canal, much to my astonishment, i saw just before us the bridge at raven hill, eight miles from our town. we started to go back, but the wind was too strong for us, and there wasn't much room in which to do any tacking; nor could we make any progress when the sails were folded. i began to get extremely tired and rather exasperated at bill for not having thought of the return trip before he led me such a hot pace up the canal. but bill was getting tired, too. "look here, jim," he said, "we haven't covered a mile, and i'm worn out." "why in thunder didn't you think of this before we started?" i returned. "how much money have you with you?" was the reply. "what's that got to do with it?" "i'll tell you in a minute. how much have you?" a careful search of my dozen odd pockets netted the sum of twenty-seven cents. "i have fifty-nine," said bill, "and that makes eighty-six altogether, doesn't it? isn't there a railroad depot near here?" "there is one at raven hill, and the next is at lumberville. that is about eleven miles from home." "well," said bill, "at three cents each per mile that would amount to sixty-six cents. let's sail on to lumberville and then take the train back." on we sped to lumberville, only to find that the next train was not due until noon, and it was now just half past ten. time never hung heavy on our hands. out on the river we espied an island. i had heard of this island--willow clump island, it was called--but had never been on it; consequently i fell in with bill's suggestion that we make it a visit. owing to the rapids which separated the island from the jersey shore, we had to go up stream a quarter of a mile, to where a smooth sheet of ice had formed, over a quiet part of the river; thence we sailed down to the island along the pennsylvania side. "what a capital island for a camp," cried bill, after we had explored it pretty thoroughly. "have you ever been out camping?" i had to confess i never had, and then bill gave me a glowing account of his experiences in the adirondacks with his uncle the year before, which so stirred up the romance in me that i wanted to camp out at once. "shucks!" said bill, "we would freeze in this kind of weather, and besides, we've got to make a tent first." we then sat down and made elaborate plans for the summer. suddenly the distant sound of a locomotive whistle interrupted our reveries. "jiminy crickets!" i exclaimed. "that's the train coming through spalding's cut. we've got to hustle if we are to catch it." we were off like the wind, and a merry chase brought us to the lumberville depot in time to flag the train. we arrived at lamington at half past twelve, a trifle late for dinner, rather tired and hungry, but with a glowing and i fear somewhat exaggerated account of our adventure for the credulous ears of the rest of the boys. organizing the society. the camping idea met with the hearty approval of all, and it was decided to begin preparations at once for the following summer. dutchy, whose father was a member of a geographical society, suggested that we form a society for the exploration of willow clump island. by general acclamation bill was chosen president of the society, dutchy was made vice-president, reddy was elected treasurer, and they made me secretary. it was dutchy who proposed the name "the society for the scientific investigation, exploration and exploitation of willow clump island." it was decided to make an expedition of exploration as soon as we could make skate sails for the whole society. chapter ii. skate sails. the duties of the secretary, as defined in the constitution which dutchy van syckel drew up, were to keep a record of all the acts of the society, the minutes of every meeting, and accurate detailed descriptions of all work accomplished. therefore, while the rest of the society was busy cutting up old sheets, levied from the surrounding neighborhood, and sewing and rigging the sails under bill's direction, i, with pad and pencil in hand, took notes on all the operations. the double swedish sail. [illustration: fig. 6. dimensions of double swedish sail. n. b.--the mark (') means feet and (") means inches.] [illustration: fig. 7. halyards looped onto pole.] [illustration: fig. 8. the double swedish sail.] bill evolved some new types of sails which differed materially from the type described in the first chapter. one was a double sail--"the kind they use in sweden," he explained. one of the sheets which the foraging party brought in was extra large; it measured approximately two yards and a half square. this was folded on itself, making a parallelogram seven feet six inches long and three feet nine inches wide. the sheets we had were all rather worn and some were badly torn, so that we had to make our sails of double thickness, sewing patches over the weak spots. a broad hem was turned down at each end, and heavy tape was sewed on, leaving loops as before, to attach them to the spars. this reduced the length of our sail to seven feet three inches. the end spars were spaced apart by a light pole about ten feet long, to which they were tied at the points of intersection. the spars were also braced by halyards looped over the ends of the pole in the manner indicated in the drawing (fig. 7). it took a crew of two boys to manipulate this sail. in use, the pole of the rig was carried on the shoulders, and the sail was guided by means of ropes attached to the lower corners of the vertical spars. these ropes in nautical language are called "sheets." the boy at the rear was the pilot and did the steering, because his position behind the sail gave him an unobstructed view in all directions. when changing tack the sail was lifted overhead to the other side of the crew. [illustration: fig. 9. changing tack.] the single swedish sail. [illustration: fig. 10. the single swedish sail.] another sail of similar form, but for use of one boy only, is shown in fig. 10. this had a height of six and one-half feet at the forward end and three feet at the rear; and its length was five feet. this sail was very satisfactory in light winds, owing to its great area. in use we found that it was very important to keep the lower edge against the leg, as indicated by the arrow. the rig was manipulated just like the double swedish sail, lifting it over the head when it was desired to change tack. the lanteen sail. [illustration: fig 11. the lanteen sail.] [illustration: fig. 12. hinge for spars.] [illustration: fig. 13. leather mast step.] [illustration: fig. 14. wooden mast step.] the lanteen sail we found to be a very good rig. it was made in the form of a triangle, measuring eight feet on one side, seven and one-half feet on another side and six and one-half feet on the third. the six and one-half foot side was secured to a boom, and the seven and one-half foot side to a yard. the yard and boom were hinged together by a leather strap nailed on as shown in fig. 12, and to this hinge a rope was attached, which served as a sheet. these spars were secured to a mast erected perpendicularly to the boom and intersecting the yard a little above its center. we had had some trouble with the first sails we made in keeping the base of the sail against the body, and to overcome this difficulty bill proposed tying the bottom of the mast to the leg. this was a rather risky thing to do, as we learned later, for in case of accident it would be difficult to get clear of the sail. it was reddy who finally solved the problem by rigging up a step for the mast. it consisted of a leather tag tied to the leg, and provided with a hole into which the bottom of the mast was fitted. to prevent the mast from slipping too far into the step the lower portion of it was whittled down, leaving a shoulder which rested on the leather. bill later devised another step, which consisted of a wooden block (fig. 14) strapped to the leg and formed with a shallow socket to receive the end of the mast. the danish sail. [illustration: fig. 15. the danish sail.] [illustration: fig. 16. topsail of the danish rig.] but the most satisfactory sail we found to be the danish sail, though it was not until we had served quite a long apprenticeship and sustained many pretty bad falls that we mastered the art of manipulating these sails properly. our ideas on this sail were obtained from a french illustrated paper which dutchy van syckel picked up in his father's library. this sail was formed with a topsail so arranged that it could be lowered when the wind was too strong. the dimensions of the sail as we made it are given in the drawing (fig. 15). the top of the sail was lashed to a spar, which was connected by a short stick to another spar tied to the mainsail about eighteen inches lower down. the sail was strengthened with an extra strip of cloth along the lower spar, and the tie strings were applied in the usual way. the connecting stick, or topmast we may call it, was hinged to the lower spar by means of a short piece of leather strap, which was passed round the spar in the form of a loop and its two ends nailed to the bottom of the topmast. the topmast extended above the upper spar a short distance, and to this we fastened the flag which our society had adopted. a couple of strong cords were secured to the center spar to provide for fastening the sail onto the skater. tied to the lower corners of the mainsail were two sticks which were used for guiding the sail when in flight. [illustration: fig. 17. before the wind. fig. 18. topsail lowered. fig. 19. skating against the wind. fig. 20. on the port tack.] the different methods of sailing with this rig are shown in figs. 17-20. when sailing with the wind the skater would stand very erect, bending backward in proportion as the wind blew fresher. by inclining the sail in one direction or the other, the skater could tack to port or starboard. when moving against the wind by skating in the usual way, the body was bent forward in such manner that the sail lay horizontal, so that it would not offer a purchase for the wind. bat's wings. [illustration: fig. 21.] one more sail deserves mention. it was bill's idea, and it came near to ending his career the first day he tried it. it had no spars at all, but was merely a strip of cloth of somewhat triangular shape. the upper side was tied to the head, and the two corners to the wrists, while the lower portion was tied to the ankles. this converted him into a huge white-winged bat. bill had to try it at once, even though the rest of the sails were not finished, and a very comical spectacle he made as he flapped his wings in his endeavors to tack. when the wind was too strong for him he had merely to drop his arms and thus lower sail. at length he became tired of holding his arms out at full length, and i got him a stick to put over his shoulders and rest his arms on. but that stick was bill's undoing, for coming around a sudden bend in the canal he caught the full force of the wind, which knocked him flat on his back before he could disentangle himself from the stick and lower sail. it took us some time to bring him back to consciousness, and a very scared lot of boys we were for a while. however, the lesson was a good one, for after that we were very cautious in experimenting with sails that had to be tied on, such as the danish rig and the lanteen rig, before reddy invented the mast step. it was not until the day after christmas that the sails were all completed, but then there was scarcely any wind blowing and we could not attempt the expedition to the island. chapter iii. snow shoes, skis and swamp shoes. the next day, sunday, it began to snow, and we realized that our chance of skating up to willow clump island was spoiled. all the afternoon it snowed, and the next morning we woke to find the ground covered to a depth of eight inches and snow still falling. but who ever heard of a boy complaining because there was snow on the ground? here were new difficulties to overcome, new problems to solve, and new sports provided for our amusement. there was no disappointment shown by any of the members of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., as they met in the woodshed immediately after breakfast to discuss proceedings for the day. there seemed to be but one way of reaching the island, and that was by means of snow shoes. bill had only a vague idea of how snow shoes were made. chair seat snow shoe. [illustration: fig. 22. chair seat snow shoe] the first pair was made from a couple of thin wooden chair seats which we found in the shed. they proved quite serviceable, being very light and offering a fairly large bearing surface. the chair seats were trimmed off at each side to make the shoes less clumsy, and a loop of leather was fastened near the center of each shoe, in which the toe could be slipped. this shoe possessed the disadvantage of being too flat and of picking up too much snow when used. barrel stave snow shoe. [illustration: fig. 23. barrel stave snow shoe.] another pair of shoes was made from barrel staves. at first one stave was made to serve for a shoe, but we found that two staves fastened together with a pair of wooden cleats were much better. jack was the proud inventor of these shoes and insisted that they were far more satisfactory than the elaborate ones which were later devised. barrel hoop snow shoe. [illustration: fig. 24. barrel hoop snow shoe.] now that jack had shown his ingenuity, fred thought it was his turn to do something, and after mysteriously disappearing for the space of an hour we saw him suddenly come waddling back to the shed on a pair of barrel hoops covered with heavy canvas. he had stretched the canvas so tightly across the hoops that they were bent to an oval shape. it was claimed for these shoes, and with good reason, that they were not so slippery as the barrel stave shoe, for they permitted the foot to sink slightly into the snow. after dinner, dutchy came back with a book of his father's, a sort of an encyclopedia in which several different kinds of snow shoes were illustrated. reddy, whose father owned a sawmill, volunteered to provide us with strips of hickory from which to make the frames. the sioux snow shoe. [illustration: fig. 25. sioux shoe.] [illustration: fig. 26. frame of the sioux shoe.] [illustration: fig 27. web of the sioux shoe.] [illustration: fig. 28. weaving needle] the sioux snow shoe was the first type we tackled. two strips of hickory 4 feet long and 3/4 inch square in section, were bent over a pair of spreaders and securely fastened together at each end. the spreaders were about 12 inches long and located about 15 inches apart. they were notched at the ends, as shown in fig. 26, to receive the side strips, which were not fastened together until after they had been nailed to the spreaders. we found that the most satisfactory way of fastening together the ends of the hickory strips was to bolt them together. when the frame was completed, we began the tedious process of weaving in the filling or web of the snow shoe. first we cut notches in the edges of the spreaders, spacing these notches an inch apart. then we procured several balls of heavy twine at the corner store. tying one end of the cord to the right side stick about three inches below the forward spreader, we stretched a strand down to the notch at the left end of the lower spreader. the strand was drawn taut, and after making several twists around it the cord was tied to the left side stick three inches above the spreader. from this point the cord was stretched to the notch at the right end of the upper spreader, twisted several times and brought back to the starting point. the cord was now wrapped around the side stick for a space of about an inch, and then carried down to the second notch on the lower spreader, whence it was woven through the other two strands and tied about the left side stick about four inches from the spreader. thus the weaving continued, passing the cord alternately over and under any cross strands encountered. in order to make the left side correspond with the right, a separate cord was wound around it, filling up the space between the strands of the web. the filling above and below the spreaders could not be so methodically done, but we managed to weave the strands quite neatly with about the same mesh as used at the center. to facilitate the weaving we improvised a rough needle of a piece of wire. the latter was bent double to receive the cord which was wedged in between the two arms of the needle. the iroquois shoe. [illustration: fig. 29. bending the hickory strips.] [illustration: fig. 30. frame of iroquois shoe.] [illustration: fig. 31. iroquois snow shoe.] but the best snow shoe we made was the iroquois shoe. the frame of this shoe was made of hickory strips of the same width and thickness as used in the sioux shoe, but 8 feet long. the strips were bent in a loop and the ends were bolted together. how to bend the wood without breaking it seemed a very difficult problem. wood, we knew, could be easily bent without breaking if boiled or steamed for a while; but we had nothing large enough in which to boil a strip of wood 8 feet long. bill hit upon the plan of wrapping the stick with burlap and then pouring boiling water on it until it became sufficiently soft to bend easily. an old oats-sack was cut up into strips and wound onto the hickory sticks for a distance of 18 inches at each side of the center. we then repaired to the kitchen to do the steaming. the hickory stick was held over a large dish-pan filled with boiling water, and from this we dipped out the water and poured it slowly over the burlap wrapping of the stick. after a little of this treatment the stick was sufficiently steamed to permit of bending to the required shape. the ends were then firmly secured by means of bolts passed through bolt holes which had been previously drilled. the frame was completed by fitting the spreader sticks in place, after which it was laid away to dry. when the frame was perfectly dry we started weaving the web. in this case, however, instead of cord we used cane strips, which we had bought from a chair caner. this necessitated drilling holes in the side sticks to receive the cane strips. the web consisted of strands crossing each other diagonally, as illustrated. our second pair of iroquois snow shoes was made with a web of rawhide which we bought from a hardware store at millville. the ainu snow shoe. [illustration: fig. 32. ainu snow shoe.] one of the snowshoes described in the book was very much like fred's barrel-hoop snow shoe in appearance. according to the description, it was a type used by the ainus, a peculiar people living in the cold northern islands of japan. as the shoe seemed quite simple and rather unique, we thought we would make one like it. two hickory strips each 4 feet long were bent to a u-shape and lashed together, forming an oval about 2 feet 6 inches long by 18 inches wide. the frame was held to oval shape by tying the sides together. then the filling was woven in, running the strands diagonally, as shown in fig. 32. we had excellent weather for snow shoes after that snowstorm. a thaw followed by a cold spell caused a thick crust to form on the snow which would nearly hold us up without the aid of our snowshoes. we were rather awkward with those shoes for a while, trying to keep them clear of each other, and we found it particularly hard to turn sharply without causing one shoe to run foul of the other. but with a little practice we soon felt quite at home on them. in order to prevent cutting the web with our heels, we found it necessary to wear rubbers. [illustration: fig. 33. the norwegian ski.] our vacation came to an end before we were prepared for the expedition to willow clump island. but before leaving the subject on snow shoes, two more shoes remain to be described, namely the swiss snow shoe and the norwegian ski. the swiss shoe was made during the summer and the ski during the following winter. the norwegian ski. [illustration: fig. 34. bending the ski.] [illustration: fig. 35. the ski stick.] the norwegian ski was made of close-grained wood, 1 inch thick, 3-1/2 inches wide and 6 feet long. about 18 inches from the forward end the wood was planed down to a thickness of 1/4 of an inch. this end was placed in the dish-pan of boiling water, and in a short time it was pliable enough to permit of bending. it was secured in the proper bent position by slipping the toe end of the shoe between the banisters on the back porch and nailing a cleat back of the heel end. when the ski was perfectly dry the toe strap was nailed on just back of the balancing point, and also another strap, to be secured about the ankle. then a cleat was nailed onto the ski to fit against the heel of the shoe. in use we found it best to cut a groove in the bottom of the ski, so as to give us a better grip on the snow in climbing up hills. with the skis we had to use short poles or "ski sticks" to assist in starting, stopping and steering when coasting. the ski stick was a bean pole provided with a wooden block near the lower end, to prevent it from being forced too far through the snow. the swiss snow shoe or swamp shoe. [illustration: fig. 36. the swiss snow shoe.] the swiss shoe was made primarily to assist us in exploring some boggy land a short distance up the river from our island. the original swamp shoes were made from the bottoms of two old baskets, and they worked so admirably that it was decided to equip the whole society with them. uncle ed, when told about them, informed us that that was the kind of snow shoe used in switzerland. of course, we could not afford to destroy a pair of baskets for each member of the club, and so we had to weave the shoes from the willows which grew on the island. chapter iv. tent making. we had a farewell meeting of the society the evening before bill and i had to return to boarding-school. at this meeting plans were made for the easter vacation. we also considered the matter of getting parental permission for our summer outing. so far we had been afraid to breathe a word of our plans outside of the society, since fred had said something about it in the presence of father and had been peremptorily ordered to banish all such hair-brained, wild west notions from his head. we realized from that incident that the consent of our parents would not be so very easily obtained. but bill came forward with a promising suggestion. he would write to his uncle ed and see if he couldn't be persuaded to join the expedition. at first we demurred. we didn't want a "governor" around all the time. but bill assured us that his uncle was "no ordinary man"; that he would not interfere with our plans, but would enter right into them and give us many valuable pointers. though not by any means convinced, we told him to go ahead and invite his uncle, as that seemed about the only means of winning over our fathers and mothers. the society was then adjourned until our easter vacation began, each member promising to earn and save as much money as he could in the meantime to buy the materials for a tent and provisions for the summer outing. word from uncle ed. [illustration: fig. 37. breadths sewed together for roof and side walls of tent.] bill's letter to uncle ed was answered as quickly as the mail could travel to brazil and back. uncle ed heartily approved of our plans, and said that he would be delighted to join the expedition. he could not be on hand before the 1st of july, but that would give us plenty of time to make all necessary preparations. he told us not to worry about gaining the consent of our parents. he would write to them and see them all personally, if necessary to win their approval. the canvas tent. [illustration: fig. 38. the sail stitch.] when at last spring arrived and we returned to lamington on our easter vacation, quite a sum of money had been collected, nearly $15.00, if i remember rightly; at any rate plenty to buy the materials for a good-sized tent and leave a large surplus for provisions, etc. bill figured out on paper just how much canvas we would need for a tent 7 feet wide by 9-1/2 feet long, which he estimated would be about large enough to hold us. it took 34 yards, 30 inches wide. then we visited the village store to make our purchase. canvas we found a little too expensive for us, but a material called drill seemed about right. it cost ten cents a yard, but since we wanted such a quantity of it the price was reduced to a total of $3.00. we repaired to the attic to lay out the material. [illustration: fig. 39. cutting out the door flaps.] [illustration: fig. 40. sewing on the door flaps.] first we cut out four lengths of 5 yards and 26 inches each. the strips were basted together, lapping the edges 1 inch and making a piece 17 feet 2 inches long by 9 feet 9 inches wide. mother sewed the breadths together on the machine, using a double seam, as in sail making; that is, two parallel rows of stitching were sewed in, one along each overlapping edge, as shown in fig. 38. a 1-inch hem was then turned and sewed at the ends of the goods, so that the piece measured exactly 17 feet long. it served for the roof and side walls of the tent. our next operation was to cut three strips 11 feet long, and sew them together with a double seam as before. this piece was now slit along the center line _m_, fig. 39, making two lengths 3 feet 8 inches wide. the strips were then cut along the diagonal lines _a a_, forming the end walls or doors, so to speak, of the tent. in sewing on the door flaps we started first at the bottom of the side _c_, sewing it to the side edge of the main piece, as shown in fig. 40, and running the seam up for a distance of exactly 3 feet 6 inches. after all the door strips had been sewed along their _c_ edges the sewing was continued up the diagonal or _a_ edges. in cutting out the door pieces we had allowed 1 inch on each side for hems and seams, so that the door pieces met without lapping at the exact center of the main or body piece, that is, at the peak of the tent. [illustration: the wall tent set up in the back yard.] [illustration: fig. 41. adjustable ridge pole.] [illustration: fig. 42. the tent set up.] our next step was to fasten the necessary ropes and loops. ten 8-foot lengths of light rope were procured. these were fastened at the top of the side walls, that is, 3 feet 6 inches from the ends of the main or body piece, one at each corner and one on each seam. the cloth was strengthened at these points with patches sewed on the inside. at the bottom of the side walls we sewed on loops of heavy tape. these were spaced about 15 inches apart. along the _b_ edges of the door pieces tie strings of tape were fastened. a rope 15 feet long was attached to the peak at the front and at the rear of the tent. the front and rear posts of the tent were made from scantlings measuring 2 by 4 inches, which were procured from mr. schreiner's lumber yard. they were planed smooth and sawed off to a length of 7 feet 6 inches. a slot was cut in the end of each stick to a depth of 6 inches and measuring slightly over an inch in width. for the ridge pole a strip 1 inch thick, 2-1/2 inches wide and 10 feet long was secured. this was fitted into the slotted ends of these posts, where it was fastened by wooden pegs slipped into holes drilled through the ends of the posts and the ridge pole. a number of these peg holes were provided, so that if the canvas stretched the ridge pole could be raised or lowered to prevent the walls from dragging on the ground. we set up the tent in our back yard to see if it was properly constructed. twelve stakes were required, ten for the sides and one for the ridge stays at the front and rear. the side stakes were driven into the ground at a distance of about 8 feet from the center of the tent. first we tied the guy ropes to the stakes, but later we found it much easier to secure them with tie blocks. tie blocks. [illustration: fig. 43. the wood tie block.] [illustration: fig. 44. the wire tie.] [illustration: fig. 45. bottom of tent wall.] these were made of wood 1/2 inch thick, 1 inch wide and each measured 3 inches long. a hole was drilled into the block at each end and through these holes the rope was threaded. a knot in the rope then held the end from slipping out. the loop between the two holes, or the bight, as sailors would call it, was now slipped over the stake, and the rope hauled tight by drawing up the tie block, as shown in fig. 43. a still later improvement consisted in making ties of stout galvanized iron wire, bent to the form shown in fig. 44. the wooden ties were apt to swell and split open when exposed to the weather, while the wire ties could always be relied upon. the walls of the tent were held down along the bottom by railway spikes hooked through the tent loops and driven into the ground. wooden pegs with notches to catch the loops would have served as well, but dutchy happened to find a number of the spikes along the track and in his usual convincing manner argued that they were far better than pegs because their weight would hold the cloth down even if they were not firmly embedded in the ground. the annex. we were surprised to find out how small the tent was after it was set up. we could see at once that when we had put in all the stores and provisions we would need, there would not be room enough for six boys and a man to stretch themselves out comfortably in it. bill had evidently made a miscalculation, but he suggested that we remedy the error by building an annex for our kitchen utensils and supplies. [illustration: fig. 46. cutting out the annex.] [illustration: fig. 47. the annex applied.] this gave us a two-room tent, which we found to be quite an advantage. twelve more yards of drill were bought and cut into two strips, each 17 feet 2 inches long. the breadths were then sewed together, and the ends turned up and hemmed to make a piece 17 feet long and 4 feet 9 inches wide. tape loops were then sewed on as before, and ropes were fastened on at the top of the side walls, that is, 3 feet 6 inches from the ends of the strips. we thought it would be better to have a slanting ridge on the annex, so we cut out a wedge-shaped piece from the center of the two strips, as shown by dotted lines _b b_ in fig. 46. this wedge-shaped piece measured 2 feet at the outer end of the annex, and tapered down to a point at the inner end. the canvas was then sewed together along these edges. tie strings were sewed to the inner edge of the annex and corresponding ones were attached to the main tent a little ways back from the edge, so that the two could be tied together, with the annex lapping well over on the roof and side walls. a notch was cut out of the peak of the annex, so that it could be tied around the rear post of the tent, and notches were cut at the top of the side walls to permit passing the cloth around the wall ropes. instead of supporting the ridge of the annex on a ridge pole, we used the rear guy line of the tent, propping it up with a scantling about 5-1/2 feet long. chapter v. preparing for the expedition. school closed on the 21st of june that year, just ten days before the expected arrival of uncle ed. the first thing we did was to set up our tent in the back yard and camp out so as to become acclimatized. it is good that we did this, for the very first night a heavy summer shower came up which nearly drenched us. the water beat right through the thin canvas roof of our tent. had we been able to afford the best quality of canvas duck, such an occurrence would probably have been avoided. but we solved the difficulty by using a tent fly; that is, a strip of canvas stretched over the tent and spaced a short distance from it to break the fall of the rain drops. [illustration: fig. 48. the wall tent with the fly fastened on.] tent fly. [illustration: fig. 49. the fly ridge pole.] again we had to visit the village storekeeper; this time we bought out his whole remaining stock, sixteen yards of drill. this was cut into four-yard strips, which were sewed together as before and the ends turned up and hemmed. tie strings were sewed to the ends of the strips so that the fly could be tied to the wall ropes of the tent. at the ridge the fly was supported about six inches above the tent rope by a second ridge pole held by pegs in the top holes of the tent posts. provisions and supplies. the ten days before uncle ed arrived were busy indeed. we had to gather together the necessary provisions and supplies. our personal outfits were very simple. each member supplied himself with a change of underwear, a bathing suit, a blanket and a toothbrush. a single comb and brush served for the entire society, and was used on sundays, the only day we really dressed up. all the rest of the time we lived in our bathing suits, except, of course, on cold rainy days. our kitchen outfit consisted of a large cooking pot, two kettles, a frying pan, a coffee pot, a small oil stove, a half-dozen each of plates, cups, saucers, knives and forks, a dozen spoons, two tablespoons, and, in addition, several large plates and bowls for pantry use. we also took with us a dish-pan and several dish-towels. for our larder we collected the following: a bag of flour, ten pounds of sugar, two pounds of salt, three pounds of coffee, four pounds of oatmeal, four pounds of butter, two pounds of lard, six pound of beans, six pounds of rice, three pounds of bacon, six cans of condensed milk, a dozen eggs, box of pepper, and several jars of canned peaches and pears, and also a half dozen glasses of jelly. it was dutchy who suggested that we have a chicken yard, in connection with our camp, to supply us with fresh eggs. it was a capital idea, and by the dint of some coaxing we managed to secure the loan of a half dozen hens and a rooster. our miscellaneous list included a spade, pick and shovel, an ax, a hatchet, two large pails, a barn lantern, a can of kerosene, a dozen candles, a cocoa box filled with matches, a pair of scissors, needles, buttons, pins and safety pins, a spool of white and another of black cotton, fishing tackle, a roll of heavy twine, a coil of rope, and a set of dominoes and checkers. but most important of all was a chest of tools belonging to reddy. these were all collected when uncle ed arrived. dutchy also contributed a large compass, which we found very useful later on, for surveying the island. crossbow. reddy had a shotgun which he wanted to bring along, but my father, and dutchy's as well, wouldn't let us go camping if there was to be any gunpowder along, so we had to leave it behind. of course we didn't miss it at all when we got to the island, because there was so much else to do; but we all agreed with dutchy, that "it wouldn't be no sort of a scientific expedition without takin' a gun along." as a substitute i suggested a bow and arrow. they all laughed at such a "kiddish" idea; all but bill, i mean. [illustration: drifting down the schreiners' brook.] [illustration: paddling in the old scow.] [illustration: fig. 50. binding the bow.] [illustration: fig. 51. the trigger.] [illustration: fig. 52. the trigger set for firing.] [illustration: fig. 53. the umbrella rib crossbow.] "it ain't such a bad notion," said he, "only a crossbow would be better. i've seen them made out of umbrella ribs so they'd shoot like greased lightning." of course we had to have one of these wonderful weapons. down in the ash heap we found two broken umbrellas with 27-inch ribs. bill selected ten good ribs, from which he wrenched off the spreaders with a pair of pliers. the ribs were then bound together by winding stout twine around them. the winding was very evenly and closely done, so that the cord completely covered the ribs, making a solid rod of spring steel. but before winding we had laid in between the ribs a piece of heavy twine, to which the bowstrings could be tied after the bow was all wound. the stock of our crossbow was cut out of a board of soft wood 1 inch thick to as near the shape of a gun as we could get it. a hole was drilled through the muzzle end to receive the bow, and then the bowstring was tied fast. along the upper edge of the barrel a v-shaped channel was cut. the channel was not very deep, only enough to receive a tenpenny nail with the head projecting half-way above the sides. a notch was cut across the barrel, through this channel, at the trigger end, and a trigger made of heavy iron wire, bent to the shape shown in fig. 51, was hinged to the gun by a bolt which passed clear through the stock and through both eyes of the trigger. by using two nuts on the bolt, and tightening one against the other, they were prevented from working loose and coming off. when we wanted to fire the gun the bowstring was drawn back, and held by slipping it into the notch, and a nail was laid in the channel with its head against the bowstring. then, on pulling the trigger, the bowstring was lifted out of the notch, and sent the nail off sailing. the long-grooved barrel insured a very good aim. megaphone. [illustration: fig. 54. the megaphone.] [illustration: fig. 55. layout of the megaphone.] [illustration: fig. 56. brass fastener.] [illustration: fig. 57. the mouthpiece.] another device we made in preparation for the expedition was a megaphone. a sheet of light cardboard 30 inches square was procured. at the center of one edge a pin was stuck into the cardboard, then a piece of stout thread was looped over the pin and the two ends were knotted together just 5 inches from the pin. another knot was also made 29 inches from the pin. now, with a pencil hooked into the loop, and resting first against the inner knot and then against the outer one, two arcs were drawn on the paper, one of 5-inch radius and the other of 29-inch radius. a line was now drawn from the pin to the point where the longer arc met the right hand edge of the paper, and a dotted line was drawn from the pin to a point 1-1/2 inches from the edge at the other end of the arc. from a point 1 inch to the left of the pin we then drew a line to the left end of the arc. with a scissors we cut the cardboard along the arcs and straight lines, all but the dotted line, leaving a piece of the shape shown in fig. 55. this piece was rolled into a cone with the right edge lapped over the left edge and lying against the dotted line. in this position it was held by means of several brass fasteners of the kind shown in fig. 56. a mouthpiece was formed out of a block of wood in which a large hole had been drilled. the block was then cut away until the walls were quite thin. the hole was reamed out at the top, as shown in fig. 57, and the outer surface was tapered so that the small end of the megaphone would fit snugly on it. we planned to reach our camping grounds by way of the canal, and had provided for that purpose a large scow, which we expected to tow up to lumberville and drag over to the river. the scow. [illustration: fig. 58. side pieces of the scow.] [illustration: fig. 59. frame of the scow.] [illustration: fig. 60. nailing on the bottom.] [illustration: fig. 61. sockets for rowlocks.] [illustration: fig. 62. thole pin.] [illustration: fig. 63. nailing on the decks.] [illustration: fig. 64. the oar.] our scow was made as follows: two 3/4-inch pine boards, 12 inches wide and 12 feet long, were selected from reddy's father's lumber pile. these were used for the side pieces of the boat, and we tapered them off at the end to a width of 3-1/2 inches. this was done by making a straight cut from the end to a point three feet back along the edge of the board and then rounding off the edge with a draw-knife. when one board had been shaped, it was used as a pattern for the other, which was thus cut to exactly the same size. for the end pieces two strips, 4 inches wide and 2 feet 10-1/2 inches long, were sawed out of a 1-inch board. then for the bottom we procured a number of 3/4-inch boards, 12 feet long and 8 inches wide, which we cut into 3-foot lengths. at bill's suggestion, before nailing the parts together, we secured some strips of flannel, which were saturated with paint, and laid between the seams so as to make the boat perfectly water-tight. the side and end boards were then nailed together, with the strips of flannel between, the side boards overlapping the end boards, as shown in fig. 59. after planing down the end boards until their edges laid flush with the edges of the side pieces, the bottom boards were nailed on, strips of cloth being inserted between them, as well as along the edges of the side and end boards. to brace the bottom a 3/4-inch board was placed at the center, inside the boat, and bent down against the floor, to which it was nailed with wire nails. the nails were driven into the board from the outer side of the boat and were clinched inside. along the upper edges of the side boards two strips 2 inches wide and 1 inch thick were nailed. two notches were cut in the inner side of each strip before it was nailed on. the notches were 1/2 inch deep, 1-1/2 inches wide, 3 inches apart and about 5-1/2 feet from the stern end. when the strips were nailed in place these notches formed sockets to receive the rowlocks. a strip was also nailed across the stern of the boat and formed with two central notches, to receive the rowlocks for a steering oar. this strip, however, was 3 inches wide, and projected 1 inch above the end board, so as to lie flush with the deck boards, which were later applied. six thole pins, 1/2 inch thick, 4-1/2 inches long and 2 inches wide, were cut out of an oak board. the lower end of each pin was reduced to a width of 1-1/2 inches for a length of 2 inches. the thole pins were then fitted snugly in the notches. two cleats, nailed to the side boards inside, 7 inches below the upper edge, served to support a seat board 1 inch thick and 2 feet 10-1/2 inches long. the aft edge of the seat was about 10 inches forward of the rowlocks. the boat was completed by nailing on a couple of deck boards at each end. the oars were made of 2-inch pine boards, 5 feet long and 5 inches wide. they were blocked out at mr. schreiner's sawmill and then shaped and smoothed down with a draw-knife and spoke-shaved. they were 1-1/4 inches at the handle and 2 inches immediately below, tapering down to a diameter of 1-1/4 inches at the top of the blade. the blades were 18 inches long, 5 inches wide, and planed down to a thickness of 1/4 inch along the edges. chapter vi. off to the island. the morning of july 2d dawned bright and clear, but long before daybreak the members of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i. were astir. the jolly red sun peeping over the eastern hills witnessed an unaccustomed sight. six greatly excited boys were running back and forth from the barn to the canal, bearing all manner of mysterious bundles, which were carefully deposited in a freshly painted scow. yes, all six of us were there. a unique alarm clock. we hadn't expected to see reddy schreiner at such an early hour, for he was always a sleepyhead, and no alarm clock would ever wake him. but this was an exceptional day, and, besides, reddy was quite an original chap. he had taken one of the borrowed roosters into his room the night before, and when, early in the morning, mr. chanticleer had mounted the footboard of the bed, flapped his wings and given vent to his opinion of a boy who persisted in sleeping at that late hour of the day, the noise was too much for even reddy's drowsy sensibilities. [illustration: fig. 65. off to the island.] the trip to the island. [illustration: the ledge below the goblins' platform.] [illustration: the camp at willow clump island.] our scow was not large enough to carry all the things we had to take with us, but as mr. schreiner was going to take uncle ed up in his wagon, we left the rest of our luggage for him to bring along. we boys walked the eleven miles up the canal to lumberville, towing the barge. it was a tiresome task; but we divided the work into two-mile shifts, two boys towing at a time and then each taking a mile ride as steersman in the boat. it was about noon when we arrived at lumberville, and then we had to unload our boat before we could haul it out of the canal and down to the river. the river on the jersey side of the island was so shallow that we waded across, pushing the boat ahead of us. the current was too swift to permit of rowing, and it was rather hard for us to keep our footing. but we managed to reach our destination finally without any mishap. the island was thickly wooded, except for a small clearing where we landed. the first thing we did was to unpack our eatables, and jack, the cook, soon had an appetizing pan of bacon and eggs sputtering on the kerosene stove. [illustration: fig. 66. dragging the scow over to the island.] preliminary exploration. as no better position offered at the time we pitched our tent in the clearing, pending a thorough search for a more suitable place elsewhere. around the tent we dug a trench about a foot deep to prevent water from entering our quarters when it rained. it was about time for uncle ed and mr. schreiner to appear with the rest of our luggage, so we did not have time to do much exploring, but sauntered southward along the shore, always on the lookout for their arrival. about a quarter of a mile from the tent we came across the wreck of an old bridge, which had been washed down by some freshet. this was a great find, and served us many purposes, as will appear later. while we were examining the wreck we heard a distant "halloa" from the mainland. there was uncle ed sitting on a pile of goods on the railroad bank looking for all the world like an italian immigrant. we answered with a shout and scrambled back to the clearing. then we ran splashing through the water, pushing the boat before us. it didn't take us long to load up and carry him back to the island. a rustic table. [illustration: fig. 67. the rustic table.] uncle ed entered into our fun at once. he was as enthusiastic as a boy over the surroundings, and when we told him of the old bridge he started right off to investigate, taking the ax with him. soon he had pried off a number of the planks, which we used for a flooring to our tent. then he built us a table out of four forked sticks, driven into the ground, and supporting two cross sticks, on which a pair of planks were laid. the small filter. "well, now, boys," said uncle ed, wiping the perspiration from his forehead, "i am as thirsty as a whale. where do you get your drinking water? is there a spring on the island?" we told him that we used the river water. [illustration: fig. 68. the small filter.] "what, river water! that won't do at all," he cried. "you'll all have the typhoid fever. we must build a filter. i brought some charcoal with me for this very purpose." taking one of our pails he broke a hole in the bottom of it and stuffed a sponge in the hole. a layer of small stones was then placed in the pail, over this a layer of broken charcoal with the dust carefully blown out, then a layer of clean sand, and finally a layer of gravel. each layer was about two inches thick. the pail was suspended from a branch in a cool place and proved an excellent filter, the water trickling out through the sponge being perfectly pure and sweet, no matter how dirty it had been when poured in; but the capacity of the filter was too small, and uncle ed said he would make us a larger one on the morrow if no spring was discovered in the meantime. the sun was getting low in the west, and we therefore postponed the exploration of our island until the following day. we had been up since four o'clock that morning and had done some pretty hard work; so, immediately after supper, we turned in and, lulled by the murmuring of the river, were soon fast asleep. the barrel filter. [illustration: fig. 69. the barrel filter.] immediately after breakfast the next day we started out in two parties to search the island. the only discovery of any moment was that made by dutchy's party, which found a small island separated from ours by a narrow channel, through which the water ran like a mill-race. no spring was discovered, so uncle ed had to construct his large filter. bill and i went over to lumberville in search of a couple of cider barrels and a pailful of charcoal. the barrels were placed one on top of the other after cutting a large hole in the top of the lower barrel, and a smaller one in the bottom of the upper one. the latter opening was covered by an inverted saucer. over this we spread a 3-inch layer of coarse sand, then a 2-inch layer of charcoal, a 4-inch layer of clear, sharp sand, and a 2-inch top layer of gravel. the lower barrel was provided with a faucet, through which we could draw off the filtered water as desired. in order to keep the water cool we placed the filters in a shady place near the river, and piled up earth around the lower barrel. "now, boys," said uncle ed, "form in line there, and we will go through a fire drill." he arranged us about five feet apart in a line extending from the filter to the river. we had six pails, and these dutchy filled one at a time, passing them up the line to reddy, who emptied them into the upper barrel and then threw them back to dutchy to be refilled. working in this way it did not take long to fill up the filter, and the burden of keeping the barrels full, instead of falling on one person, was shared alike by all. [illustration: fig. 70. filling the barrel.] the klepalo. our camp outfit was further augmented by a dinner call. we discovered the necessity of such a call on our very first day of camping. dutchy was so excited by his discoveries of the morning that he started out alone in the afternoon to make a further search. the rest of us were lazy after the noon meal, and were lolling around taking it easy during the heat of the day, and discussing plans for the future. but dutchy's energetic nature would not permit him to keep quiet. he took the scow and waded with it against the strong current to the deeper and quieter water above the island. then he rowed a long way up stream. he was gone all the afternoon. supper time came and still he didn't appear. the sun was high, and i presume he didn't realize how late it was getting. finally, just at sunset, he came drifting down with the current, tired and hungry, and ready for a large meal. but we had finished our supper an hour before, and poor dutchy had to be content with a few cold remnants, because the cook had declared he wouldn't prepare an extra meal for a fellow who didn't have sense enough to know when it was meal time. then it was that uncle ed bethought himself of the _klepalo_. "you ought to have some sort of a dinner call," he declared, "so that any one within a mile of camp will know when dinner is ready." [illustration: the _klepalo_.] "did you ever hear of a _klepalo_? no? well, i was down in macedonia a couple of years ago inspecting a railroad, and i stopped off for the night at a small bulgarian village. the next day happened to be a _prasdnik_, or saint's day, and the first thing in the morning i was awakened by a peculiar clacking sound which i couldn't make out. calling my interpreter i found out from him that it was a _klepalo_ for calling the people to church. the people there are too poor to afford a bell, and so in place of that they use a beam of oak hung from a rope tied about the center, and this beam is struck with a hammer, first on one side, and then the other. sometimes an iron _klepalo_ is used as well, and then they strike first the beam and then the iron bar, so as to vary the monotony of the call. i found that the wooden _klepalo_ could be heard for a distance of about one and a half miles over land, and the iron one for over two miles. now we can easily make a wooden _klepalo_ for use in this camp, and then if dutchy, or any of the rest of us, keep within a mile and a half of camp there won't be any trouble with the cook." so we built a _klepalo_, getting from lumberville a stick of seasoned oak, 1-1/2 inches thick, 6 inches wide and 4 feet long. a hole was drilled into the stick at the center, and by a rope passed through this hole the beam was suspended from a branch overhanging the camp. jack, the cook, regularly used this crude device to call the hungry horde to meals. chapter vii. surveying. one of the first things we did after getting fairly settled in our new quarters was to make a complete survey of willow clump island and its immediate surroundings. our surveying instruments were made as follows: the surveying instrument. [illustration: fig. 71. baseboard of the surveying instrument.] [illustration: fig. 72. sighting blocks on the baseboard.] out of a 1-inch board we cut a base 15 inches long and 4 inches wide. in the center we sawed out a circular opening of about 3 inches diameter and covered this at the bottom by a circular piece 1 inch thick and 5 inches in diameter, thus forming a socket in which our compass fitted snugly. a hole 1 inch in diameter was drilled through the center of this circular piece to receive the pivot pin of a tripod. across each end of the baseboard we secured a block 4 inches long, 2 inches wide and 1 inch thick. a 1-inch sight hole was drilled through each block at its center. a ring of cardboard, on which uncle ed marked with radial lines the 360 degrees of the circle, was placed over the compass socket, with the zero and 180 degree marks pointing toward the sight blocks. the outer faces of the end blocks were now wet with mucilage and a hair was stretched vertically across the center of each sight hole. the hairs were then adjusted by sighting through the holes and moving the nearer hair sidewise until it was exactly in line with both the zero and the 180 degree marks on the cardboard. then a hair was stretched horizontally across the center of each sight hole. great care was taken to place the hairs at exactly the same height above the baseboard. to protect the hairs after they were adjusted, they were covered with a piece of glass, which was secured in place by tacks driven into the wood with their heads projecting over the edges of the glass. spirit levels. from one of his pockets uncle ed produced two small bottles, the kind used for holding homeopathic pills. these he filled nearly to the top with water, corked them and wedged them into grooves cut lengthwise in the baseboard at opposite sides of the cardboard ring. these grooves were filled with putty, and to make sure that the bottles were level with the baseboard the latter was floated on a bit of quiet water and the bottles were pressed down at one end or the other until the bubble within rested at the exact center. the tripod. [illustration: fig. 73. the tripod head.] [illustration: fig. 74. the tripod leg.] [illustration: fig. 75. the surveying instrument complete.] [illustration: fig. 76. the protractor.] the tripod head was formed of a wooden disk 5 inches in diameter, with a wooden pin projecting from its center adapted to engage the hole in the circular piece above referred to. to the bottom of the tripod head were nailed three blocks 2 inches long and 1 inch square in cross-section. the tripod legs were made of light strips of wood, 3/8 inch by 1 inch by 5 feet long, which we secured from one of the mills at lumberville. each leg was formed of two of these strips, nailed securely together to within 20 inches of the top. at the upper ends the strips were spread to receive the blocks on the tripod head. in this position they were held by headless wire nails driven into the ends of the blocks and fitting into holes drilled in the strips. for a plumb line we tacked a cord to the center of the tripod head, and attached a good-sized sinker to its lower end. in connection with this plumb line we occasionally used a protractor consisting of a semicircle of cardboard 5 inches in diameter, on which the degrees of the circle were marked off with radiating lines, as illustrated in fig. 76. by holding the straight edge of this protractor against the base of the tripod, and noting the number of degrees between the 90 degree mark and the plumb line, we could tell at a glance at what angle from the horizontal the instrument was tipped. surveyor's chain. [illustration: fig. 77. the surveyor's chain.] [illustration: fig. 78. forming the links.] [illustration: fig. 79. a double-ringed link.] we made a surveyor's chain of wire links, each 12 inches long, instead of 7.92 inches, which is the length of a standard surveyor's link. the wire we used was no. 16 galvanized iron, which was rather stiff and difficult to bend. in order to make all the links of exactly the same size and shape we used a form, around which they were bent. the form consisted of a 1-inch board in which two 1/2 inch holes were drilled, just 11-1/2 inches apart, measured from their centers. an oak pin, 1/2 inch in diameter, was driven into each hole and projected about an inch above the board. two blocks of oak were secured to the baseboard, just before each pin, as shown in fig. 78. this form gave great satisfaction. a groove was cut in the side of one of the pins to receive the ring of a completed link, while the wire was passed through this ring and bent around the peg to form the ring of the new link. after each link was formed it was carefully measured, and, if too long, was shortened by flattening the rings endwise, or, if too short, was lengthened by pinching together the sides of the rings. there were fifty links in our chain, and every tenth one was formed with a double ring at the end, so as to distinguish it from the rest (see fig. 79). the surveyor's rod. [illustration: fig. 80. cutting out a disk.] [illustration: fig. 81. the sighting disk] [illustration: fig. 82 nut fastened in block.] we completed our outfit by making a surveyor's rod out of a straight stick of wood about 6 feet long. a target or sighting disk was mounted on the stick. this disk was 6 inches in diameter, and was sawed out of a 6-inch square board by making straight cuts across the corners and then smoothing off the edge to a perfect circle with a draw-knife. the thickness of the disk was only 1/2 inch. at the back of the disk we fastened a block of wood with a slot cut in it to receive the rod, as shown in fig. 81. to hold the disk at different heights on the rod a small bolt was used. the nut on this bolt was slipped into a hole on the block at the bottom of the slot and held in place by driving in nails about it, as illustrated in fig. 82. the bolt was then passed through the hole and threaded through the nut, with its inner end bearing against the rod. the disk could thus be held at any desired position by tightening up the bolt. a piece of white paper was now pasted over the disk. the paper was marked off into quarters, and opposite quarters were painted black so that it would be easy to sight, from a distance, the exact center of the target. a simple method of surveying. of course, none of us had studied trigonometry, but uncle ed devised a very simple method by which we could determine distances quite accurately without much figuring. "if you will tell me the length of one side of a triangle and the angles it makes with the other two sides," said uncle ed, "i'll tell you the length of the other two sides and the size of the third angle. this is how i will do it: [illustration: fig. 83. diagram of our first lesson in surveying.] "say the line is 6 inches long and one angle is 35 degrees, while the other is 117 degrees. let us draw a 6-inch straight line. this we will call our base line. now we will place the base edge of our protractor on the base line with its center at the right hand end of the line. at the 37 degree mark we will make a dot on the paper so, and draw a line from the right hand end of the base line through this dot. now we will do the same thing at the opposite end, making a dot at 107 degrees from the line, and draw a line from the left hand end of the base line through this dot. "if we extend these lines until they intersect, we will have the required triangle, and can measure the two sides, which will be found to be about 12 inches and 8 inches long, and the third angle will measure just 26 degrees. it doesn't make any difference on what scale we draw the triangle, whether it be miles, yards, feet, inches or fractions of an inch, the proportions will be the same. if the base line had been 6 half-inches, or 3 inches long, and the same angles were used, the other two lines would measure 12 half-inches, or six inches, and 8 half-inches, or 4 inches. if the base line were 6 quarter-inches long, the sides would be 3 inches and 2 inches long. [illustration: fig. 84. determining the distance to the tree.] "now, for example, i am going to measure the distance to that tree over there. get out your chain and measure off a straight line 10 feet long. now, i'll set the surveying instrument with the plumb-bob right over the end of this line, and sight through the two sight holes until i bring the two vertical hairs in line with each other and the tree. look at the compass needle. it points to the 173 degree mark on the cardboard ring. now, bill, you hold the rod at the other end of our base line while i swing this instrument around and sight it. there, the needle points to 92 degrees, and subtracting this from 173 the difference, 81 degrees, is the angle at the right end of our base line. we'll do the same thing at the other end of our line. see, the compass needle points to 189 degrees, and now sighting to the pole at the other end of the line we find that the needle points to 268. the difference, 79 degrees, is therefore the size of the angle at the left end of our base line. now we will draw this out on paper, as we did our first triangle, using quarter-inches to represent feet. our base line was 10 feet long, and we will therefore draw a line 10 quarter-inches, or 2-1/2 inches long, on our drawing board. on this line we will construct the triangle, using the angles 81 and 79 degrees. there, that's how our triangle looks, and the right hand side measures 7-1/4 inches, while the left hand side measures 7-5/16 inches. that is, 29 quarter-inches for one side and 29-1/4 quarter-inches for the other. as each quarter-inch represents a foot, you will find that the tree is about 29 feet from the right end of our base line and 29 feet 3 inches from the left hand end. of course, our instrument is not perfect, neither is our drawing; but if you measure it off with the chain you will see that i am not very far from correct." mapping the island. most of our surveying was done by actual measurement, the surveying instrument being used only to determine the exact direction of the measurement. however, there were some measurements which we could not make directly with the chain. for example, we wished to know just how far it was from our tent to the jersey shore of the river. we measured off a base line along our shore 400 feet long and sighted to a point directly across the river from our tent. the angle in front of our tent was 90 degrees, and at the other end of the base line was 73 degrees. when we drew out our triangle on the scale of 100 feet to the inch we found that the shorter side directly in front of the tent was almost exactly 13 inches long. this meant that the river at this point was 1,300 feet wide, nearly a quarter of a mile. on the other side of the island we found, in the same way, that the river at its narrowest point was about 500 feet wide. this portion of the river we named lake placid, as the water was very still and quite deep. this was due to a sort of natural dam formed at the lower end of our island. the small island that dutchy found was kite-shaped, with a tail of boulders which extended almost all the way across to a rocky point on the pennsylvania shore. the channel between "kite island," as we called it, and willow clump island was not more than fifteen feet wide in some places, and through this the water swept with a swift current down past a narrow neck of land to join the main current. this narrow stretch of land we named the tiger's tail, owing to its peculiar shape. it was in the hook at the end of this tail that we discovered the old bridge wreck above referred to. from the tip of the tiger's tail to point lookout, at the extreme upper end of willow clump island, it was a little under a half-mile. the shore all along lake placid was very steep, except near point lookout. at one place there was a shallow bay which we called the lagoon. chapter viii. swimming. [illustration: fig. 85. the diving tree.] lake placid was a favorite swimming place for us. we used to plunge in from the branches of a tree which overhung the water a little ways above the lagoon and made a natural springboard. we could all swim like ducks, except dutchy, who couldn't do anything but paddle. however, uncle ed was an expert, and he took dutchy in hand and soon made a pretty good swimmer out of him. he also taught us some fancy strokes. of course i took no record of these lessons. you would hardly expect me to sit on the bank with a book in hand jotting down notes while the rest were splashing around in the cool water having the best of fun in the world, and even if i had, i wouldn't republish the notes here, because whoever heard of a boy learning to swim while reading a book on the subject? a beginner had better leave books alone and plunge right into the water. he will soon learn to keep himself afloat and can then practise any fancy strokes that he sees others try. then, again, don't try to learn in shallow water, because you will never do it. of course it doesn't pay to jump into water that is over your head unless there is a good swimmer near by to help you out. but you will never learn to swim until you have become accustomed to putting your head under water. you can not swim with a dry face. the first time we went swimming, we couldn't persuade dutchy to try it. the water was deep right up to the very bank and he had never been in over his head. instead he sat up in the diving tree swinging his feet and trying to hide the fact that he was having a dull time. "say, we've got to douse that fellow," said reddy. "you're right; he needs a wash," said jim. "let's sneak up behind him and chuck him in." they landed a little ways up the stream behind a large bush and then crept down stealthily on their victim. but dutchy had his suspicions aroused and saw them coming. he scrambled out of the tree in a jiffy and tore off into the woods as fast as his legs could carry him. swimming on a plank. [illustration: fig. 86. swimming on a plank.] we didn't expect to see him again that afternoon, for the pace he was leading should have carried him miles in no time; but while he couldn't swim, dutchy had his own ideas of fun on the water. it was about twenty minutes later that we saw him coming down-stream lying full length on one of the 2-inch planks taken from the bridge wreck. he was paddling himself along with arms and legs hung over the sides of the plank. we all gave him a cheer, and then started out to have some fun with him. we tried to pull him off his raft, but he stuck on like a leech. it was only when we made his craft turn turtle that dutchy got his head under water. but it wasn't a moment before he scrambled back on top again, gasping and sputtering to get the water out of his nose and mouth. uncle ed all this time had been sunning himself on the bank, when suddenly he uttered a shout of warning. we were right at the mouth of the mill-race. for the moment we forgot about dutchy, and swam out for shore. before we realized it dutchy was caught in the current, and was being swept full tilt down the stream. my but wasn't he scared. i can see him yet clinging for dear life to the plank, his face the color of ashes and his eyes bulging out in terror. first he tried to make for the bank, but the water was so swift that when the front end of the board struck land the rear end swung around in a circle, carrying him on again, but backward this time, before we could reach him. two or three more times the plank struck the bank and turned him around, while we raced along the high bank, scrambling down to catch him every time he headed for shore, but each time just missing him. then he swung out past the tiger's tail into the open river just above the rapids. fortunately he was going along headforemost this time, and uncle ed, who had just arrived, panting and breathless, from running, shouted to him to keep his head and steer for a narrow opening between two jutting boulders. i don't know whether dutchy did any steering or not, but the raft shot straight through the opening, and was lost in a cloud of spray. in a moment he reappeared below the rapids, paddling like mad for a neck of land on the pennsylvania side of the river. dutchy would never own up that he was afraid. he never told a lie under other circumstances, but when it came to a question of courage he had the habit of stretching facts to the very limit. even in this case, he said that he started out with the idea of shooting the rapids, and if we hadn't flustered him so, he would not have bumped into the bank and turned about so many times. dutchy was a very glib talker. he nearly persuaded us that it was all done intentionally, and his thrilling account of the wild dash between the rocks and through the shower of spray stirred us up so that we all had to try the trick too. shooting the rapids. the next day, while uncle ed was taking a nap, we stole off to the upper end of lake placid, each one towing a plank. we needn't have been so afraid of uncle ed, for we found out later that he intended to try a plank ride through the rapids himself next time he went in swimming. down lake placid we paddled in single column to the mill-race. in a moment the current had caught us and we were off. i shall never forget the thrilling ride down the swirling mill-race, the sudden pause as we shot out into the open river, the plunge between the boulders and the dive through the spray. it was all over too soon. something like coasting--whiz, whiz-z-z, and a half-mile walk. were it not for the trouble of hauling the planks back by the roundabout course along the pennsy shore we would have thought shooting the rapids a capital game. restoring the drowned. [illustration: fig. 87. pressing the water out of the stomach.] [illustration: fig. 88. expanding the chest.] [illustration: fig. 89. squeezing out the air from the lungs.] it was on the second day after dutchy's exploit of the rapids that bill came so near drowning. he probably would have drowned if uncle ed hadn't been on hand to work over him. bill was a fine swimmer, but even the best of swimmers will sometimes get a cramp, so it is never safe for any one to go into the water without some one at hand to help him out in case of accident. in the present case bill was doing some fancy strokes by himself over near the pennsy shore, while the rest of us were watching uncle ed give dutchy a lesson in swimming. all of a sudden bill threw up his hands and sank. i happened to glance up as he did it. we thought he was fooling at first, but soon made out that he was in genuine trouble. uncle ed dropped dutchy to my tender care, and raced over with a powerful stroke to the spot where he had last seen his nephew. he failed to find him on the first dive, but the second time was successful and he carried the lifeless body to the pennsylvania shore. in the meantime i had landed dutchy and with the rest of the boys had crossed the lake. uncle ed first laid bill on his back and hastily wiped dry the mouth and nostrils. then he pried his jaws apart, holding them open with a piece of wood wedged in between the teeth. after which he turned him on his face over a log which was placed under his stomach. by stomach i do not mean the bowels, but the real stomach, which lies just under the ribs in front. then he pressed with a good weight on the back directly over the log for nearly a minute, causing the water to flow out of the mouth. dutchy had by this time rowed across in the scow, in which fortunately there happened to be some of uncle ed's clothing. this he took and rolled into a bundle, then bill was laid on his back over the roll of clothing, which was arranged to raise the pit of his stomach above the rest of his body. uncle ed now wrapped a handkerchief around his forefinger, and with it wiped out bill's mouth and throat. reddy, who was the least excited of the lot, was told to draw bill's tongue forward so as to prevent it from falling back and choking the windpipe. this he did with the dry part of the handkerchief, drawing the end of the tongue out at the corner of the mouth, and holding it there while uncle ed and i started the pumping action, which produced artificial respiration. i was directed to grasp bill's arms just below the elbows, and swing them vertically in an arc until the hands met the ground again above the head. this expanded the chest. uncle ed at the same time stood over the body with his elbows on his knees and hands extended, as illustrated in fig. 88. then i swung the arms up and back to the sides of the body, but just before the hands touched the ground uncle ed seized the body in both hands just below the ribs, and as soon as i touched the arms to the ground he swung forward with all his weight on his hands, squeezing the waist and pushing upward so as to force out the air in the chest. then he slowly counted, one, two, three, four, all the time steadily increasing the pressure, until at the signal four, with a final push, he shoved himself to the first position, shown in fig. 88. at the same signal i drew the arms up again over the head, and held them there while uncle ed again counted four; then i returned the arms to the sides, and uncle ed repeated the squeezing process. these movements were continued for about three minutes, and then bill gave a short, faint gasp. we kept on with the artificial respiration, assisting the gasps, which gradually grew stronger, until they had deepened into steady breathing. then we stripped off the wet bathing suit, and wrapping bill in uncle ed's clothing, laid him in the bottom of the boat. while dutchy hurried the boat across, uncle ed rubbed the patient's arms and legs. the rest of us swam over and ran for blankets from the tent. bill was wrapped in one of the blankets and the other was used as a stretcher, on which we carried him to the tent. then one of us was sent post-haste across to lumberville for some whiskey, which was diluted in hot water and given the patient a teaspoonful at a dose, every fifteen minutes at first, and then at less frequent intervals. uncle ed kept bill in bed all the next day for fear of congestion of the lungs. he told us that unless the patient kept perfectly quiet for a couple of days, he was liable to be seized with a sudden attack of hard breathing that might choke him to death in a short time. to stop such an attack he told us that the best plan was to apply a mustard plaster to the chest, and if the patient commenced to gasp, to start pumping the arms and squeezing the waist so as to help him breathe. after bill had come around and was himself again uncle ed gave us a thorough drill in methods of restoring the drowned. he laid down on the grass and made us practise on him the various directions which he gave us. how to work over a patient alone. [illustration: fig. 90. working alone over a patient.] "if you boys hadn't been so excited," he said, "i would have made you rub bill's body and limbs while we were pumping the air into him, but i knew you would get in the way, and be more of a bother than a help. you must learn to be calm in any accident; excitement doesn't pay. keep steadily and slowly at your pumping, for you might have to do it for four hours before the patient comes to." he taught us just how to swing the arms and squeeze the ribs to best advantage, and how to hold the tongue without getting in the way of the arms as they were pumped back and forth. there was also a special way of rubbing the arms and legs. the limbs were always rubbed upward, or toward the body, with the bare hands, or a dry cloth if there was one at hand, but this all had to be done without interfering with the pumping action. "if the patient doesn't come around in five minutes," he said, "turn him on his face again over the roll of clothing, or any other suitable substitute, and press out the water from the stomach, rolling him first to one side and then to the other; be sure to get all the water out." when we had learned our lesson well, uncle ed took dutchy for his patient, and proceeded to show us how a man could work over him alone. first he went through the operation of squeezing the water out of him, and drying his nose and mouth, much to the patient's discomfort; then he drew dutchy's tongue out of the corner of his mouth, holding it there by closing the jaws on it, and holding the jaws together by passing a handkerchief over his chin and lapping it over his head. after that he began to pump, seizing the patient's arms and swinging them up over the head and back, as before. just as the arms were dropped back to the sides of the body, he squeezed them in against the ribs, at the same time drawing upward toward the head and counting four each time, as he had done before. but the lesson was abruptly interrupted by dutchy, whose imagination was worked up to such a pitch that i actually believe he thought he had been drowning. anyway, he squirmed out of uncle ed's grasp, and wouldn't play patient any longer. for several days after that we couldn't persuade him to venture near deep water. chapter ix. bridge building. willow clump island was, for the most part, a trackless wilderness, and as soon as we had made our map we laid out roads to the different important points. our main highway ran from point lookout to tiger's tail. this road was made rather winding, to add to its picturesqueness, and from it a number of shorter roads branched off. spar bridge. [illustration: figs. 91 and 92. frames for the spar bridge.] [illustration: fig 93. the spar bridge.] we ran a bridge across the mill-race at its narrowest point. this bridge was made of trees which we had cut down in making our road. it was quite a piece of engineering, built under uncle ed's guidance. two frames were made of the shape shown in figs. 91 and 92. the side sticks were 15 feet long and spaced about 10 feet apart at the base by crosspieces. at the upper end one frame was made 6 feet wide and the other 5 feet wide. the side and cross spars were mortised together and secured by lashing a rope around them. to make the frames more rigid we braced them with diagonal braces nailed on. when completed we set the frames up on opposite sides of the stream and with ropes carefully lowered their upper ends until they interlocked, the side spars of each frame resting on the cross spars of the other. in the angles formed by the crossing side spars a center spar was laid, and a number of floor beams or spars were stretched to this from the opposite shores. on these a flooring was spread made of saplings, cut and trimmed to the right size. a rustic railing on each side of the bridge completed the structure. the rope railway. [illustration: fig. 94. the swing seat.] [illustration: fig. 95. tying the ropes to the seat.] the mill-race was crossed further down by a rope line on which we rigged a traveling carriage. a light manila rope was used, anchored to a tree at each side about fifteen feet from the ground. a pulley block with a wheel or sheave 4 inches in diameter was mounted to travel on the rope. suspended from this block by means of fall and tackle was a swing seat. this, as shown in fig. 94, was merely a board fastened with four rope strands to the ring of the tackle block. a single rope was used, with the ends tied firmly together. the loop thus formed was passed through the ring of the tackle block and the opposite ends were twisted over the ends of the seat board in the manner illustrated in fig. 95. the tackle blocks were quite small, having 2-inch sheaves, and they, together with the large pulley or "traveling block," as we called it, cost us about $2.50. two light ropes were fastened to the large traveling block, each rope long enough to reach across the stream. the ropes extended to opposite anchorages, where each was passed over a branch of the tree and belayed on a cleat within easy reach. a fellow could draw himself up clear of the ground by pulling on the free end of the fall, as a painter does; then tying the swing fast in this position, he would pull himself across the stream by means of the rope stretched to the opposite anchorage. the swing could be drawn back by the next one who wanted to cross. we also used this aerial line for transporting loads from one island to the other. [illustration: fig. 96. the rope railway.] suspension bridge. [illustration: fig 97. barrel-stave flooring.] [illustration: fig. 98. the suspension bridge.] our aerial railway didn't last long. we soon tired of it, and instead utilized the materials for a rope suspension bridge. we procured from lumberville half a dozen old barrels and used the staves as a flooring for the bridge. the staves were linked together by a pair of ropes at each end woven over and under, as indicated in the drawing fig. 97. notches were cut in the staves to hold the ropes from slipping off. the flexible flooring thus constructed was stretched across the river and secured to stakes driven firmly in the ground. a pair of parallel ropes were extended across the stream about three feet above the flooring, with which they were connected at intervals of five feet. the bridge was 25 feet long, and while rather shaky, owing to the fact that there were no braces to prevent it from swaying sidewise, still it was very strong and did excellent service. pontoon bridge. [illustration: fig. 99. the pontoon bridge.] at the head of the mill-race, where the channel was fifty feet wide, we built a pontoon bridge. we were fortunate in securing six good cider barrels at low cost, also a quantity of "slabs" from one of the sawmills of lumberville. "slab" is the lumberman's name for the outside piece of a log which is sawn off in squaring up the sides. we made a raft of these materials and floated them down the river to lake placid. the bridge was made by anchoring the barrels in the channel about eight feet apart, and laying on them the floor beams, which supported a flooring of slabs. the floor beams were narrow planks 1 inch by 4 inches, taken from the bridge wreck, and they were placed on edge to prevent sagging. of course we had no anchors for securing the barrels, but used instead large stones weighing about 100 pounds each, around which the anchor lines were fastened. we found it rather difficult to sink these improvised anchors at just the right places, for we were working at the very mouth of the mill-race, and were in constant danger of having our scow sucked down into the swirling channel. once we were actually drawn into the mill-race and tore madly down the rushing stream. by bill's careful steering we managed to avoid striking the shore, and just as we were off the tiger's tail reddy succeeded in swinging a rope around an overhanging limb and bringing us to a sudden stop. a moment later we might have been dashed against the rocks in the rapids below and our boat smashed. shooting rapids in a scow is a very different matter from riding through them on a plank. the king rod truss. our bridge building operations were not entirely confined to the island. two of them were built on the schreiner grounds at lamington. reddy schreiner's home was situated a little distance above the town where cedar brook came tumbling down a gorge in the hills and spread out into the schreiners' ice pond. thence it pursued its course very quietly through the low and somewhat swampy ground in the schreiners' back yard. over this brook reddy was very anxious to build a bridge. accordingly, before returning to school in the fall bill made out a careful set of plans for the structure, and after we had gone the rest of the society, under reddy's guidance, erected the bridge. [illustration: fig. 100. the king rod bridge.] the structure was a cross between a suspension bridge and a spar bridge. the banks of the stream were so low that, instead of resting the floor of the bridge on top of the inclined frames, as we had done over the mill-race, it was suspended from the spars by means of wires. the crossing ends of the spars were nailed together and their lower ends were firmly planted about four feet apart in the banks of the brook. a stick nailed to the apex of each pair of spars served temporarily to brace them apart. the center cross beam of the bridge was now suspended from the spars by means of heavy galvanized iron wire (no. 14, i should say). the beam was hung high enough to allow for stretch of the wire, making the roadway incline upward from both sides to the center. aside from carrying the floor of the bridge, this beam was used to brace the inclined spars when the temporary crosspiece was removed. the ends of the beam projected about thirty inches beyond the bridge at each side, and they supported braces which extended diagonally upward to the crossing ends of the spars. when this was done the temporary crosspiece above referred to was removed. as the span between the center cross beam and the banks was a little too long to provide a steady floor, a couple of intermediate cross beams were suspended from the inclined spars. the floor beams were then laid in place and covered with a flooring of slabs. stiffening the bridge. the bridge was a pretty good one, except for a slight unsteadiness between the center and either end. when uncle ed saw it he showed us at once where the trouble lay. our intermediate cross beams were hung from the center of the spars, and consequently made them bend, because the strain came across their length, while at the center of the bridge there was no chance for the spars to bend, because the strain was exerted along their length, that is, it tended merely to push the ends of the spars deeper into the banks. to remedy the trouble he proposed propping up the center of each spar with a brace running from the center crosspiece. the dotted lines in fig. 100 show how these braces were applied. they made the floor perfectly solid throughout, and gave the bridge a much better appearance. uncle ed told us that the structure might be called a "king rod truss," except that in place of rods we had used wires. [illustration: the king rod bridge.] [illustration: the bridge over cedar brook gorge.] the king post bridge. the other bridge on the schreiner property was built in the following summer, just before we started on our second expedition to willow clump island. it spanned the brook at the gorge, and was therefore a more difficult engineering feat. mr. schreiner himself asked us to build it, and we felt greatly honored by the request. a search was made in the van syckel library for a suitable type. at last we found one that seemed properly suited to the requirements. it was called a "king post truss," and was very similar to the king rod bridge. while the design of the bridge was simple, yet it required some ingenuity to put it together. in setting up the other bridge the scow had been anchored in the center of the stream and used as a working platform, from which it had been an easy matter to put the various parts together. in this case our scow was obviously of no use, so we laid a couple of long logs across the chasm, and a few slats were nailed across them to provide a temporary bridge or working platform. the platform sagged considerably at the center, because the span was fully eighteen feet; but the logs were large, and we knew they were strong enough to support our weight. however, as an extra precaution, we tied the ends to stakes driven in the ground, so that they could not possibly slip off the banks. [illustration: fig. 101. the king post frame.] [illustration: fig. 102. the king posts set in position.] [illustration: fig. 103. the permanent cross beam made fast.] first we set about constructing the king posts, which were made as shown in fig. 101. two stout posts 7 feet long were connected at the top by a tie stick, which spaced them 4 feet apart. to make a secure fastening they were notched together and strengthened with diagonal braces. each king post was notched on opposite sides, at about thirty inches from the top. a temporary tie piece was also nailed across the lower ends of the king posts. the frame thus formed was set up at the center of the span and temporarily held by nailing the lower tie piece to the working platform. four stout spars were now cut, each about fifteen feet long. taking a pair at a time, we planted their lower ends firmly in the opposite banks and sawed off their upper ends until they could just be hammered into the notches in the king post. this required careful fitting, but by making the spars a little too long to start with, and then shaving them down with a draw-knife, we managed to make fairly good joints. a couple of long wire nails in each spar made the structure perfectly secure. the king posts were now sawed off just above the temporary tie piece, and the permanent cross beam was fastened to these ends with straps of heavy wire wound tightly about them. the working platform sagged so much that we were able to lay this cross beam above it. from the ends of the cross beam diagonal braces extended to the king posts (fig. 103). our working platform was now removed and replaced with the permanent floor beams, which were firmly nailed to the center cross beam and to the inclined spars at the shore ends. the floor beams were quite heavy and needed no support between the king posts and shore. a rustic floor was made of small logs sawed in two at mr. schreiner's sawmill. light poles were nailed to the flooring along each edge, giving a finish to the bridge. we also provided a rustic railing for the bridge of light poles nailed to the king posts and the diagonal spars. chapter x. canvas canoes. like all inhabitants of islands, we early turned our attention to navigation. our scow was serviceable for transporting materials back and forth across the strips of shallow water between our quarters and the jersey shore. we never attempted to row across, because progress would have been entirely too slow, and we would have drifted down to the rapids long ere we could reach the opposite side. but on lake placid matters were different. although there was no settlement near us on the pennsylvania shore, to occasion our crossing the water for provisions and the like, yet the quiet stretch was admirably suited to boating for pleasure, and mighty little pleasure could we get out of our heavy scow. uncle ed's departure. owing to a sudden business call uncle ed left us after he had been with us nearly three weeks. but, before going, he explained carefully to bill just how to construct a canvas canoe. jack, the cook, who was anxious to lay in a second supply of provisions, accompanied uncle ed as far as millville, the next town below lamington. here uncle ed bought five yards of canvas, 42 inches wide, several cans of paint and a quantity of brass and copper nails and tacks. these supplies, together with the food provisions that jack had collected, were brought to us late in the afternoon by mr. schreiner. mr. schreiner also brought the necessary boards and strips of wood for the framework of our canoe. a visit from mr. schreiner. we invited mr. schreiner to spend the night with us, and this he did after fording with some difficulty the swift-running river. in the morning we showed him our quarters, our filter, the roads we had built, the spar bridge across to kite island, our surveying instrument and the chart we had made of the vicinity. he was greatly pleased with our work, and it was then that he gave us an order for the bridge over the gorge. from that day on he became our staunchest ally, so that when my father and mr. van syckel complained that we were loafing away a lot of time which could be more profitably spent in study or work, mr. schreiner stood up for us and declared that our experiences on the island were doing us far more good, both physically and mentally, than any other work that they could conceive of; that before condemning us they should pay us a visit and see how we were employing our time. the sailing canoe. [illustration: exploring the river in the indian canoe.] [illustration: fig. 104. stern post of the canoe.] [illustration: fig. 105. stern of the canoe.] [illustration: fig. 106. center form.] [illustration: fig. 107. bulkheads.] [illustration: fig. 108. center braces.] [illustration: fig. 109. top view of the canoe frame.] [illustration: fig. 110. side view of the canoe frame.] immediately after mr. schreiner's departure we started work on the canoe. a strip of spruce 1 inch thick, 3 inches wide and 12 feet long served as the keelson. at the stern a post 1-1/2 inches thick, 3 inches wide and 13 inches high was secured to the keelson with brass screws. this was braced as indicated in fig. 104. at the bow a stem piece was attached to the keelson. this stem was cut to a somewhat semicircular form, as shown in fig. 105. the outer edge was tapered with a draw-knife to a thickness of 1/4 inch and a brace was nailed to the inner edge. our next work was to cut out three forms, one of the shape shown in fig. 106 and two like that shown in fig. 107. the first form was set up on the keelson midway between the stem and stern, and the other two were spaced about four feet each side of the center form. the center form was used only for shaping the frame of the boat, and was not intended to be permanently affixed to the canoe. therefore, we fastened it to the keelson very lightly, so that it could be readily removed. the other two forms, however, were made permanent parts of the frame, serving as bulkheads. the gunwales were now secured in position. these were of spruce 3/4 inch thick and 2 inches wide. the ends were beveled off so as to neatly fit the stem piece and the stern post, to which they were fastened by brass screws. then we applied the longitudinal strips, or rib bands, which were of 1/4-inch thick spruce 1 inch wide. ten of these bands were used, equally spaced apart on the center form, to which they were lightly tacked; but they were nailed securely to the bulkheads and the stem piece and stern post. the cross ribs were made of barrel hoops which we had soaked in water for a day or so to render them pliable enough to be bent into place. these hoops were split to a width of 1/2 inch, and secured first to the keelson, then to the longitudinal strips and finally to the gunwales. copper tacks were used for nailing the ribs in place, and these were long enough to be passed through the rib bands and clinched on the outside. forty cross ribs were nailed on, and at the center of the canoe they were spaced about three inches apart. the center form was then removed and cut along the dotted lines shown in fig. 106. the semicircular pieces thus obtained were now strengthened with strips on their inner edges, and wedged in between the keelson and the gunwales, to which they were nailed, as shown in fig. 108. a pair of cleats nailed to the cross ribs served as supports for the seat of the canoe. the frame of the boat was completed by nailing in place two deck beams of 1/2-inch square pine and four corner pieces between the gunwales and the bulkheads, so as to make an elliptical well hole or deck opening. before laying on the canvas covering the edges of the gunwales, keelson, deck beams, stem and stern posts were smoothed down with sandpaper. [illustration: fig. 111. lacing the canvas on the frame.] stretching on the canvas. [illustration: fig. 112. tacking the canvas to the keel.] the frame was laid in the center of the canvas and the latter drawn around it. then with a large needle and strong twine we sewed both edges of the cloth together with long stitches, lacing the canvas over the frame as a shoe is laced over a foot. this done, the boat was turned deck downward and the canvas was tacked to the keelson. in each case, before driving in a tack a daub of white lead was applied, to water-proof the spot. at the stem and stern a gore (narrow triangular piece) was cut out of the canvas so as to make it lie smooth on the frame, and white lead was painted in between the overlapping edges. the canoe was then turned deck upward and the lacing tightened, while we carefully worked out all wrinkles in the cloth. after tacking the canvas along the gunwales on the outside, it was trimmed off, leaving sufficient margin to be brought over the gunwales and tacked inside. two triangular pieces were cut out for the decks, and these were lapped over the outer canvas and tacked to the gunwales. a narrow molding along the edge of the boat served to cover the tack heads and added a certain finish to the canoe. a keel plate 2 inches wide and 1 inch thick was attached to the outside of the boat, and then, after wetting the canvas, it was given a coat of white lead and oil. when this was perfectly dry it was sandpapered and the second coat applied. the rudder. [illustration: fig. 113. the rudder.] [illustration: fig. 114. the rudder hinge.] the canoe was now complete except for the rudder, which was cut from a 1/2-inch board to about the shape shown in fig. 114. strips 1-1/2 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick were nailed to each side of the blade, forming a post, to the top of which a crosspiece or tiller was fastened. a cleat nailed to the pillar at each side of the rudder post served to greatly strengthen the joint. the rudder was hinged to the canoe by a rod, which passed through four brass screw eyes, two threaded into the rudder and a corresponding pair screwed into the stern. for convenience in steering we ran our tiller rope clear around the boat, through screw eyes in the gunwales and a pulley at the stem, so that the steersman could guide his craft from any point in the canoe. the deep keel. [illustration: fig. 115. bottom of canoe, showing deep keel.] [illustration: fig. 116. end view, showing deep keel.] we planned to use our canoe as a sailboat, and had to provide a deep keel, which, for convenience, was made detachable. this keel was 6 inches wide, 1/2 inch thick and 6 feet long, and was fastened at the center of the canoe. screw eyes about twelve inches apart were threaded alternately into opposite sides of the keel plate. corresponding hooks were attached to the keel in position to hook into the screw eyes, and thus hold the keel firmly in place. canoe sails. [illustration: fig. 117. the mast step.] [illustration: fig. 118. the mainsail.] [illustration: fig. 119. the mizzen sail.] our boat was fitted with two masts, a mainmast and a mizzen or dandy mast. the former was 6 feet long and the latter 4 feet long, and each measured 1-1/2 inches in diameter at the base, tapering to about 1 inch diameter at the upper end. they were held in brass bands, or clamps, bent around them and secured to the bulkheads, as shown in fig. 117. the sails were of the lanteen type. the mainsail measured 8-1/2 feet along the boom, 9-1/2 feet along the yard and 10 feet at the leach. the dimensions of the mizzen sail were: along the boom, 5 feet; along the yard, 5-1/2 feet; and at the leach, 6 feet. the boom was attached to a strap of leather on the mast, and was thus given freedom to swing around in any desired position. the yard was similarly attached, and was raised by a cord, which passed through pulleys at the top and at the base of the mast and extended to a cleat within easy reach of the occupant of the boat. a double paddle was fashioned from a board 1 inch thick, 6 inches wide and 6 feet long. the blades were shaved down to a thickness of 3/8 of an inch at the edges. it will be observed that we used no iron in the construction of this boat. uncle ed has warned us not to, because iron rusts out so easily and is apt to damage both the canvas and the wood with which it is in contact. [illustration: fig. 120. the double paddle.] a canoe is rather a tipsy thing to sail in, as we soon learned, and it was lucky that we could all swim, else our vacation might have ended very tragically; for the very first time bill and i tried the boat an unexpected gust of wind struck us and over we went. we were very poor sailors at first, but it didn't take us long to catch on. lee boards one thing that bothered us greatly in sailing was the keel of our canoe. it was forever getting twisted, particularly when we tried to make a landing. there were only a few places along the island where the water was deep enough to permit our coming right up to shore without striking the keel. the fastening was not very strong, and every once and awhile it would be wrenched loose. the matter was made the subject of a special letter to uncle ed, and in due time his answer was received. as usual, he offered a first-class solution of the difficulty. "don't use a keel," he wrote; "lee boards are much better." then he went on to explain what was meant by lee boards: "the leeward side of a boat is the opposite of the windward side; that is, that side of the boat which is sheltered from the wind. lee boards, then, are boards which are hung over the lee side of a boat to prevent it from drifting to leeward, and they serve to take the place of a keel or centerboard." [illustration: fig. 121. a lee board.] [illustration: fig. 122. section of the canoe, showing lee board.] [illustration: fig. 123. the lee boards in use on canoe.] following uncle ed's direction we fastened a strip of wood across the canoe about six feet from the bow, nailing it firmly to the gunwales. this provided a support to which the lee boards were secured. the lee boards were paddle-shaped affairs of the form and dimensions shown in fig. 121. each paddle near the top was hinged to the end of a board three inches wide and a foot long. the paddle was held at right angles to the board by means of a hook. each board was fastened with door hinges to a baseboard which extended the width of the boat and was attached to the crosspiece of the canoe by means of a couple of bolts. the bolt heads were countersunk, so that the hinged boards could lie flat over them. to the top of each lee board two ropes were attached, one passing forward around a pulley and thence back to a cleat within easy reach of the occupant of the canoe, and the other passing directly back to this cleat. by pulling the former rope the lee board was lifted out of the water, while the latter rope was used to swing the board into working position. when tacking to port (left), the board on the left side of the canoe was lowered and the other was raised, as shown in fig. 123, and when tacking to the starboard (right) the board on the right side was lowered, while the left one was raised. [illustration: the indian canoe fitted with lanteen sail and lee boards.] the indian paddling canoe. [illustration: fig. 124. center form.] [illustration: fig. 125. intermediate form.] [illustration: fig. 126. the stem piece.] [illustration: fig. 127. skeleton frame of canoe.] [illustration: fig. 128. section at center of canoe.] our sailing canoe proved such a good one that we decided to build a second. this was to be much lighter, for paddling only, and of the true indian shape, with wide, bulging sides and raised stem and stern. the dimension of the forms used are given in figs. 124 and 125. these forms, it will be observed, were notched to receive the keelson and gunwales. the keelson was formed of 1-inch spruce 3 inches wide and 10 feet long. the stem and stern, which were both of the same shape, were cut from a 12-inch board to the form shown in fig. 126, and were firmly secured to the keelson. this made the boat 12 feet long. the forms were then set in place on the keelson, one at the center and the others three feet each side. the gunwales were formed of 3/4-inch by 2-1/2-inch spruce, and the twelve rib bands used were of the size used in our first boat. as none of these forms was to remain in the boat, nails were driven very lightly into them, with heads projecting so that they could easily be withdrawn when it was time to remove the forms. the cross ribs were passed under the keelson inside of the rib bands and outside of the gunwales, as shown in fig. 128. after they were set in place and firmly secured with copper tacks, a band was nailed to the keelson to form the keel. to produce the raised stem and stern, four wedge-shaped pieces were nailed to the tops of the gunwales, as indicated in fig. 129. the forms were then removed and were replaced with cross sticks braced between the gunwales. the center cross stick was provided with two corner pieces, as shown in fig. 130, adapted to fit under the gunwales and against the rib bands. the canvas was then applied in the manner described before, but was tacked to the upper edge of the gunwale instead of the outer side, and the tacks were covered by a half-round molding which extended around the entire boat. after the lacing was cut the edge of the canvas was secured to the under edges of the gunwales. the canoe was then completed by fastening on a 1-inch square keel and treating the boat with two coats of paint. the paddle was a duplicate of the one described in connection with the sailing canoe. [illustration: fig. 129. wedge pieces at the ends.] i remember that we eventually equipped our paddling canoe with a sail and a pair of lee boards, though no record of this fact appears in the chronicles of the society. [illustration: fig. 130. the cross braces.] chapter xi. house building. one afternoon fred, who had waded over to lumberville after some provisions, came splashing back holding aloft a large square envelope. it was from uncle ed and contained a photograph of a group of wichita indians building a large grass lodge. in a brief explanatory letter uncle ed suggested that we build a similar hut on our island. the grass hut. [illustration: fig. 131. making the frame of the straw hut.] [illustration: fig. 132. doorway of the hut.] the grass lodge appealed to us as very picturesque, and we set to work immediately on its construction. we made our hut much smaller, however, only 12 feet in diameter, and 8 or 9 feet high. first we procured two dozen light poles between 10 and 12 feet long. these we set up about 18 inches apart in a circle like a stockade, the sticks being buried in the ground to a depth of 12 inches. at one side a space of 3 feet was allowed for a doorway. inside the stockade we erected a working platform of planks supported on barrels, and standing on this we took two opposite poles, bent them inward and lashed their upper ends together. then a second pair of opposite poles were similarly bent inward and tied, and so we proceeded until the entire stockade had been converted into a dome-shaped cage. around these poles we laid lighter sticks, or bands, tying them at the points of intersection. at the doorway two posts were set firmly in the ground, projecting upward to a height of 4 feet. a lintel nailed across the top of the posts completed the door frame. sticks were nailed to the lintel and to the side posts, extending to the main frame of the hut, to which they were tied. we were now ready to thatch our hut. reddy and dutchy went over to lumberville for several bales of straw. we tied the straw in bunches and applied it to the frame, copying, as best we could, the process illustrated in the photograph. but for its location the hut would have proved a very serviceable habitation. in order to have a good, dry dwelling without laying down a board flooring, we had selected for its site the sandy shore at point lookout. this part of the island was not sheltered with trees, and the hot sun beat down on our hut so strongly that we found the quarters very uncomfortable indeed. it was this fact that led to the construction of a tree hut--a building that would be perfectly dry and yet shaded and cool. bill had read of such houses in the philippines and felt confident that we could build one. we couldn't decide at first where to locate our hut until dutchy moved that we build it in the gnarled oak tree overlooking the "goblins' dancing platform." immediately the motion was seconded and unanimously carried. the goblins' dancing platform. just above the town of lumberville there was a cliff which rose sheer 200 feet above the level of the river. so perpendicular was the cliff that a stone dropped from the overhanging ledge at the top would fall straight down to the railroad track below without touching a twig in its course. back of this broad ledge there was a very peculiar formation. a column of stone rose abruptly 40 feet higher and was topped with a large slab about 12 feet in diameter. this was known all over that region as the goblins' dancing platform. the only possible way of gaining the summit of the column was by climbing a scraggly oak tree which grew on the high ground back of the pillar, crawling out on an overhanging limb, and then dropping down to the platform below. it was in this oak that we decided to build our house. it was a very inaccessible spot, and to reach it we had to make a wide detour around the back of the hill, and through the fields of a cranky farmer, who more than once threatened to fill us with bird shot for trespassing on his property. how were we to carry all our building materials up to this great height? one would think that the difficulties would be enough to discourage us, but not so with the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i. nothing daunted us. dutchy takes a dare. our first task was to try some other approach to the top of the cliff. at one side of the overhanging ledge there was a fissure in the rocks which ran from the base of the pillar to the foot of the cliff. down this zigzag crevice dutchy had scrambled, one afternoon, on a dare. we were rather frightened when he started, because it was a very hazardous undertaking, and we watched him anxiously, peering over the edge of the precipice. by bracing his back against one of the walls of the rock, and digging his feet into the niches and chinks of the opposite wall, he safely made his way to a shelf about half-way down, where he paused to rest. from that point on the fissure widened out, and a steep, almost vertical incline, sparsely covered with vegetation, led to the railroad track below. i think he must have become rather frightened at his position, because he hesitated long before he resumed his downward course, and when he finally did make the attempt his foot slipped upon the moss-covered rocks and down he fell, scratching and clawing at every shrub within reach. believing him to be killed, we rushed down the hill and around to the foot of the cliff. it probably took us about fifteen or twenty minutes, though it seemed ages before we came upon our venturesome comrade coolly trying to pin together a rent of inconvenient location and dimensions in his trousers. "say, dutchy, are you killed?" cried bill, breathlessly. "killed, nothing," he replied, with scorn. "i suppose you fellows think i had a fall. well, i didn't." "you didn't, eh? we saw you slip." "oh, go on. i came down that way on purpose. there was no use in picking my way down like a 'fraid cat, when i could just as well take a smooth and easy toboggan slide on the bushes all the way down." smooth and easy toboggan slide! well, you should have seen the hillside. the course was well defined by the torn and uprooted shrubs and the pile of branches and vines at dutchy's feet. whether the hare-brained dutchy really imagined he could glide easily down on the shrubbery, his frantic movements on the way certainly belied his story, and when, the next day, we proposed that he repeat the trick, somehow he didn't seem to be very enthusiastic on the subject. [illustration: wichita indians building a straw hut.] a path up the fissure. [illustration: fig. 133. the jacob's ladder.] it was up this fissure that we decided to haul materials for our tree hut. our first task was to build steps and ladders in the steepest parts. we had no tool for cutting out niches in the rock, but wherever natural depressions were formed we wedged in sticks of wood between the side walls to serve as ladder rungs. if no such niches appeared for considerable height, we would stretch a rope ladder to the next fixed rung. in most places the natural formation of the rock was such as to afford sufficient footing. rope ladders. [illustration: fig. 134. rope ladder.] the rope ladders were made of two parallel side straps, tightly stretched between the fixed sticks, and then at intervals of fifteen inches we inserted the ends of the ladder rung between the strands of the rope. below and above each rung the rope was bound with cord. the rungs were notched at the ends to prevent them from slipping out. [illustration: fig. 135. a ladder rung.] [illustration: fig. 136. the derrick.] after providing a means for scaling the cliff (we called it the jacob's ladder), we were still confronted with the problem how to cart our building materials to the top. it was a very hard task and you couldn't have hired us to do it under any other circumstances. first, bill planned out on paper just how the house was to be built, and we cut all the pieces to the right size so as not to carry up any superfluous matter. when all was ready the boards and sticks were loaded on the scow, and ferried over to the cliff. then we carried them on our backs, three or four at a time, up the slanting hillside to the first ledge. from there up, owing to the steepness of the ascent, we had to employ different tactics. the derrick. [illustration: fig. 137. the derrick in use.] a derrick was constructed of two sticks 10 feet long, which were bolted together at the top, and secured about five feet apart at the bottom by a cross piece, as shown in fig. 136. the derrick was then taken apart and with some difficulty hauled piecemeal up to the next ledge above. here it was put together again. the fall and tackle used in our aerial railway was attached to the apex of the derrick, and the latter was then erected with the legs set into depressions in the ledge and the upper ends slanting outward but kept from falling over the edge by a rope tied to one of the fixed rungs set in the fissure. with this derrick we hoisted up the boards in a few hauls. the job was a very ticklish one, but bill used the greatest care to prevent accident. the derrick, rope and tackle were carefully tested before used, and as soon as the load was attached to the lower pulley block the two who did the loading were instructed to crawl back into the fissure so as to be out of danger in case anything gave way. at one time a stick which had been carelessly tied did fall, and it might have badly hurt some one had we not observed this precaution. when we had raised the material to the second ledge we transferred operations to the top ledge, and when the materials had been hauled up to this point we finally rigged up our fall and tackle in the old oak tree itself. the tree house. [illustration: fig. 138. main girder of the tree house.] [illustration: fig 139. top view of the platform.] the tree had two large limbs which extended out at a wide angle from the main trunk. across these two limbs, at about seven feet out, we laid our first girder, nailing it securely in place. then to the main trunk we nailed the second girder on a level with the first. diagonal braces were extended from the trunk to support the ends of this girder, and a tie piece was nailed to the braces, as shown in fig. 138, to prevent them from spreading. the girders were rough sticks about 4 inches in diameter and 10 feet long. we cut flat faces on them at the points where they were nailed to the tree, and then, to make them doubly secured, we nailed cleats, or blocks of wood, to the tree under them. the floor beams were then laid across and nailed to the girders. they were cut to a length of 10 feet so as to project beyond the outer girder to provide for a piazza overhanging the goblins' platform. six floor beams were used, spaced 20 inches apart. all branches projecting up between the beams were then cut away and a flooring of slabs was laid on. to the main trunk six feet above the flooring, a stick or (to use the technical term), "wall plate," was nailed on, and its ends were supported by upright posts resting on the platform. thirty inches from the outer end of the platform two more posts were erected eight feet high and secured by sticks nailed across from the other posts, and also by a second wall plate connecting their upper ends. four more posts were erected, one between each pair of the corner posts, and then we were ready to enclose the framing. [illustration: fig. 140. the frame of the house.] [illustration: fig. 141. nailing on the clapboards.] the sidewalls were first clapboarded, because we were afraid the roof would not hold us until the framing had been strengthened by nailing on the siding. slab boards were used for this purpose. beginning at the bottom, the boards were laid on, each lapping over the one below, as shown in fig. 141, so as to shed water. in each side we cut a window opening and nailed on a window casing of the type shown in fig. 142, which will be described in a moment. as soon as the clapboards were applied, we nailed on the rafters and then applied the roofing. the same principle was here used for shedding water. the lowest board was first laid on, and then the others were successively applied, each lapping over the one below. [illustration: fig. 142. the window casing.] [illustration: fig. 143. the window sash.] the window casings we used each consisted of a frame about 15 inches square, but with the upper and lower pieces extending 12 inches beyond one of the side pieces. on these extended pieces a slideway was formed for the window sash by nailing on two strips of wood about 3/4 inch square and over them a pair of wider strips projecting inward, so as to overlap the edges of the sash. the window sash consisted of a frame 13-1/2 inches square, made of 3/4-inch square strips over which canvas was tightly stretched and tacked. a spool was nailed on at one side for a handle. these windows were closed only in rainy weather, to keep the water out. sliding doors. [illustration: fig. 144. section of the door and frame.] we had two doors; one at the back of the house, from which a ladder extended down to the ground, and another opening out onto the veranda, from which we dropped a ladder down to the goblins' dancing platform. in order to save space we used sliding instead of swinging doors. the back door frame was 5-1/2 feet high and the front door frame 6 feet high. the doors were mounted on the outside of the building. the side posts of each frame were 2-1/2 feet apart, and the lintel and sill extended 3 feet beyond the side post at one side. the upper face of the lintel was planed down perfectly smooth, and its edges were tapered off to make a track for the rollers on the door. the rollers consisted of two spools, which turned on tenpenny nails driven into the top of the door. at the lower end two more spools were mounted, turning on nails driven in the bottom edge of the door. the rims of the spools extended slightly beyond the outer face of the door and rolled against the sill. to keep the water from leaking in at the top a slanting board was fastened above it, as shown in fig. 144. the back door was similarly constructed. our tree house was completed by a running balustrade around the veranda. it strangely happened that just after our tree house had been built we received a photograph from uncle ed of a filipino tree house made of bamboo. [illustration: a filipino bamboo tree house.] chapter xii. trouble with the tramps. we were a proud lot when the house was finally completed. from the veranda we had an excellent view up and down the river. we could see our camp on the island and keep watch of our goods. late one afternoon dutchy and i were lolling about on the goblins' platform, idly watching a hawk soaring above us. the rest of the boys had returned to the island in canoes an hour before and left the heavy scow for us to row back. it was drawing near supper time and we had about decided to start for home, when i chanced to see a scow up the river. it looked exactly like ours, and in it were two men, evidently drunk, from the way they carried on. a glance showed me that our scow was not at its moorings. how were we to reach the camp? one of the men had evidently seen us and was pointing us out to his companion. we rushed down the jacob's ladder, but by the time we reached the river bank they were in midstream and heading rapidly northward. our shouts merely brought forth derisive laughter. we were certainly in a predicament. first we ran back up the cliff, and tried from there to gain the attention of the rest of the fellows. they evidently saw us but couldn't make out what we wanted. then we ran down to a point opposite the island and called to them. but the wind was against us and we couldn't make them hear, so we had to plunge in and wade across. a council of war. immediately we summoned a war council. dutchy and jack were chosen by lot to guard the camp, while the rest of us started in pursuit in canoes. by the time we got under way the sun had dropped back of the pennsylvania hills and the shadows were climbing slowly up the jacob's ladder. swiftly we paddled up-stream, keeping close to the western shore, where the water was very quiet. we didn't expect to go far, because there were rapids less than three miles up, and we were sure that no tramps would ever be ambitious enough to row a heavy scow against the swift current at that point. as we rounded a sharp bend in the river, we noticed a camp fire a few hundred feet further up, around which five or six men were lounging, and there, just below them, was our scow. what were four boys to do against six grown men? we were each armed with a club, and could have made a pretty good fight if necessary, but after a whispered consultation we decided it would be best to wait until dark, when we could creep up quietly and steal away unnoticed with our boat. vengeance. it seemed as if darkness never would come. it was scarcely dusk when our patience gave out and we paddled up stealthily, hugging the shore. bill gained the scow unnoticed, but just as he was about to push off he discerned the body of a man within. it was one of the tramps lying there in a drunken stupor. what was to be done? every moment was precious. a yell from the fireside decided him. with a mighty push he launched the boat out into the current, while we threw him a line and towed the boat out to midstream. with a volley of curses the men sprang up and pelted us with stones. but they were poor shots, and we escaped without serious injury. our prisoner, in the meantime, was snoring heavily in the scow undisturbed. we took him down-stream and then unceremoniously picked him up and dumped him overboard within a few feet of the shore. it was a rude awakening, and nearly frightened the wits out of the man. but it brought him to his senses, and in a moment we were dodging more stones, sent with such good aim that we had to lie flat in the bottoms of the boats until the current carried us out of reach. a double surprise. it was now quite dark, and we had some difficulty in groping our way back to camp. there was no moon and the stars were obscured by clouds. our only course was to follow the shore line until we got around the bend, and then we steered for the beacon fire, which, by prearrangement, had been kindled on point lookout. but the spirit of mischief was in us. we thought we would have some fun with dutchy. we could see him silhouetted against the blaze. jim and i hung back in the canoes, while reddy and bill went on with the scow, splashing their oars and shouting and singing in disguised voices, like drunken men. dutchy was evidently very much agitated. his "hello, there! boat ahoy!" was greeted with derisive yells. [illustration: fig. 145. a joke on dutchy.] "say, we'll lick the life out of you, the same as we did them other kids," shouted reddy. this was too much for dutchy. he ran for all he was worth, yelling for jack to come quick. we had a merry laugh over the situation when suddenly the tables were turned. something whizzed past bill's ear; i was stung on the arm with a heavy nail; a large stone hit the scow; reddy had his hat knocked off, and fred upset his canoe trying to duck out of reach of the invisible missiles before we could make our assailants understand that we were friends and not the tramps. the joke was on us after all. we hadn't counted on dutchy's accurate aim or jack's skill with the crossbow. tramp-proof boat mooring. [illustration: fig. 146. a tramp-proof mooring.] around the camp fire that night we discussed our adventures and made plans to prevent their recurrence. it was evident, for one thing, that we would have to moor our boats off shore in such a way that they would be out of reach of meddlesome persons, and yet could be drawn in toward shore by any one who knew how. this was the way we did it. a pair of galvanized iron ring bolts were procured on jack's next trip to lamington for provisions, also a light rope about forty feet long. the ring bolts were screwed into a pair of stout anchor stakes about two feet from their lower ends. the rope was passed through the rings and the ends were joined by tying them to a galvanized iron link. then it was soaked for a while to shrink it before it was set in place. after the rope had shrunk sufficiently, the two stakes were driven into the bed of the river, one close to the bank and the other far enough out to hold the rope belt clear of the bottom. both stakes were sawed off under water, just above the ring bolts, so that they were hidden from sight. when we wanted to moor our boats we secured their anchor ropes or "painters" to the link. a large stepping stone marked the spot were the inner stake was driven, and standing on this stone we were able to reach down and haul in on the lower strap of the belt to draw the boat out a safe distance from shore, and then when we wanted to use our boat again we would haul in the upper strap to draw the boat in toward shore. chapter xiii. wigwagging and heliographing. our tramp adventure was really quite a blessing to us, for it taught us the necessity of a good signaling system between the goblins' platform and the island and led to our learning how to wigwag, and later to the construction of a heliograph. uncle ed, when he read of our experience, sent us the u. s. army "manual of signaling." fred, the tailor of our camp, made us two white flags with red centers. each flag was two feet square and was fastened to a light staff about five feet long. then we got out the manual and practised sending signals, at first within shouting distance, until we got to be quite expert. wigwag signals. [illustration: fig. 147-150. ready, first movement, second movement, third movement.] there were only three different movements that could be made with flags, but in the book different combinations of these movements were given to represent each letter of the alphabet and the numbers from 1 to 0. all these movements were begun and ended by holding the flagstaff upright, directly in front of the body, as shown in fig. 147. the first movement was to swing the flag down to the right and back (fig. 148), the second to the left and back (fig. 149), and the third forward and back (fig. 150). the following table gives the different combinations used for various letters: the wigwag alphabet. a 22 j 1122 s 212 b 2112 k 2121 t 2 c 121 l 221 u 112 d 222 m 1221 v 1222 e 12 n 11 w 1121 f 2221 o 21 x 2122 g 2211 p 1212 y 111 h 122 q 1211 z 2222 i 1 r 211 tion 1112 numerals. 1 1111 4 2221 8 2111 2 2222 5 1122 9 1221 3 1112 6 2211 0 2112 7 1222 [illustration: fig. 151. the signal for letter "b."] the numbers 1, 2 and 3 indicate respectively the first, second and third movements. for instance, a was represented by the combination 22, which means that the flag must be swept to the left and back twice. b is represented by the combination 2112, that is, a sweep to the left, two sweeps to the right and a final sweep to the left, as shown in fig. 151. the end of a word was represented by a sweep forward and back; the end of a sentence by two sweeps forward and back, and the end of a message by three sweeps forward and back. it will be noticed that the same combinations are used for 2 and z, 3 and _tion_, 4 and f, 5 and j, 6 and g, 7 and v, 9 and m, and 0 and b. the following abbreviations were given in the manual: abbreviations. a after n not ur your b before r are w word c can t the wi with h have u you y yes these abbreviations saved a lot of time, for when we wanted to signal the word _after_ instead of spelling it out--22-2221-2-12-211-3--we used the signal for a--22--followed by 3 to signify that it was the end of the word. before was represented by 2112-3, _your_ by 111-211-3, etc. it took quite a little practice to learn the different combinations. fred and reddy soon became experts, and could flash the signals back and forth at a great rate. wigwagging at night. [illustration: fig. 152. wigwagging at night.] at night we used a torch in place of a flag. the torch consisted of a roll of dried birch bark tied with wire to the end of a staff. it was found necessary to place another torch on the ground directly in front of the signaler so as to fix a central point and enable one to determine whether the moving torch was swung to the left or right. a later improvement was to use three lanterns, one in each hand and one attached to the waist to fix the central position. it was quite an advantage to have a lantern in each hand, for it saved changing over from one to the other when a second movement followed a first or a first movement a second. the heliograph. the book that uncle ed sent us had in it a description of a heliograph, that is, an instrument for sending signals with flashes of sunlight. although our wigwagging system was good enough for our requirements, yet we thought it would be more scientific to use the sun instrument, and besides, the latter could be used for signaling many miles. the single mirror instrument. [illustration: fig. 153. trunnion for mirror.] [illustration: fig. 154. the single mirror instrument.] the first thing we did was to procure a small mirror about 4 inches square, mounted in a wooden frame. then we got a pair of small square head bolts about 1/4 of an inch in diameter and 1 inch long, also two strips of brass 1/2 inch wide and 3 inches long. in the center of each brass strip we drilled a hole just large enough to admit the shank of one of the bolts, and then the strips were fastened with screws tight against opposite edges of the mirror frame, with the heads pressed against the frame and the shanks sticking out at each side, as shown in fig. 153. these projecting shanks served as "trunnions" (that is, pivots) for the mirror to turn on when it was mounted in place. after the trunnions had been set in place we made a peep hole in the center of the mirror by cutting out a piece of the wooden back of the frame and scratching away the silver from the back of the glass. only a very small hole was required, about 1/8 inch in diameter. great care was taken to have the unsilvered spot exactly on a line with the trunnions and just half-way between them. this done, we took two sticks of 3/8-inch wood, 1 inch wide and 3-1/2 inches long. in the upper end of each stick a slot was cut 1/2 inch deep and 1/4 inch wide. into these slots the trunnions of the mirror were placed, and then the nuts were screwed tightly on, clamping the sticks against the sides of the mirror. the sticks were now connected by nailing a 1/2-inch strip at the bottom, and braced by a couple of corner pieces. this formed a swiveled frame for the mirror, which was clamped to the base of the instrument by means of a bolt 1-1/2 inches long. the bolt passed through the bottom board of the frame, squarely under the peep hole of the mirror and through the baseboard of the instrument near one end. the baseboard was 2 inches wide, 10 inches long and 3/4 inch thick. the sight rod. [illustration: fig. 155. the sight rod.] [illustration: fig. 156. nut set in baseboard.] at the end opposite to where the mirror frame was swiveled we mounted a sight rod, which was merely a round stick of wood 1/2 inch in diameter and about 8 inches long. we cut the stick from one of the rounds of an old broken chair. the upper end of the rod was whittled to a point and one side was flattened as shown in fig. 155. out of a piece of heavy white cardboard we cut a round disk about 1/4 inch in diameter, with a shank 1 inch long sticking out at one side. this was fastened with a single tack to the flattened end of the rod in such a position that the point lay exactly against the center of the disk. the disk could then be turned up or down, to cover or uncover the point of the rod, as desired. the rod was fitted snugly into a hole in the baseboard, and could be raised or lowered to any extent desired, but we had to provide some sort of an arrangement for making it stay where it was put. a small hole was drilled from the edge of the baseboard through to the hole in which the rod was fitted. a square socket was chiseled out around the small hole to receive a nut. the nut was firmly wedged in and held in place by driving in nails along the edges. a bolt or machine screw was threaded through the nut, so that its inner end pressed against the sighting rod. by tightening this screw the rod could be secured at any height desired. the instrument was mounted on a tripod similar to the one used for our surveying instrument. to this it was attached by means of a bolt, which passed through the center of the baseboard and the tripod head. the screen. [illustration: fig. 157. section through shutter.] [illustration: fig. 158. general view of screen.] the screen, or shutter, of the heliograph was mounted on a separate tripod, so as to prevent shaking the mirror when it was operated. it was made something like a window shutter. we cut out two slats, each 2-1/2 inches wide and 6 inches long. they were made of hardwood 3/8 inch thick. the upper and lower edges were tapered down to a thickness of 3/16 inch. light nails were driven into the slats at the ends, and the nail heads were then filed off so that the projecting ends formed trunnions for the slats to turn on. the slats were linked to a connecting rod with double point tacks. a small double point tack was driven into the upper edge of each slat about 1/2 inch from the right hand end. then through each of these tacks we hooked a second double point tack and drove it into the rod. the tacks on the rod were placed just 2 inches apart. a substantial frame was then made of 3/4-inch stuff 1-1/2 inches wide. the frame was square, with an opening that measured 6 inches each way, into which the slats were fitted. before nailing the frame together we drilled holes in the side pieces for the trunnions of the slats to turn in. these holes were just 1-3/4 inches apart. after the slats had been set in place, the frame was fastened together and then nailed to a baseboard, which was fastened by a bolt to the tripod. the shutter was operated by a key something like a telegraph key. it was made of a narrow stick of wood hinged at one end to the lower strip of the shutter frame, and a spool sawed in two was fastened to the other end to serve as a handle for the key. a string connected the key with the connecting rod. the slats were kept closed by a spring, which was fastened at one end to the connecting rod and at the other to the top of the frame. at first we used a rubber band for this purpose, but it soon wore out, so we then made a spiral spring out of stiff spring brass wire by wrapping it around a pencil. when the key was pressed down the slats would be turned open, as shown in fig. 159; but as soon as the key was released the spring would pull them back again. focusing the instrument. [illustration: fig. 159. the heliograph in operation.] we were now ready to commence operations with our instruments. the heliograph was set up on the ledge at the top of the cliff. first the disk was turned down, uncovering the point of the sighting rod. then bill sighted through the unsilvered spot in the mirror and shifted the rod up and down until the tip end came squarely in line with the door of our straw hut, where jack was seated, notebook in hand, to take down our message. reddy stood by him with his wigwag flag to answer back. when the instrument was properly sighted the shutter was set up directly in front of it and the sighting disk turned up to cover the point of the sighting rod. then came the rather troublesome task of focusing the mirror. the mirror reflected a square panel of light, in the center of which there was a small shadow spot made by the unsilvered peep hole. the object was to get this shadow to fall on the center of the sighting disk. we knew that then the mirror would reflect the sunlight squarely on the straw hut. we found it quite easy to direct this shadow spot to the disk by holding a sheet of paper in front of the mirror six or eight inches away, and following up the spot on the paper until it reached the disk. heliograph signaling. [illustration: fig. 160. top view, showing position of mirror and shutter.] when at last we succeeded in properly focusing the mirror bill pressed the key down three times, sending three quick flashes to jack as a signal that he was ready to begin. reddy wigwagged back o. k., and then the first heliographic message was sent from the ledge to the island. it was a rather mixed-up message, and kept jim and reddy wigwagging back and forth very strenuously to straighten matters out. it was my duty to keep the mirror focused. as the sun moved across the sky the shadow spot would move off the disk, and i had to keep shifting the mirror to bring the spot back where it belonged. we used the international telegraph code, which we had been studying every evening for a week, but it was many weeks before we learned how to use it correctly, even slowly. the international telegraph code is as follows: a â· b -â·â·â· c -â·-â· d -â·â· e â· f â·â·-â· g --â· h â·â·â·â· i â·â· j â·-- k -â· l â·-â·â· m - n -â· o --p â·--â· q --â· r â·-â· s â·â·â· t u â·â· v â·â·â· w â·-x -â·â· y -â·- z --â·â· 1 â·--- 2 â·â·--3 â·â·â·- 4 â·â·â·â· 5 â·â·â·â·â· 6 -â·â·â·â· 7 --â·â·â· 8 ---â·â· 9 ----â· 0 ----the three short flashes bill sent represented the letter s, which stood for the word "signal." a was formed by a short flash followed by a long flash; b by a long flash followed by three short ones, and so on. the key was held down three times as long for the long flash as for the short one. we found the best way of learning to send the signals properly was to count 1 for each short flash, and for each pause between parts of the letter, and 3 for each dash and for each pause between letters. between words we counted 6. thus, for the letter a the key would be down when we counted 1, up when we counted 2, down while we counted 3, 4, 5, and up while we counted 6, 7, 8, for the pause after each letter. it was rather a confusing code, i admit, but in time we mastered it, all but reddy and fred, who never would learn, but instead used the wigwag code, letting a short flash stand for 1, a long flash for 2 and a double long flash for 3. the double mirror instrument. [illustration: fig. 161. the double mirror instrument.] [illustration: fig. 162. top view, showing position of the two mirrors and the screen.] our heliographing instrument did excellent service sending flashes from the cliff to the island, but we couldn't make it work very well sending messages from the island to the cliff, because we had to face almost due north, and then the sun was nearly always at our backs and couldn't shine squarely on the mirror. this led to our building a double mirrored heliograph the following summer. to begin with, we built an instrument which was the exact duplicate of our first heliograph; then, in addition, to fit in the socket of the sighting rod, we rigged up a second mirror, which was mounted in exactly the same way as the first. the second mirror was called the station mirror, and differed from the other, or sun mirror, in having a small patch of white paper pasted at the center instead of a peep hole. when using this instrument, we set it up so that the station mirror faced the ledge, then by sighting through the hole in the sun mirror at the reflection in the station mirror we could see just what was in focus. the station mirror had to be moved until the patch at its center hid the ledge from view. after that the sun mirror was shifted until the shadow spot fell on the white patch of the station mirror. when once the station mirror was focused, it could be clamped tightly in place by screwing up the trunnion and swivel nuts. but the sun mirror had to be constantly shifted to keep the shadow on the patch. another way of focusing the mirrors was to stand behind the instrument with the head close to the station mirror, shift the sun mirror until the entire station mirror was reflected in it, with the white patch squarely over the unsilvered spot; then still looking at the sun mirror, the station mirror was shifted until the reflection of the distant station was brought squarely in line with the unsilvered spot on the mirror. the station mirror was now firmly bolted and the sun mirror adjusted until the shadow spot fell on the paper patch. chapter xiv. ice boats, sledges and toboggans. as our vacation was drawing to a close, we began to make plans for the christmas holidays. our previous christmas vacation had been so completely taken up with preparations for the trip to willow clump island that we had had no time for the trip itself. we resolved this time to have everything ready beforehand, so that we could spend the entire two weeks in solid pleasure. our skate sails and snow shoes were stored in the attic, ready for use. if we were to make a trip in the snow we would need a sledge, and then, too, we wanted to make an ice boat. it would hardly pay to build these on the island and then cart them home, so it was decided to break up camp a couple of weeks before school commenced. breaking camp. consequently, on the first day of september we gathered up our belongings, corraled our chickens, packed our goods, and the next day started for home. mr. schreiner, in response to a letter from the secretary, came down with a large wagon in which the majority of the things were packed. the rest of our luggage was stowed in the scow and the canoes, and these were towed down the canal, as before. we reached home late in the afternoon, tired and hungry. it was a treat to sit at the table again and eat some of mother's appetizing dishes. and say, wasn't that pie great, though! my, how ravenous we were! and then a soft, comfortable bed with spotless white sheets and pillow cases. how soundly we did sleep that night! you can just bet we were all glad enough to get back to civilization, though, of course, no one could have dragged out the confession from a single one of us. the ice boat. [illustration: fig. 163. the backbone.] [illustration: fig. 164. frame of the ice boat.] [illustration: fig. 165. runner shoe.] [illustration: fig. 166. the rudder shoe.] school commenced on the 20th of september that year, so we hadn't much time to spare. work was begun immediately on the ice boat. our first ice boat was rather a crude one. a 2 by 4 inch scantling 14 feet long was used for the backbone of the boat. the scantling was placed on edge, and to lighten it and improve its appearance it was tapered fore and aft from a point 4 feet from the bow end. the thickness of the ends of the backbone was but 2 inches, as shown in fig. 163. to the under edge of the backbone, 5 feet from the forward end, a crosspiece was nailed. this crosspiece was a 1-inch board 6 inches wide and 9 feet long. braces were then run from the ends of the crosspiece to the forward and rear ends of the backbone, and at the rear end several boards nailed across the braces served as a seat for the boat. our next task was to rig up the runners. for these we used skates, which were so arranged that we could remove them whenever we wanted to. three blocks of wood were used for the runner shoes. two of them were cut from a 2 by 4 scantling and measured a foot in length. the third block was only 1 inch thick, but was otherwise of the same dimensions. the skates were laid face downward on the blocks with the clamping levers open; then we marked the places where the clamping jaws touched the wood and drilled holes at these points. the forward end of each block was also tapered off to fit flat against the face of the skate. then by inserting the jaws in the holes and closing the levers, the skate was clamped to the block, just as it would be to a shoe. the two 2-inch blocks were bolted to the ends of the crosspiece, but the third block needed further attention, as it was to be used for the rudder or steering runner. [illustration: fig. 167. the tiller.] [illustration: fig. 168. drilling the mast step.] the rudder post was shaped from a block of hardwood 3 inches square and 10 inches long. two inches from the lower end saw cuts were made in the side of the block to a depth of 3/4 inch. then with a chisel the sides were split off, forming a large pin with a square shank 8 inches long. next the corners of the shank were cut off, rounding it to a diameter of 1-1/2 inches. the runner block was fastened securely to the head of the rudder post with screws. a 1-1/2-inch hole was now drilled into the backbone at the stern end to receive the rudder post. a tiller was next cut out of a 1-inch board to the shape shown in fig. 167. a slot was cut in the end of the tiller, and the latter fitted snugly over the top of the post, where it was held in place by screws threaded in through the sides. [illustration: fig. 169. the mainsail.] the mast of our boat was a pole 8 feet long, tapering from a diameter 2 inches at the base to 1-1/2 inches at the top. a step for the mast was cut from a 2 by 4 block 8 inches long. a 2-inch hole was drilled into the face of this block. we had no drill large enough to bore this hole, but accomplished the same result by drilling eight 1/2-inch holes inside of a 2-inch circle (fig. 168), and then used a chisel to cut off the projecting pieces. the mast step was firmly bolted to the backbone at its thickest part, that is, just four feet from the forward end. the mast was braced with stay ropes stretched from the top to the forward end of the backbone and to the ends of the crosspiece. a 9-foot pole, tapering from 1-1/2 inches to 1 inch in diameter, was used for the boom of the mainsail, and for the gaff we used a 6-foot pole of the same diameter. [illustration: fig. 170. jaws of the boom.] [illustration: fig. 171. a cleat.] the dimensions of the mainsail are given in fig. 169. for mast hoops we used curtain rings. five were attached to the sail along the luff, and one was fastened with a piece of leather to the end of the gaff. we used a different scheme for holding the boom to the mast. the forward end of the boom was flattened at the sides and a couple of cheek blocks were bolted on, forming jaws of the shape indicated in fig. 170. the jaws were whittled out to fit nicely around the mast, and were kept from slipping off by a piece of rope passed around the mast and threaded through the ends of the cheek blocks. half a dozen small pulley blocks were now procured, of the type used on awnings. a rope called the throat halyard was strung from the throat or forward end of the gaff through a pulley block near the top of the mast, and led down to the backbone, where it was "belayed," or wrapped around a cleat. the cleat, which was whittled out of a stick of wood, was made in the form indicated in fig. 171. a short length of rope was strung through a pulley block and tied with some slack to the upper end and to the center of the gaff. this rope is called a "bridle," and to the pulley block on this "bridle" a rope was attached called the "peak halyard." the peak halyard was passed through a pulley block at the top of the mast, and belayed on a cleat at the side of the backbone. for the main sheet (that is, the rope used for guiding the mainsail) two pulley blocks were fastened to the backbone, one just in front of the seat and the other a few feet further forward, and two more were lashed to the boom, midway between these blocks. the sheet was fastened near the aft end of the backbone and then strung through the blocks in the order illustrated, the free end of the sheet being brought back to the seat, where a cleat was provided, to which it could be secured when desired. [illustration: fig. 172. the jib-sail.] [illustration: fig. 173. the ice boat completed.] the jib-sail was now cut out to the dimensions given in fig. 172. the foot of the sail was lashed to a jib-boom 3 feet 4 inches long. the jib-boom was attached to the backbone at its fore end by means of a couple of screw eyes. the eye of one of these was pried open, linked through the other and then closed again. one of the screw eyes was now screwed into the head of the jib-boom and the other was threaded into the end of the backbone. the upper corner or "head" of the jib was tied to a jib-halyard, which passed through a block at the top of the mast, and was secured on a cleat on the backbone. on the jib we used two sheets. they were attached to the end of the jib-boom and passed on opposite sides of the mast through blocks on the crosspiece to the stern of the boat, where separate cleats were provided for them. this completed our ice boat, and a very pretty little boat she was. it was with great reluctance that we furled the sails, unstepped the mast, and stowed away the parts in our attic until old jack frost should wake up and furnish us with a field of smooth ice. the sledge. [illustration: fig. 174. a spacing block.] [illustration: fig. 175. the runners and rails spaced apart.] our sledge was patterned after a picture of one used by peary in one of his arctic expeditions. first we got four strips of hickory 1 inch thick, 1-1/2 inches wide and 8 feet long for the runners and side rails. beginning 18 inches from the ends, each stick was tapered gradually to a thickness of 1/2 an inch. then we made eight spreaders or spacing blocks, each 1-1/2 inches thick, 2-1/2 inches wide and 11 inches long. in each end a notch 1/2 inch deep was cut to receive the runners and side rails. in the edge of each block, midway of its length, a slot 1 inch deep was cut to receive the cross sticks of the sledge. first we nailed the runners and rails to the blocks, fastening them with screws, spacing the blocks 16 inches from the ends, and 20 inches apart from center to center. then we bent the ends of the rails and runners together, fastening them with bolts, as in fig. 175. four crosspieces, or floor beams, were cut out of a 1-inch board, each 2 inches wide and 30 inches long. these were fitted into the slots in the space blocks and secured with screws. a cross stick was also fastened between the rails and runners at the forward end. on the floor beams we nailed a flooring of 1/2-inch slats, 2 inches wide and 6 feet long. at the rear end these slats projected 8 inches beyond the last space block and over them a cross slat was nailed. a stick of hickory 4-1/2 feet long was soaked in hot water, as described on page 39, and was bent to an u-shape. the ends were then fitted over the first cross stick, and under the first floor supports, and securely nailed in place. another stick of hickory 6 feet long was similarly bent, and the ends slipped over the rear cross slats and fitted against the rear space blocks, in which position the stick was securely nailed. [illustration: fig. 176. the sledge.] it was our intention to shoe the runners with strips of brass, but these were not procurable in our village, and we had no time to go down to millville. however, the village blacksmith came to our rescue and shod our sledge with sleigh runner iron. we had planned to make two more devices for our winter sports--a toboggan and a peculiar looking contrivance called a "rennwolf," a picture of which dutchy happened to unearth in one of his father's books. unfortunately bill and i had to return to school before either of these was completed. however, the work was entrusted to reddy, who was quite handy with tools, and jack, who was made secretary _pro tempore_, took notes on the work. the toboggan. [illustration: fig. 177. tying down the head piece of the toboggan.] the toboggan was made of light flexible hickory boards, 1/4 of an inch thick, 6 inches wide and 8 feet long. three of these boards were used, and they were fastened together with cross sticks or battens, about 3 inches wide and 1/2 an inch thick. there were six of these battens spaced about 15 inches apart, and secured to the floor boards with flathead screws introduced from the under side and countersunk so that the heads would not project below the bottom of the toboggan. at the forward end we screwed on a head piece of oak, 3/4 of an inch thick, 1-1/2 inches wide and 20 inches long. the head piece was fastened to the under side of the boards, so that when they were curved up into a hood it would lie on top. the ends of the head piece, which projected 1 inch each side of the boards, were notched to hold the rope, which was tied fast after the boards had been steamed. the boards were steamed by wrapping them in burlap for a distance of 2 feet from the forward end, and pouring boiling water over them, as was done with the snow shoes (page 39). before bending the boards we had fixed screw eyes in the ends of each batten, except the forward one; a rope had been strung through these screw eyes and the ends were now tied to the head piece and drawn tight so as to bend the boards into a graceful curve. in this way the ropes were of service not only for curving the front end into a hood, but also for side rails, to hold on by when shooting swiftly around curves. [illustration: fig. 178. the toboggan.] the rennwolf. the runners of the rennwolf were made of hickory strips, 1 inch thick, 2 inches wide and 8 feet long. at their forward ends these strips were tapered down to a thickness of 1/2 an inch and curved upward. about 30 inches from the rear end of each runner an upright post was nailed. the post was 3 feet long and was braced by a diagonal brace 24 inches long, as shown in fig. 179. a tie bar was nailed to the post about 6 or 8 inches from the bottom and connected with the forward curved end of the runner. [illustration: fig. 179. dimensions of rennwolf.] the two runners were now placed parallel to each other about 18 inches apart, and connected by four cross bars, one at the forward end, and three on the upright posts, in about the positions illustrated. the upper cross bar was extended 6 inches beyond the posts at each side, and served as a handle for guiding the queer craft. an 18-inch square board was used for the seat of the rennwolf. it rested on the second cross-bar of the post about 12 inches from the runners, and the forward end was supported on legs nailed to the tie bars. on each runner back of the posts a loop of leather was nailed, large enough to receive the toe of one shoe. when using this odd sled one foot would rest on the runner with the toe in the strap, and by kicking out against the snow or ice with the other foot the rennwolf would be made to spin along at a rapid rate. of course, when coasting both feet would rest on the runners and the sled was steered by an occasional side push at the right or left. owing to the great length of the runners the rennwolf would easily ride over uneven surfaces and thin spots in the ice. [illustration: fig. 180. the rennwolf in use.] ice creepers. [illustration: fig. 181. the ice creeper.] in order to provide a better hold for the propelling foot, we fastened around the toe a strap of leather, through which a number of long tacks projected. their sharp points would stick into the ice, and prevent the foot from slipping. the seat of the rennwolf was convenient for carrying a coat or any light luggage, and it was often used to give a friend a very exhilarating ride. chapter xv. the subterranean club. i am afraid we were not very glad to get back to school that fall. it seemed very hard to give up the sport we had been having, and our heads were brimful of new schemes which we could hardly wait to put into practice. but we soon learned that there are many things that could be done during recreation hours at school. we had intended building a cave on our island that summer, but our vacation came to an end before we got around to it. there seemed no reason why we shouldn't dig one in the woods at the back of the schoolhouse. a cave-in. bill had read somewhere that if you dig a cave under a tree the roots of the tree will support the ground on top and make a natural and substantial roof. it sounded very reasonable, we thought; in fact, we never questioned the truth of the statement, because we had somehow gotten the notion that books were never wrong, and that whatever was set up in type must surely be so. but events proved that the man who wrote that book had never attempted to build a cave in the manner he described, at least not in the loose, sandy soil of south jersey. a large spreading cedar was selected as the tree which should support the roof of our cave. it was situated on a mound at the edge of the woods. first a passageway, or ditch, was dug at the bottom, and then we begun tunneling in the side of the mound under the roots of the tree. for a while the ground above held, and our tunnel had reached a length of about four feet, when suddenly, without the slightest warning, the sandy soil gave way and we were engulfed. bill, who was furthest within the cave, was almost entirely covered, while i was buried to the shoulders. a crowd of boys came to our assistance and dug us out. poor bill was almost smothered before they scooped the sand away from around his mouth and nose. the boys made slow work of it, having to dig with their hands and a couple of shingles, because the two spades we had were buried with us at the bottom of the cave. of course, this little episode gave us a scare, but it was only temporary. we swore every one to secrecy, so that mr. clark, the principal, wouldn't hear of the mishap and suppress any further cave building. it was obvious that the only roof we could depend on for our cave would be a wooden roof. if we had been at willow clump island we would have gotten any amount of slabs from the lumber mills across the river. one of our schoolmates, a day scholar, came to the rescue. his name was chester hill, a little bit of a chap, about the shortest for his age that i have ever seen. his name was so at variance to his size that we called him "hillock," for short. now hillock lived on a farm about eight miles from school, and used to drive in every day on a farm wagon. he had helped us dig the cave under the cedar tree, and when he learned that we would need some lumber to build a safe cave, he told us that he had an uncle who owned a lumber mill on the morris river, from whom he was sure we could get all the slabs we wanted. of course, we were delighted, and laid our plans for an elaborate cave house. hillock promised to be on hand on the following saturday afternoon with his load of lumber. excavating for the cave. we immediately set out to make the necessary excavation. the side of a bushy knoll was chosen as a suitable site. first we carefully transplanted the bushes that grew in the square we had marked out for the cave, and cutting the sod into squares, piled it all neatly to one side. then we shoveled away the top-soil and heaped it up for future use. after that we dug away the sandy subsoil. the cave proper we planned to make about 8 feet by 10 feet, with a passageway 2 feet wide and 6 feet long, leading in from a large bush at the base of the knoll. our excavation was therefore somewhat t-shaped (see fig. 182). at the deepest part we had to dig down about 10 feet. [illustration: fig. 182. excavation for the cave.] [illustration: fig. 183. framework of the cave.] the digging was all done by saturday, when hillock pulled up with a big load of slabs. slabs are a very unsatisfactory kind of wood for most purposes. being the outside cut, they are usually very irregular and weak in spots. in many places they are almost clear bark. of course, had our pocketbooks permitted, we would have used stout scantlings for the corner posts of our cave house and substantial boards for the walls, roof and flooring, but we had to be content with materials at hand. eight of the best slabs were selected for our corner posts; four of them we cut to the length of 8 feet and the others to a length of 6 feet. the long slabs were set up at the rear of the cave, two at each corner, one flat against the rear wall, with its edge buried in the corner, and the other against the side wall, with its edge tight against the rear slab, as in fig. 183. the same was done at the forward corners with the shorter slabs. a couple of slabs were now set up on each side of the passageway, and a corresponding pair against the rear wall. the upper and lower ends of the uprights were then connected with slabs, called stringpieces. [illustration: fig. 184. the siding and flooring.] the sides were now boarded up with upright slabs nailed to the stringpieces. an opening 3 feet 6 inches high was left in the forward wall for a passageway. several slabs were now placed on the edge across the bottom of the cave, to serve as floor beams, upon which a flooring of slabs was laid. next the rafters were set in place, one on each upright slab. slots were cut in the ends of the uprights to receive the rafters, which were slabs placed on edge. as the forward uprights were 2 feet shorter than the rear ones, the rafters were given a good slant, so that the roof would properly shed any water that might soak in through the ground above. [illustration: fig. 185. notching in the rafters.] the roof was laid on the same way that we had made the roof of our tree house; that is, a slab was first nailed at the forward end of the rafters with its edge projecting far enough to make a good eave; then the second slab was nailed on, with its edge overlapping the first, and a third with its edge overlapping the second, and so on with the rest. at the rear end of the roof a hole was cut, into which we fitted a piece of stovepipe. we didn't plan to have a fire in the house, but set the stovepipe in place to provide the necessary ventilation. as the pipe had an elbow in it, there was no danger of rain or dirt falling through it. the upper end of the stovepipe was concealed among some rocks at the top of the knoll. a suitable flooring was now laid in the passageway, and the sides were boarded up to a height of 2 feet from the floor at the entrance to a height of 3 feet 6 inches at the inner end. a roof of slabs was nailed on, and then we were ready to cover our slab house with dirt. covering the cave. we avoided piling on the dirt very deep, because there was danger of breaking in the roof with a heavy load. a thin layer of sand covered with the top-soil brought up the level to about that of the rest of the knoll. then the sod was laid back in place and well watered, and the few bushes planted back in their original positions. our sodding should have been done in the spring for best results. the frost soon killed the grass, and the bushes withered away. but a few cents' worth of grass seed was sowed in, and in time gave the knoll a very natural appearance. a bush at the bottom concealed the entrance of the cave, so that no one who was not in the secret would have suspected that beneath that innocent looking knoll were gathered the members of the "big bug club." the big bug club. [illustration: fig. 186. a section through the completed cave.] of course, we had to organize a secret society, to occupy our subterranean dwelling. in that i fear we overstepped the rules of the school. of course, mr. clark knew of our cave, in fact he visited us there once, lowering his dignity sufficiently to squeeze into the narrow passageway, and playing bill a game of chess at our club table. he seemed quite pleased with our work, and complimented us very highly on the masterful way in which we had built the underground house. we told him that we had organized a club of the older fellows to play indoor games and have occasional spreads, but we did not tell him that most of our spreads were held at the dead of night, when there was no moon and the stars were hidden by clouds. at 10 o'clock each night the bell rang for us to turn out our lights, and after that the six members would each, in turn, keep a half-hour watch, that is, first one would sit up and try to keep awake for half an hour, after which he would waken the next fellow, who at the end of a half hour would rouse the third, and so on, until 1 o'clock, when the sixth watcher would wake up the entire club. then we would all creep out the back window in the hall, onto the roof of the rear annex of the schoolhouse, and thence climb down a rope ladder to the ground. midnight banquets. i suppose we could have just as easily have tiptoed downstairs and out the back door, but it would have spoiled the romance of it all. the absolute stillness and the pitch-black darkness of the night were awe-inspiring. the roll of a pebble or the crack of a twig under foot would set us all atingle as we stole out to our cave house. sometimes the night was so black that we could hardly find the entrance of the cave. once inside, in the light of a few candles, the nervous tension was relieved, and we reveled in a banquet of cold victuals and dainties, purchased out of the monthly club dues. our meetings in the cave lasted scarcely half an hour. in fact, the meeting, and even the banquet, were mere incidentals. the main enjoyment consisted in stealing out to the cave and back again, always at the risk of getting caught. usually when we got to bed again we would be too excited to fall asleep right away, and when we did finally drop off our sleep was so sound that several times the breakfast bell caught one or more of us still napping. the club pin. [illustration: fig. 187. the club pin.] the only other charm our secret club afforded was the wearing of a mysterious club pin. it was a silver beetle, with the letter g engraved on the head and the letter b on the body, while down the center of the back was the letter i (see fig. 187). in public we called ourselves the g. i. b.'s, but it was only the initiated members who knew that these letters were to be read backward, and, with the beetle on which they were engraved, signified the "big bugs." of course, we had some secret signs and signals, a secret hand grasp, a peculiar whistle as a warning to run, another meaning "lie still," and a third signifying "all is well." the combination lock. [illustration: fig. 188 the notched washers.] [illustration: fig. 189. washers fastened on spools.] [illustration: fig. 190. the combination lock.] we found it necessary to close the entrance of our cave with a door fastened with a padlock, so as to keep meddlers out. the entire school had watched us build the cave house, and, of course, knew just where our entrance lay. then, in addition to the outer door, we put in another one, half-way down the dark passageway. on this bill rigged up a simple combination lock which would baffle any one who managed to pick the padlock. this inner door opened outward. it was hinged to the floor of the passageway, and swung up against a frame set in the passageway. at the top was a board whose lower edge lay flush with the edge of the door when it was closed. for the combination lock we used a couple of spools, each with one head cut off and the central hole plugged up with a stick of wood. in the floor and the top board of the frame, holes were drilled just large enough for the shanks of the spools to fit snugly in them. next we made a trip to a hardware store for a file and a couple of large copper washers, about 1-1/4 inches in diameter. the washers were fastened to the inner ends of the spools after they had been pushed through the hole. the washer on the door came just to the edge of the door, while the other extended below the door frame and lapped under the door washer. then in the edge of the washer on the frame a notch was filed, while in the other washer two notches were filed, so as to leave a tooth which fitted snugly into the notch of the first washer (see figs. 188, 189). the door was locked by turning both the washers until the notch and tooth came in line with each other, then pushing the tooth through the notch, and turning the washers so that the frame washer hooked over the door washer. then the door could be opened only when the tooth and notch were brought in line. on the head of each spool we pasted a disk of white cardboard, the edge of which was graduated, as in fig. 190. then we had a secret combination, say 11-19, which meant that when the spools were turned so that the number 11 on the door spool came in line with the number 19 on the frame spool the tooth and notch would be in line, and the door could then be opened. of course, this combination was known to the members of the club only, and any one outside who tried to open the door might have tried for some time without bringing the tooth and notch into line with each other. occasionally we changed the combination by loosening the screws which held the washers, and turning them so that the notch and tooth came opposite different numbers on the dials. this was done so that if any one should chance to learn our combination he could not make use of it very long. chapter xvi. scooters. "hello, dutchy! what in thunder have you got there?" it was bill who spoke. we were on our way home for the winter holidays, and had been held up at millville by reddy schreiner, who had informed us that dutchy was down by the river with the boat to give us a sail up to lamington. a vision of a fleet ice boat skimming up the river at express train speed swam before our eyes. but the next moment, as we turned the corner into river street, we were surprised by the sight of our old scow just off the pier at anchor, and in open water. it was rigged up with a jib and mainsail, which were flapping idly in the wind. it had also been altered by decking over the top, with the exception of a small cockpit, evidently for the purpose of keeping out the water when she heeled over under the wind. we were disappointed and quite annoyed at not finding the ice boat on hand; furthermore, our annoyance was considerably heightened by dutchy's broad grin of evident delight at our discomfiture. "the river wasn't all frozen over," he explained, "and we couldn't bring the ice boat down, so we rigged up the scow and she came down splendidly." a sail in the scow. there was nothing to do but to jump in, though i, for one, would have taken the train in preference had there been one inside of two hours. dutchy, however, seemed to be in a surprisingly good humor, and kept up a lively chatter about things that the club had made in our absence. the skis, which have already been described on page 42, had been built under reddy's guidance, and they had already used them on willard's hill, coasting down like a streak and shooting way up into the air off a hump at the bottom. then there was the toboggan slide down randall's hill, and way across the river on the ice. our craft strikes the ice. dutchy talked so incessantly that we hadn't noticed the field of ice which we were nearing. just at this point bill turned around with an exclamation. "here, dutchy, you crazy fellow, where are you going to? hard to port, man--hard aport--or you will crash into the ice!" but dutchy only grinned nervously. "i tell you, you will smash the boat!" bill cried again, making a dive for the steering oar; but just then the boat struck the ice, and both bill and i were thrown backward into the bottom of the boat. but the boat didn't smash. [illustration: a sail on the scooter scow.] there was a momentary grinding and crunching noise, and, much to my surprise, i found that the old scow had lifted itself clean out of the water, and was skating right along on the ice. then dutchy could control himself no longer. he laughed, and laughed, as if he never would stop. he laughed until the steering oar dropped from his hands, and the old scow, with the head free, swung around and plunged off the ice ledge with a heavy splash into the open water again. then reddy, who was almost equally convulsed, came to his senses. "now you've done it, dutchy; you're a fine skipper, you are! how do you expect to get us back to shore again?" the steering oar was left behind us on the ice, and there we were drifting on the open water, with no rudder and no oar to bring us back. the scooter scow. [illustration: fig. 191. scow with runners nailed on.] the only thing we could do was to wait until the wind or current carried us to the ice or land. in the meantime dutchy, who had suddenly sobered down when we took our water plunge, explained how he had rigged up the scow to travel both on ice and on water. he called the rig a sled boat, but the name by which such a rig is now known is a "scooter." it was dutchy's idea primarily, but reddy had engineered the work. along the bottom of the scow two strips of hickory had been nailed to serve as runners. the hickory strips had been bent up at the forward end, as shown in fig. 191. each runner was shod with a strip of brass, fastened on with flathead screws, which were countersunk, so that the heads should not project below the brass. this virtually made a sledge out of the old scow, and didn't spoil it for use on the water. a sprit sail. [illustration: fig. 192. mainsail of scooter scow.] [illustration: fig. 193. the snotter.] [illustration: fig. 194. jib-sail of scooter scow.] a sprit sail and jib were rigged up. the dimensions of these sails, which were taken from a book in mr. van syckel's library, are given in the illustrations. a sheet of heavy muslin was made to measure 7 feet square, as indicated by dotted lines in the drawing; then the corners were cut off along the full lines shown in the illustration. the edges were now hemmed all around, and the lower edge of the sail was lashed to a boom, 7 feet 6 inches long. to the luff were attached a number of mast rings, which were slipped over a stout mast projecting about 5 feet 6 inches above the deck of the boat. the peak of the sail was held up by a spar called a sprit. the sprit was sharpened at each end, and the point at the upper end was inserted in a loop of heavy cord fastened to the peak of the sail, while the lower point of the sprit rested in the loop of a rope on the mast, called a "snotter." the snotter was a short piece of rope with a loop at each end. it was wrapped around the mast, as shown in the drawing, with one loop holding it in place, like a slip knot, and the other supporting the end of the sprit. a single halyard was used to raise this sail. it was attached to the boat and passed over a block in the mast. when raising the sail it was first partly hoisted, then the sprit was hooked in the loop and the snotter, after which the throat halyard was drawn taut. then the snotter was pulled up the mast as far as it would go, flattening out the sail. the jib-sail was made out of the large corner piece left when cutting the mainsail. the dimensions of the jib-sail are given in fig. 194. it was such a small sail that no boom was used with it. in place of a rudder the steering oar had to be used. this was made of a rake handle with a large trowel blade fastened to the end of it. the sharp blade cut into the ice, and so steered the scow when it was running as an ice boat, and in the water the blade offered sufficient resistance to act as a rudder. scooter sailing. but to return to our sail home to lamington, we were not out on the open water long before the current carried us back to the ice ledge. reddy jumped off and soon returned with the steering oar; then we proceeded on our way homeward, now in the water and now on ice. once or twice the scow was unable to climb out of the water, because she had not sufficient headway, and was clumsy and heavy with four boys aboard. then we had to push off until we could get a sufficient start. it struck me that while dutchy was quite clever to think of such a rig, yet it was very clumsy and capable of much improvement. bill wasn't saying very much all this time, and i could see he was doing a lot of thinking. evidently he was planning some improvement, but bill was a very considerate fellow, and did not want to spoil dutchy's pleasure just then by telling him how much better a scooter he might have built. it wasn't until after supper, when a meeting of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i. was called, that bill came out with his scheme. a meeting of the society. "why not mount the sailing canoe on runners, instead of the scow? you would have a very light rig then, and it would sail like a streak." "mr. president," said reddy, "your plan sounds first-rate, but how are you going to fasten runners onto the canoe?" "i've thought all that out," replied bill. "if we can only get hold of a pair of sleigh runners it won't take long to rig up the sled boat." dutchy, who had looked rather crestfallen at a suggestion of an improvement on his pet invention, now suddenly brightened up. "i know where we can get the sleigh runners!" he exclaimed. "dad has an old ramshackle sleigh in the barn that is just falling to pieces with dry rot. i'll ask him for it to-night." "do you think you can get it?" inquired bill. "i guess so," dutchy answered, rather doubtfully. "but say, suppose we send a delegation to see him about it?" an interview with mr. van syckel. this was agreed upon, and in the morning, as soon as breakfast had been downed, the entire society marched in a body into mr. van syckel's library. i was appointed spokesman, with bill to back me, while the rest of the party were strung out behind, with dutchy bringing up the rear. mr. van syckel was not the man to take much interest in boys' work, but we happened to strike him at the right moment, and before our interview was over we had told him all our experiences of the summer before and all our plans for the future. then we did a good turn for dutchy, too. mr. van syckel had always considered his boy a "know-nothing," and was very much surprised to find that he had invented the scooter scow. why, he actually seemed proud of his son, much to dutchy's embarrassment. after that there was no trouble about getting the sleigh runners, and mr. van syckel forgot the objections he had offered at first. the scooter canoe. [illustration: fig. 195. runners of scooter canoe.] naturally we were very much elated at our success, and straightway made for the barn, where we began operations on the scooter canoe. the sleigh was an old-fashioned affair, with rather broad wooden runners. first we removed the body of the sleigh, and then the runners were cut down to a height of about 15 inches. we spaced them apart about 28 inches, and connected them with four crosspieces at the top. the runners were now placed over our larger canoe, with forward ends about on a line with the mast, and the crosspieces were fastened with screws to the gunwales. as an additional security, a pair of crosspieces were now run under the canoe at each end and fastened with screws to the keel. at the bow the keel was shod with a strip of brass. the rudder was taken off the boat, and an oar lock was fastened to the stern to hold the steering oar. in place of lee boards we nailed a couple of thin boards over each runner, as shown in the drawing. we were in a hurry to finish this, as our vacation was short, so we used on the scooter canoe the sails that we had made for our ice boat. this required a bowsprit, but as we had little time to spare we used the jib-boom of the ice boat, nailing it to the deck beam of the canoe. we decided that the jib-sail could be used without a boom, as we had done with the scow. the mast was braced by stays attached to the ends of the runners and bowsprit. this spread of canvas was far greater than that originally provided for sailing the canoe, but the heavy runners on each side helped to keep the boat on even keel, and then to further balance the sail a board was nailed across the aft end of the boat. this overhung the runners about 18 inches each side, and in a strong wind we could sit out on the windward end of this board, thus preventing the scooter from heeling over too far. [illustration: fig. 196. the scooter canoe.] chapter xvii. an arctic expedition. as soon as our scooter canoe was completed we prepared for the long-planned winter expedition to willow clump island. the weather conditions were ideal. we had had ten days of steady cold weather, which had followed a heavy fall of snow, so that we could tramp up the island on snow shoes, or we could use our scooter canoe and scooter scow on the river. it was out of the question to use our skate sails or the ice boat on the river, and the canal would be serviceable only in case the wind should blow from a southerly quarter. but we stowed them on the sledge for use on lake placid. on the tuesday morning following christmas we made the start. bill in the scooter canoe and dutchy in the scooter scow sailed up the river, and the rest of us, on snow shoes, took the tow path of the canal, hauling the sledge along. we carried provisions for a week and a good supply of blankets. the island was reached without mishap, except that dutchy had to be helped several times in dragging the heavy scow around the rapids. bill reached the island long before we did, and after unloading the canoe came racing back under a stiff breeze for a second load. then he took his turn at hauling the sledge, while reddy sailed the reloaded scooter canoe up to the island. willow clump island in winter. we brought no tent with us, as we expected to take up our quarters in the straw hut. when we reached the hut we hardly recognized it. it was almost completely covered with snow and looked like an eskimo house. the snow had drifted well up over the north side, completely closing the entrance. we had to set to work at once with a shovel and open up a passageway, and then we had to shovel out a large pile of snow that had drifted into the hut from the open doorway. kindling a camp fire. in the meantime jack scoured the island for some dry wood. in this he was not very successful, because everything was covered with snow, and when he tried to kindle a fire in the open space in front of our hut he found the task an exceedingly difficult one. unfortunately we forgot to bring the oil stove with us, and the prospect of something warm to eat was exceedingly remote. we hadn't yet learned the trick of building a camp fire in wet weather. after exhausting our stock of paper fred and i started over to lumberville for several newspapers and a can of kerosene. we went to old jim halliday's, who had befriended us on one or two occasions the previous summer, and made known to him our troubles. "what! a can of oil to build yer fire with? well, ye won't git it from me. i know a man as got blowed up apourin' oil on a fire. why, shucks, boys, you don't need no oil ner paper nuther on that there island. its chuck-full of silver birch trees, and there ain't no better kindlin' than birch bark." birch bark! why, yes, why hadn't we thought of that? we had used it for torches the summer before and knew how nicely it burned. so back we skated to camp, and then, peeling off a large quantity of bark from the birch trees around us, we soon had a rousing big fire in front of the hut. the outdoor fireplace. [illustration: fig. 197. an outdoor cooking fire.] but there were more things to be learned about open fires. in our summer outing jack had done most of his cooking on a kerosene stove, and he soon found that it was a very different matter to cook over an unsheltered fire. the heat was constantly carried hither and thither by the gusts of wind, so that he could scarcely warm up his saucepans. we had to content ourselves with cold victuals for the first meal, but before the next meal time came around we had learned a little more about fire building. two large logs were placed about 10 inches apart, and the space between them was filled in with pieces of bark and small twigs and sticks. the back of the fireplace was closed with stones. one touch of a match was enough to kindle the fire, and in a moment it blazed up beautifully. the logs at the sides and the stones at the back prevented the wind from scattering the flames in all directions, and a steady draft poured through the open end of the fireplace and up through the heart of the fire. the side logs were so close together that our cooking utensils could be supported directly on them. a stone-paved fireplace. [illustration: fig. 198. a stone-paved fireplace.] the following summer we continued our open fireplace experiments. instead of using logs we drove stakes into the ground, forming a small circular stockade about 2 feet high and 3 feet in diameter. a paving of small stones covered the floor of the fireplace, and a lining of stones was laid against the wall. the stakes were driven in on a slant, as illustrated in fig. 198, so as to better support the stone lining. a break in the stockade at one side let in the necessary draft. two of the stakes on opposite sides of the fire were made extra long, and were crotched at their upper ends. they served to support the cross stick from which our kettles were hung. this form of fireplace was more satisfactory for baking than the one in which logs were used for the side walls, because the stone lining retained the heat much longer. to bake biscuit, a pot of beans, or the like, the ashes would be drawn away from the stone paving and the pot placed directly on the hot stones, after which it was covered with hot embers and ashes. a cold night in the hut. but to return to our experiences on the island. we found it very cold on the first night in the hut. we were afraid to build a fire inside lest the straw thatchings would catch fire, and so we huddled together in the corner, rolled up tightly in our blankets. but it was cold, nevertheless. we had no door to close the opening into the hut, and instead had piled up branches of cedar and hemlock against the doorway. but a bitterly cold northwest wind was blowing down the river, and we couldn't keep warm, no matter what we did. most of the boys were ready to go right home, but we stuck it out until the morning, and then after we had toasted ourselves before a blazing bright fire, and had eaten a hot breakfast, we forgot much of the discomfort of the night and were ready for more "fun." we thought we would spend the next night in our tree house, and so, right after breakfast, we packed up our blankets and some provisions and started for the jacob's ladder. mountain climbing. each fellow was provided with a pair of ice creepers of the same sort as we had used in connection with the rennwolf (see page 170). in addition to this each boy was provided with a home-made alpine stock, consisting of a stout wooden stick in the end of which a large nail was driven and the head filed off. thus equipped we came to the foot of the cliff, and much to our delight found it one mass of ice from top to bottom. now was our chance to try some swiss mountain climbing. bill took the lead, with an old hatchet in his hand, to hack out any necessary footholds in the ice wall, and the rest of us strung out behind him tied to a long rope, each boy about 10 or 12 feet from the one ahead. bill cautioned us to keep our distance, holding the rope taut in one hand, so that if a fellow stumbled he could be kept from falling either by the one in front or by the one behind. "besides," he said, "if the rope drags on the ice, it is liable to be cut or worn so that it will break when any strain was put on it." now, one would think from all these precautions that we were launched on a perilous expedition. that was the impression we were trying to make on ourselves, though, as a matter of fact, any one of us could have climbed the cliff unaided and without any ice implements if he had used ordinary care not to slip on the ice-clad ladder rounds or the snow-covered ledges. [illustration: fig. 199. winter expedition to the goblins' platform.] a poor shelter. the climb was without mishap and we reached our tree house, only to find it so badly racked by storm and weather that it was clearly out of the question to attempt to spend the night there. the wind howled around the house and whistled through dozens of cracks and chinks that had opened in the walls. all that we could do, therefore, was to turn back to the island and make the best of our straw hut again. on the way, however, we stopped at lumberville for some straw to be used for bedding. the afternoon was spent sailing around on lake placid and the large smooth stretch above the island. a costly camp fire. after supper bill and reddy went into the hut to arrange the straw bedding, while the rest of us gathered wood for a huge bonfire in front of the hut. the wind was blowing right down the river and we expected it to carry the warmth of the fire into the hut. the fire was built some distance in front of the doorway, so as to prevent the hut from catching fire. but we had evidently miscalculated the strength of the wind, for no sooner was the fire fairly started than a shower of flaming brands was blown right into the hut. in a moment the straw blazed up, cutting off all escape for bill and reddy. fortunately the framing was not strong and the frost had loosened up the foundations, so that a few frantic kicks opened an exit in the rear of the hut just in time to save our comrades from cremation. once it was fairly started we were powerless to put out the blaze until the hut was ruined. the snow that covered the walls checked the fire somewhat, but the thatching burned from the inside, melting the snow and dropping it suddenly into the flaming straw bedding on the floor. as we sat in a gloomy ring about the camp fire, watching the tongues of flame play about the charred ribs of our hut, we had reason to be thankful that the wind had played its pranks before we turned in for the night. what a risk we had run of being all burned to death! it made me shudder to think of it. well, our hut was burned. what next? that was the question put before the society. [illustration: bill gets tangled up with his skis.] [illustration: warming the lunch on a cold day.] "might build a snow hut," suggested dutchy. "now, be sensible," answered reddy. "we can't build a snow hut in five minutes." "the best plan," i volunteered, "would be to go over to jim halliday's and ask him to let us sleep in his barn." immediately the suggestion was acted upon. a friend in time of trouble. old jim halliday greeted us very gruffly. he said he wouldn't have us in his barn. "you'll be amussin' up the hay so't wouldn't be fit fer the horses to eat. any boy that is fool enough to build a fire on a straw bed ought to go right home to his mother, and he hadn't oughter be trusted with matches, nuther. he might get his fingers burned." but i caught a twinkle in the old man's eyes and wasn't surprised to have him end his lecture by taking us into the kitchen and seating us around an old-fashioned log fire while "marthy," his daughter, made us some hot coffee to take the chill out of our bones. we didn't sleep in the barn that night. the hallidays had only one spare bed, hardly enough for six boys, and the old man didn't want to be partial to any two of us, but his daughter solved the difficulty by dragging down two large feather mattresses and laying them on the kitchen floor in front of the hearth. before bidding us "good night," mr. halliday put on his sternest expression and bade marthy clear out all the matches from the room. "jest as like as not they'll set fire to the house," he growled. "i expect this is my last night on airth." and then, with a solemn warning not to hang our clothes on the flames, and to "keep them feather beds offen the embers," he left us to a comfortable night's rest. in the morning, after we had disposed of all the hot griddle cakes we could eat, and had sincerely thanked our host and hostess for their hospitality, we wended our way back to the island, silently packed up our goods and started home for lamington. "well, this isn't going to happen again," was bill's comment. "next year we'll have a log cabin on the island." [illustration: fast asleep in a sleeping bag.] [illustration: how the pack harness was worn.] chapter xviii. tramping outfits. our winter expedition to willow clump island filled us with a wholesome respect for arctic explorers. if we could find it so uncomfortable with the thermometer only at 10 degrees above zero, what would it be to endure a temperature of 40, 50 or even 60 degrees below zero? we were interested to learn how they managed to stand it. this led to a study of the subject in mr. van syckel's library. sleeping bags. in one of the books dutchy came across the description of a sleeping bag. it was made of reindeer's skin sewed into a large bag with the fur side turned in. this bag was large enough to hold three or four sleepers, and each man was covered with a pair of woolen bags, one bag slipped inside the other. the woolen bags were made of blankets sewed together and provided with flaps at the upper ends to cover the head of the sleeper. of course, we had to make a sleeping bag, too. the innermost bag was made of an old quilt and the next one of a blanket that we were fortunate enough to get hold of. but when it came to the reindeer skin we were balked, until we happened to run across a piece of rubber sheeting at the village store. this was a lucky find, for i doubt if one country store in a hundred carries such stock. the piece was just large enough to cover the blanket bag and allow for an ample flap to cover the head. to be sure, this furnished a shelter for only one person, and there were six in the society. it was clear that the treasury could not afford the expense of six sleeping bags; but as such a device would be useful only under very unusual circumstances we decided that two sleeping bags would be all the society would need. we had been rather curious to explore the country back of the hills on the pennsylvania side of the river, and with some light provisions and these sleeping bags strapped to the back a couple of boys could make quite an extended tour, unmindful of weather conditions. on real hot nights a fellow could get into the quilt bag and sleep on the blanket and waterproof bag. in cold weather the combination of all three bags provided sufficient warmth. the rubber bag would protect the sleeper from any moisture in the ground, and would also keep him thoroughly dry, even in a pouring rain. bill's "mummy case." [illustration: fig. 200. bottom piece of sleeping bag.] [illustration: fig. 201. top piece of sleeping bag.] [illustration: fig. 202. headboards.] our second sleeping bag was bill's own design, and was, in many respects, an improvement on the first, though it looked ridiculously like an egyptian mummy case. the inner bags were just like those of the first sleeping bag, but as there was no more rubber sheeting in town we had to make the outer bag of enameled cloth, such as is used for carriage curtains. out of this cloth bill cut a piece of the shape shown in fig. 200 to serve as bottom, sides and ends of the sleeping bag. the bag was sewed wrong side out; that is, the piece was laid with enameled side up, and then the corners were sewed together after painting the seams with white lead. then a top piece was cut out, of the size indicated in fig. 201. the edges were hemmed over a piece of rope, which thus formed a corded edge. now, with the enameled side of the cover piece turned inward, its edges were sewed to the edges of the first piece. the bag was now turned inside out, so that the enameled surface lay on the outside and the seams turned inward. the corded edge on the cover piece lapped over the sides, forming a watershed. [illustration: fig. 203. the mummy case.] [illustration: fig. 204. sleeping bag in use.] it was bill's idea to rig up the flap in such a manner that it would not lie against the face, so that the sleeper could have plenty of fresh air, even in rainy weather. this required the use of two headboards, of the form shown in fig. 202. the headboards were connected at the bottom by a thin board, and to this framework the sides of the bag were nailed. to the end flap several cleats were nailed, adapted to fit into notches cut in the headboards. the cleat at the end of the flap was laid on edge, as shown, and fitted into deep notches in the headboards just above the edge of the cover piece. this held the flap securely, preventing it from flying open in a heavy wind. at the same time the small space between the flap and the cover piece allowed for an ample supply of fresh air. when using this sleeping bag, if there was any indication of a shower, we took care to have the head pointed to windward so as to prevent entrance of rain through this air space. the "a" tent. [illustration: fig. 205. the "a" tent.] in connection with the sleeping bags it may be well to describe here a curious shelter dutchy and i came across in one of our tramps. it was just about dusk one day when we discovered a temporary camp at which a couple of men were preparing dinner. they informed us that they were naturalists on a two weeks' outing. at their invitation we joined camp with them. they had a small "a" tent of balloon silk, under which they kept their provisions. the tent had no ridge pole, but was supported instead by a rope stretched between two trees (see fig. 205). a camp chair. [illustration: fig. 206. the camp chair.] [illustration: fig. 207. pockets in the canvas back.] the camp was also furnished with an easy canvas chair, made by driving a couple of short posts in the ground for front legs and a pair of longer ones for the back. a piece of canvas was hung over these posts, forming both seat and back. the posts were driven into the ground on a slant, as illustrated in fig. 206, and the canvas was formed with pockets at the corners which were hooked over these posts. this made a very comfortable chair, though, of course, it was fixed to one spot. when the men moved camp they would carry with them only the canvas piece, and at the next stopping place new posts were chopped and used for legs. [illustration: waiting for a bite.] [illustration: temporary shelter under an "a" tent.] the camp bed. [illustration: fig. 208. canvas bed.] but what interested us most was the form of bed they had. this, like the chair, consisted of a piece of canvas arranged to be supported on posts cut from the woods in the neighborhood of the camp. the canvas piece was 3 feet wide and 6 feet long, with a wide hem at each side, forming pockets through which poles were passed, as in a stretcher. the ends of the poles were supported on posts driven into the ground. the poles were also propped up at the center, as shown, the pockets being cut away and bound, so as not to permit any wear on the canvas. to prevent the posts from leaning inward under the weight of the sleeper, they were braced apart by cross sticks. [illustration: fig. 209. bed set up on posts.] the camp bed in a shower. [illustration: fig. 210. a poncho.] [illustration: fig. 211. camp bed in the rain.] [illustration: fig. 212. umbrella with fly.] as a precaution against rain, a tall post was set up at the head and another at the foot of the bed, and a rope was stretched over the posts with the ends fastened to stakes driven into the ground. over this rope a rubber "poncho" was laid to keep off the rain. a "poncho," by the way, is a blanket of rubber cloth about 4-1/2 feet wide and 6 feet long, in the center of which is a slit through which you can put your head; then the rubber cloth falls over you like a cape, as in fig. 210, and makes a perfect protection against rain. the ponchos these men had were not quite long enough to cover the whole bed, so they fastened umbrellas to the head posts, as shown in fig. 212. during a shower in the woods the rain comes straight down in large drops, caused by the water collecting on the leaves. to prevent these large drops from splashing through the umbrellas, they laid pieces of cloth over the umbrellas, which served, like the fly of a tent, to check the fall of rain drops. a nightmare. i slept in the mummy case that night and dutchy in the first sleeping bag. it must have been about midnight when i was awakened by a most unearthly yell. it sent the cold chills running up and down my back. a second scream brought me into action, and i struggled to throw back the head flap, which had become caught. it seemed an age before i could open it and wriggle out of the bag. dutchy was sitting up in bed with a look of horror on his face, and his whole body was in a tremor of fear. one of the men dashed a glass of water in his face, which brought him back to his senses. it was only a nightmare, we found. dutchy dreamed he had been injured in a railway accident and had been taken for dead to the morgue. he tried to let them know that he was alive, but couldn't utter a sound, until finally he burst out with the yells that roused the camp. then, as he awoke with the horror of the dream still on him, his eyes fell on the two stretcher beds that looked like biers and the black coffin-like sleeping bag. it was not much wonder that dutchy was frightened. the camp did certainly have a most ghastly appearance in the vague moonlight that filtered through the trees, and it must have been still more gruesome to see the coffin and biers suddenly burst open and the corpses come running toward him. to prevent any further nightmare we set dutchy's sleeping bag under the "a" tent, where he would be saved the horror of again waking up in a morgue. pack harness. [illustration: fig. 213. pack harness.] in the morning our friends broke camp and started westward. dutchy and i watched them packing up their goods into a couple of very compact bundles, which they strapped to their backs with a peculiar pack harness. i took careful note of the way the harness was put together, and when we returned to the island we made two sets for use on our tramping expeditions. a canvas yoke was first cut out to the form shown in fig. 213. we used two thicknesses of the heaviest brown canvas we could find, binding the two pieces together with tape. the yoke was padded with cotton at the shoulders and a strap was fastened to each shoulder piece. these were arranged to be buckled to a pair of straps fastened to the back of the yoke and passing under the arms. riveted to these straps were a pair of straps used for fastening on the pack. the yoke straps were attached with the rough side against the yoke, while the pack straps were riveted on with the rough side uppermost, as indicated in the drawing. riveting. [illustration: fig. 214. riveting the straps together.] the method of riveting together the leather straps may need a word of explanation. a copper rivet was passed through a hole in the two straps; then the washer was slipped over the projecting end of the rivet. this washer had to be jammed down tight against the leather, and to do this we drilled a hole of the diameter of the rivet in a block of wood, and putting this block over the washer, with the end of the rivet projecting into the hole, we hammered the block until the washer was forced down tight against the leather. then taking a light tack hammer we battered down the end of the rivet onto the washer. care was taken to do this hammering very lightly, otherwise the end would have been bent over instead of being flattened. chapter xix. the land yacht. only one thing of importance occurred between our christmas holidays and eastertide: this was bill's invention of the tricycle sailboat or land yacht. we had returned to school with sailing on the brain. our skate sail served us well enough while there was any ice, but as spring came on we wished we had our canoe with us, or even the old scow to sail on the lakes near the school. once we seriously considered building a sailboat, but the project was given up, as we had few facilities for such work. but bill wasn't easily baffled, and i wasn't surprised to have him come tearing into the room one day, yelling, "i've got it! i've got it!" in his hands were two bicycle wheels, which i recognized as belonging to a couple of bicycles we had discarded the year before. "what are you going to do with them?" i inquired. "i'm going to make a tricycle sailboat." "what?" "a tricycle sailboat, a land boat, or anything you've a mind to call it. i mean a boat just like our ice boat only on bicycle wheels instead of skates. we can sail all over south jersey on the thing. come on down and help me build it." the frame of the yacht. [illustration: fig. 215. the backbone and crosspiece.] i followed him to the shed at the back of the school and found that he had already procured a couple of scantlings for the frame of the boat. the sticks were 2 inches thick and 4 inches wide. the backbone was cut to a length of 10 feet, and a 5-foot link was sawed off for the crosspiece. the two pieces were securely nailed together about 3 feet from the forward end of the backbone. the crosspiece was set on edge, but a notch was cut in it about 1 inch deep to receive the backbone. we might have braced the frame with wooden braces, as in the ice boat, but we thought that this time we would vary the design by using wire bracing instead, thus making the frame much lighter. i asked bill how he proposed to tighten the wire. turnbuckles were the thing, but i knew that they were rather expensive. "just you leave that to me," said bill. "i've a scheme that i think will work out all right." a simple turnbuckle. [illustration: fig. 216. an eye bolt.] [illustration: fig. 217. stretching the guy lines.] at the hardware store of the town we bought a pound of no. 16 iron wire, eight large screw eyes and six eye bolts, with nuts and washers. both the screw eyes and eye bolts had welded eyes and the shanks of the eye bolts were 6 inches long. a pair of screw eyes were now threaded into the backbone at each side about 18 inches from the end, and at each end of the crosspieces an eye bolt was fastened. i began to see bill's plan. he was going to draw the wire taut by tightening up the nuts on the eye bolts. to get the best effect the hole for the eye bolt had to be drilled in on a slant, so that the bolt would pull directly in the line of the wire. to get just the right angle we ran a cord from the screw eye on one side to the point where the bolt was to be inserted, and traced its direction on the crosspiece. the hole for the eye bolt was now drilled parallel with the mark we had traced. the same was done at the other end of the crosspiece. a pair of screw eyes were now screwed into the backbone at the fore end and a pair of eye bolts were set at a corresponding angle in the ends of the crosspiece. the crosspiece was notched at each side so that the nuts and washers on the eye bolts would have a square seating. then we stretched on the wire guy lines, drawing them as tight as possible, with the eye bolts held in place by a turn or two of the nuts, after which we screwed up the nuts as far as we could, thus drawing up the wire until it was very taut. this done the second nut was threaded onto each bolt against the first so as to lock it in place and prevent it from jarring loose. stepping the mast. [illustration: fig. 218 the frame with wire braces.] our next task was to step the mast. we found in the shed an old flagstaff 15 feet long and 3 inches in diameter. the lower end of this, for about a foot, we whittled down to a diameter of 2 inches, and drove it into a hole in the backbone 12 inches from the forward end. the mast was stayed by a wire stretched from the head to an eye bolt at the fore end of the backbone. the end of the mast which projected below the backbone was stayed with wire running forward to an eye bolt and aft to a screw eye on the backbone, and also with a pair of wires running to screw eyes threaded into the crosspiece near the ends. we couldn't very well use eye bolts on these wires except at the fore end, but we stretched the wires as tight as possible before the screw eyes were screwed all the way in, and then, as we turned the screw eyes, the wire was wound up on them and drawn fairly taut. fig. 219 shows a side view of the frame, and wires marked 1 and 2 are the same as illustrated in fig. 218, which is a top or plan view of the frame. mounting the frame on bicycle wheels. [illustration: fig. 219. bracing the mast.] we were now ready to mount the frame on the bicycle wheels. we used only the front wheels of the bicycles with the forks in which they were journaled. the shanks at the top of the forks were firmly driven into holes in the crosspiece near the ends. for the steering wheel bill took the front fork and wheel of his new bicycle, letting the shank into a hole at the stern end of the backbone. the tiller. [illustration: fig. 220. the tiller.] [illustration: fig. 221. the seat.] for a tiller we used a piece of an old rake handle. a small hole was first drilled into the handle and the end of the stick was then split through the hole, permitting the projecting shank of the fork to be driven tightly into the hole. the split wood was now tightly closed onto the shank by means of a bolt (see fig. 220). in the rubbish heap we found an old chair. the legs were sawed off and the seat was then firmly nailed to the backbone. the back of the chair was cut down so that it just cleared the tiller. a "leg-of-mutton" sail. [illustration: fig. 222. leg-of-mutton sail.] [illustration: fig. 223. the sailor's stitch.] [illustration: fig. 224. laying out the sail.] everything was now completed but the sail. this was a triangular or "leg-of-mutton" affair, of the dimensions given in fig. 222. it was made of light canvas, 30 inches wide, of which we bought 14 yards. out of this we took one strip 18 feet long, one 13 feet, one 8 feet, and one 3 feet long. we had no sewing machine, and therefore had to sew the strips together by hand. the selvedge edges of the strips were lapped over each other about an inch and then they were sewed together sailor fashion, that is, each edge was hemmed down, as shown in fig. 223. the strips were sewed together so that at the foot each projected at least 21 inches below the next shorter one. this done, the sail was cut to the dimensions given, allowing 1-1/2 inches all around for the hem. the hem was turned over a light rope, forming a strong corded edge. at the clew, tack and head loops were formed in the rope which projected from the canvas, and at intervals along the foot the canvas was cut away, exposing the rope so that the sail could be laced to the boom, as illustrated. the boom was a pole 11 feet long attached to the mast by means of a screw hook threaded into the end of the boom and hooked into a screw eye on the mast, after which the screw hook was hammered so it would close over the screw eye to keep it from slipping off. the sail was raised by a halyard passing over a block at the top of the mast. the sheet was fastened near the end of the boom, passed through a block on the backbone, back of the tiller, and through another block on the boom, and was led to a cleat within easy reach of the chair seat. a sail through the country. [illustration: fig. 225. a sail on the land yacht.] our land yacht proved to be quite a successful craft in the flat country around the school. of course, we could not sail everywhere; a country road is too narrow for any tacking when it comes to sailing against the wind. we hadn't thought of that when we made our trial trip. a strong east wind was blowing and so we ventured forth on a road that led due west from our school. off we sped before the wind for two miles, until we came to a sharp turn in the road. then we began to think of turning homeward. but this was a very different proposition. the wind was dead against us and to try to tack from side to side of the road was useless, because we would hardly get under way on one tack before we had to swing around on the other tack, losing all our momentum. it ended up by our lowering sail and ignominiously trundling the yacht back to school. after that we carefully selected our course, and never sailed away from home before the wind unless we knew of a roundabout way that would lead us back to port on a couple of reaches (long tacks). chapter xx. easter vacation. just before easter that year bill's aunt dorothy invited him to spend eastertide with her and bring along his roommate. i accepted the invitation with alacrity. bill had once spent a whole summer at his aunt's home, and when we arrived there he had many old haunts to visit. we spent the first day rambling through the woods, in the hills and back of the house. bill's cave. he introduced me to a cave which he believed was known to only two other boys, both of whom had since moved to new york city. the mouth of the cave was almost closed by a large boulder that had lodged in front of it. we had to climb to the top of this rock, and then letting ourselves down with a rope we slid down the sloping rear face of the boulder into a crevice in the rocks. then after squirming under a ledge we emerged into a large chamber, which appeared to be as dark as night after our sudden entrance from the outer light. [illustration: fig 226. sliding down into the cave.] bill lighted a candle which projected from a chink in the wall. by its light i saw that there was a pool in the center of the cave fed from a spring at one point. from the pool the water trickled off into a tiny stream to the mouth of the cave, where it was lost in a crack in the rocks. the water was ice cold and clear as crystal. around the pool were several chairs and a table made by bill and his two friends. that was evidently where bill had gotten his idea of a subterranean club. the barrel stave hammock. [illustration: fig. 227. the barrel stave hammock.] [illustration: fig. 228. tying the staves together.] hanging between a couple of projecting rocks was a hammock made of barrel staves. the hammock was a very simple affair, made by drilling a 1-inch hole in each end of each barrel stave. the staves were then connected by two ropes on each side, woven alternately in and out through these holes, that is, one rope would be passed down through one stave, up through the next, down through the third, etc., and through the same holes another rope would be threaded in and out but in the opposite direction. the end staves of the hammock were provided with double holes, as shown in fig. 228, so as to make them lie flat, then the ropes were threaded through them. the barrel armchair. [illustration: fig. 229. the armchair frame.] [illustration: fig. 230. casters on the chair.] [illustration: fig. 231. tacking on the straw sandwiches.] [illustration: fig. 232. the barrel armchair.] aside from the hammock and the rustic furniture there was a fine armchair, made from a barrel that had been sawed off, as in fig. 229, to form the arms and back. the barrel was raised from the ground by setting it on a couple of boards arranged in the form of a v. then a caster was fastened to the point of the v and another at each end, making a three-legged chair of it. the chair was upholstered with ticking stuffed with straw. first a piece of ticking large enough for the back was laid on the ground and covered over with an even layer of straw. over the straw a second piece of ticking was laid, making what bill called a "straw sandwich." this was nailed to the chair back along the edge and at the bottom, drawing the cloth as taut as possible. to make a better finish for the chair, the ticking was covered with dark red denim. then strips of braid were laid on the chair back, crossing each other like a lattice. at the crossing points of the braid brass-headed tacks were nailed right through the sandwich into the wood, producing the padded upholstered effect. next a long, thin sandwich was made to run along the edge of the back, and another one to run around the chair just below the seat, also a couple of small sandwiches to cover the legs and the brackets leading to them. these were all covered with denim before being tacked to the chair and then they were bound with tape at intervals to produce the padded effect. the rest of the woodwork was covered with denim, and a neat ruffle made by aunt dorothy hung about the bottom of the chair. a thick, round sandwich was now made to cover the seat board. this was also given a padded effect by binding it with tape. the seat board was not nailed to the chair, but rested on four cleats nailed to the barrel on the inside. when the seat was lifted out it uncovered a shallow chest in which various things could be stored. the summer toboggan. [illustration: fig. 233. the summer toboggan.] bill informed me that he and his two chums used to spend hot summer afternoons in this cool place whittling out various ornaments and making furniture for the cave. in one corner were a number of home-made amusement devices, one of which struck me as rather odd. it consisted of a pair of large barrel staves, hollow side up and connected with two short boards, as in fig. 233. bill said it was a summer toboggan, to be used on grass instead of snow. i had never heard of such an affair, and, of course, had to have a demonstration. bill went to the top of the hill and from there coasted down the grassy slope in fine style. tailless kites. "there's a better place over on the other side of the hill," he said, and led the way to his favorite coasting spot. but here our attention was diverted from coasting by the curious sight of a full-grown man flying a kite. we found out afterward that he was a professor keeler, who had made a great scientific study of kites. professor keeler was very affable, and we soon got acquainted with him. his kite was way up in the air, almost out of sight, and was pulling like everything. neither bill nor i could hold it long. but the most remarkable part of it all to me was the fact that the kite had no tail. i had heard of tailless kites made like a box, but this one appeared to be very much like the kites i had made in my younger days, and i well knew the importance of a long tail to keep such a kite steady. we asked the professor about it, and were informed that this kite was of the malay type, which is so designed that the cloth bellies out into pockets on each side of the central stick or backbone, and these pockets balance the kite while the backbone acts as a rudder. finding that we were interested in the subject he gave us full instructions for making kites from 5 to 8 feet long, and these i jotted down for future use. in a 5-foot kite he said the stick should be 3/8 inch thick and 1/2 inch wide, in a 6-foot kite 7/16 inch thick and 9/16 inch wide, in a 7-foot kite 5/8 inch thick and 3/4 inch wide, and in an 8-foot kite 3/4 inch thick and 1 inch wide. on the following summer we built a 5-footer and also an 8-footer. [illustration: fig. 234. coasting in summer.] a five-foot malay kite. [illustration: fig. 235. tying on the cleats.] [illustration: fig. 236. hook on the vertical stick.] [illustration: fig. 237. double hook.] [illustration: fig. 238. connection at corner.] for the 5-foot kite we used two sticks of hickory 3/8 of an inch wide, 1/2 an inch thick, and each 5 feet long. according to directions, one stick was laid across the other at a point two-elevenths of its length from the top. two-elevenths of 5 feet is a little less than 11 inches, and so we fastened on the cross stick 11 inches from the upper end of the backbone. the sticks were not nailed together, because this would have weakened the frame just at the point where it was under the greatest strain. instead we followed the professor's directions and tied cleats to each stick, as shown in fig. 235, so as to form sockets. then the sticks were laid across each other, each stick fitting into the socket of the other, just like a mortised joint. a coat of shellac on the bottom of each cleat glued it temporarily to the stick, after which it was very tightly bound with fine cord. the stick and cleats were now thoroughly shellaced. the end of each stick was tapered off to receive a brass ferrule of the kind used on chisel handles. they can be bought at any hardware store. at the end of the backbone we fastened hooks made of brass, bent to the form shown in fig. 236. the cross sticks were also provided with hooks, but these were double, as shown in fig. 237, so that a hook lay on both the front and the rear side of the frame. [illustration: fig. 239. bending the cross stick.] the frame was covered with a kind of cloth called "percaline." the cloth was hemmed along each edge over heavy picture wire, and at each corner the wire was twisted around a small solid ring of brass. the rings were now slipped over the hooks on the frame and then the cross stick was bowed back by fastening a wire to the rear hooks and drawing it taut. professor keeler told us to tighten this bowstring until the distance from the wire to the cross stick at the center was equal to one-tenth of the length of the stick. as our sticks were each 5 feet long we tightened the wire until the cross stick bowed out 6 inches, as in fig. 239. the belly band of the kite was fastened at one end to the lower end of the backbone and at the upper end to a wire hook at the juncture of the two sticks. the hook was fastened to the cross stick by flattening the ends and running them under the cord used for binding on the cleats (see fig. 240). a buttonhole was made in the cloth covering to let this hook project through. the belly band was just long enough, so that it could be stretched over to one end of the cross stick, as in fig. 241, and at this point, that is, 30 inches from the upper end of the belly band, a brass ring was made fast, to which the main kite string was tied. the kite possessed the advantage that it could be quickly taken apart and folded into a small space. an eight-foot malay kite. [illustration: fig. 240. belly band hook.] our 8-foot kite was made in the same way only the sticks were 3/4 inch thick, 1 inch wide and 8 feet long. the cross stick was fastened 17-1/2 inches (two-elevenths of 8 feet) from the top of the backbone and it was bowed back 9-1/2 inches (one-tenth of 8 feet). the wire in the hem of the covering was a double thickness of the heaviest picture wire obtainable. [illustration: fig. 241. the 5-foot malay kite.] [illustration: fig. 242. malay kite with elastic belly band.] the elastic belly band. an important change was made in the belly band of the kite. the lower strand was made elastic by tying it fast to a number of heavy rubber bands, as in fig. 242. when flying the kite, if a sudden, strong puff of wind struck it, the elastic belly band would give, tilting up the lower end of the kite so that the wind passed under; but as soon as the gust had passed the rubber bands would draw the lower end of the kite back against the wind. the elastic belly band had the effect of making the kite rise almost vertically. sometimes it would even sail square overhead. the 8-foot kite was a very powerful one. to hold it we had to use a very strong cord, the kind used by upholsterers for tying down the springs in a chair or a sofa. putting the kites to work. bill tested the strength of the kite once by hooking a spring scale to the kite string. the scale was made to register weights up to 25 pounds. but our kite yanked the pointer immediately past the 25-pound mark as far as it would go. we judged from this that the kite would lift at least 40 pounds. such a pull as this it seemed a pity to waste, but how to utilize the power was a problem until one day, when the kite was soaring up on a south wind, dutchy suggested that we tie it to one of the canoes and go sailing up-stream. we tried the trick at once, but it didn't work very well, because the canoe was too light. the kite would drop unless there was a heavy pull on the string. we had better success with the scow, however, which provided a sufficient drag on the kite, and with the two kites to pull us we sailed a long ways up-stream, drifting down with the current when we had gone as far as we cared to. the diamond box kite. [illustration: fig. 243. the scow towed by kites.] [illustration: fig. 244. cleat for spreader.] [illustration: fig. 245. corner stick and spreader.] [illustration: fig. 246. the narrow frame.] [illustration: fig. 247. tacking on the cloth.] [illustration: fig. 248. forked end of long spreader.] professor keeler also gave us instructions for making a diamond-shaped box kite, and though we never built one, it may not be amiss to publish his instructions here. i quote from the chronicles of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i.: "materials: four sticks, 1/4 inch thick by 5/8 inch wide by 44 inches long, for the corner sticks. two sticks, 1/4 inch thick by 5/8 inch wide by 15 inches long, for the short spreaders. two sticks, 1/2 inch square by about 38 inches long, for the long spreaders. two strips of cloth 81 inches long, hemmed at each edge to a width of 13 inches. whittle out twelve cleats to the form shown in fig. 244. at the ends of the 15-inch spreaders nail cleats on each side with long wire brads, so as to form forks, as shown in fig. 245, in which two of the corner sticks are held. the short spreaders are fastened to the corner sticks, 7 inches from the ends, with brads driven through the cleats, making the frame (as in fig. 246). to prevent the frame from skewing off sidewise it should be braced with wire running diagonally across from one corner stick to the other. ordinary soft stovepipe wire will do. care must be taken to have the spreaders meet the corner sticks squarely or at right angles. now take one of the cloth strips and sew its ends together to form a band. the end should be lapped about an inch and fastened with the sailor stitch (see fig. 223). the same should be done to the other cross strip, and then each band should be marked off with pencil lines at four points, all equidistant from each other. the two bands may now be tacked to the two ends of the frame with opposite pencil lines over the edges of the corner sticks, as in fig. 247. the two remaining corner sticks are then nailed to the bands at the two other pencil lines. these corner sticks will now be braced apart by the long spreaders, which are notched to the right length to stretch the cloth taut. a cleat is nailed over each notch, as shown in fig. 248, forming forks to hold the corner pieces. the long spreaders are now forced down until they meet the short spreaders, to which they are tied with waxed string. the long spreaders may be nailed to the corner sticks by driving brads right through the cloth into the cleats and the sticks. the belly band may be fastened to any one of the corner sticks at the spreaders, and from the points where it is tied it should measure about 45 inches in length. the point where the main string should be attached to the belly band may be best determined by experiment." [illustration: fig. 249. the diamond box kite.] chapter xxi. the water wheel. summer found us again on willow clump island with heads full of new ideas. bill had come across an old copy of ewbanks' "hydraulics" in the school library. it was a book describing machines of the ancients--principally devices for raising water. rather dry reading, i thought, even though it was a wet subject; but bill seemed to find it absorbingly interesting. i came in late one afternoon, after a glorious game of baseball, only to find bill poring over the yellowed leaves of the "hydraulics" as fascinated as most fellows would be over a detective story. it exasperated me to note that he thought more of this old book than he did of our baseball team. "bill," i exclaimed, "what's got into you? i can't for the life of me see what is so entertaining in that prehistoric book." "oh, go way. don't bother me," was the surly reply. but i wouldn't be put off that way. quickly i snatched the book from his grasp and threw it out the window. "now, sir," i cried, "maybe you will kindly explain to me why you persist in studying that old volume, to the neglect of our baseball team." "don't get so excited, old chap," he replied. "that book is all right. i'm studying up some new schemes for next year's expedition to willow clump island. why, there are lots of things in that old book that we can make." and he proceeded to unfold his plans, sketching out some curious designs of water wheels and pumps. by the time school closed for the summer bill had thoroughly digested that volume, and was ready to reconstruct many of the ancient machines. the water wheel. our first work on reaching the island was to erect a water wheel, or "noria," as it was called in the book, in front of the camp. it had been a great nuisance to keep our filter barrel full. every few days we would have to form a bucket brigade, passing pails of water up the line until the barrel was filled. now bill proposed to do away with all this bother and let the river do the work for us. surveying for the water wheel. we first determined the height of the upper filter barrel above the level of the river. this was done with our surveying instrument, which was set level with the top of the barrel. we sighted with the instrument to a long pole that was held upright at the edge of the water. the pole had been marked off into feet with white chalk marks, and on sighting through the sight holes we found that the hairs came in line with the eleventh chalk mark. the top of the filter was, therefore, 11 feet above the level of the river. bill figured that it would be necessary to construct a wheel about 15 feet in diameter in order to raise the water to the proper height. [illustration: fig. 250. surveying for the water wheel.] towers for the water wheel. [illustration: fig. 251. frame for large tower.] first we built the towers to support the wheel. one tower was 16 feet high and the other only 10 feet. the large tower was made something like a very tall and narrow saw-horse. two stout poles 17 feet long were flattened at their upper ends and nailed together, with the ends projecting about a foot, as shown in fig. 251. at the bottom these poles were spaced 8 feet apart by a cross bar, and about 9-1/2 feet from the bottom a pair of boards were nailed to opposite sides of the pole to serve as supports for the axle of the water wheel. another pair of 17-foot poles was now similarly fastened together and then the two pairs were spaced about 12 feet apart and connected at the top and bottom with boards. [illustration: fig. 252. the large tower.] [illustration: fig. 253. v-shaped trough.] at the top two smooth boards were used and these were nailed to the inner sides of the projecting ends, which were tapered off. in this manner a v-shaped trough was formed. the boards were firmly nailed together at their meeting edges so as to prevent them from warping apart. a diagonal brace at each corner made the wedge-shaped tower very substantial. a number of cleats nailed to one of the poles provided a ladder by which we could mount to the top of the tower. the shorter tower was a three-legged affair, made of three 12-foot poles. at first two of these were flattened and nailed together at their upper ends, and they were braced at the top and bottom. the third leg was then nailed in place and braced by cross bars connecting it with the other two poles. the wheel. [illustration: fig. 254. the small tower.] [illustration: fig. 255. the hub.] we were now ready to make the wheel. from lumberville four 1/2-inch boards, each 3 inches wide and 15 feet long, were procured; also a bar of iron 3/4 of an inch in diameter and 2 feet long. at the center of one of the boards a block of wood 4 inches long and 4 inches in diameter was nailed on for a hub. a 3/4-inch hole was now drilled through this hub and the board. holes were also drilled into the other boards at their centers. then they were all strung onto the bar and spaced like spokes at equal angles apart. bill had figured it out some way that the ends of the boards should be just about 5 feet 10-1/2 inches apart. when the boards were all arranged we nailed them together at the center, and connected the ends with narrow tie boards, as indicated in fig. 256. the buckets. [illustration: fig. 256. the water wheel.] eight large tomato cans were now procured and fastened to the spokes at the ends on the inner side, that is, the side the hub was nailed to. we couldn't very well nail on the cans, so we punched two holes in the side of each can and then secured them to the spokes by passing bolts through these holes and the boards. the paddles. [illustration: fig. 257. a paddle.] then we cut sixteen paddles of the form shown in fig. 257. eight of these were 12 inches long, and the rest measured 18 inches. a slot 3 inches deep was cut in each paddle of just the right width to slip over the tie boards. the shorter paddles were fastened on just back of the spokes, and the rest were secured half-way between each spoke. the paddles were braced by stretching a wire from one to another all the way around the wheel. the receiving trough. [illustration: fig. 258. how the paddles and cans were attached.] [illustration: fig 259. the receiving trough.] our next task was to nail the receiving trough in place on the higher tower. we set up the towers on land and mounted the wheel between them with the axle resting in the crotch of the short tower and in a deep notch cut in the cross boards of the larger one. the cans on the wheel faced the larger tower, but the hub at the center and a block nailed to the larger tower spaced the wheel far enough out so that the cans did not strike the tower as they revolved. we carefully measured the distance between the spokes and the larger tower, and then built a square trough of a size to just fit into this space. this trough was nailed across the end of the v-shaped trough on top of the tower, but a notch was cut in the side so that the water would pour from the square or receiving trough into this v-shaped one. the square trough was about 8 feet long and its sides were 12 inches high; but at the ends we had to cut them down to a height of but 6 inches, so as to permit the cans to pass without hitting them. setting up the towers. our filter was located nearly 20 feet from the end of the river, and in order to get a good current of water to revolve our wheel we had to place it about 15 feet from shore. this necessitated building a trough line 35 feet long. ten feet of this line were already provided in the top of the tall tower. this tower was now set up in place with the legs firmly wedged into holes excavated in the bottom of the river. the legs on the shore side were sunk a little deeper, so as to tilt the trough slightly shoreward. the outer end of the trough was about 12 feet above the level of the water. we needed but one more tower to support the remainder of the trough line. this tower was built like the first one, but was much shorter, as it was erected on land and the level of the trough at the top had to be 5 or 6 inches lower so as to make the water flow. we connected the towers by another v-shaped trough section. this we nailed to the under side of the first trough and to the inside of the second trough. the latter was then in the same way connected by a trough section with the upper filter barrel. we now rigged up our shorter tower about a foot from the taller one, wedging in the legs so that the top came level with the slotted boards of the other tower. mounting the water wheel. then came the task of mounting our wheel in place. we were working in a pretty strong current and found it no easy matter. in the first place, the wheel was floated down to the towers, but there it got jammed and we couldn't lift it up. one of the paddles was broken and a bucket wrenched off before we could disentangle the wheel from the towers, and then the wheel was carried quite a distance down-stream before we could drag it in to shore. our next attempt was more successful. this time we anchored the wheel so that it just cleared the towers, then fastening a couple of long guy ropes to it, we raised the wheel on edge, while a boy stood on each side holding the ropes to keep the wheel steady. the anchor rope was now slowly paid out and the wheel was rolled in between the towers. this done, the wheel was lifted up and the axle rod was pushed in, with the ends of the rod resting in slots of the boards on the tall tower and in the crotch on the shorter one. to prevent the axle rod from working endwise out of its bearings, we nailed pieces of wood across the crotch and the slots against the ends of the rod. then we cast off the anchor rope and our wheel started work, the cans dipping up the water as they were carried around by the wheel and pouring it out of the top into the receiving trough, from which the water flowed down into the filter barrel. cooling the filter barrel. [illustration: fig. 260. the water wheel in action.] the trough line was very leaky and a great deal of water splashed out of the buckets. but for all that, within a few moments our barrel was full and overflowing. we hadn't figured on its filling so rapidly, but we soon found a way of utilizing the surplus water. it was led to a half-barrel in which we washed our dishes, and from there it flowed through a ditch back to the river. the water for the wash barrel was taken from the top of the upper filter barrel. but we let the lower filter barrel flow over so that it would be kept wet on the outside. our filter was fortunately placed at a point where a good breeze struck it, and we shoveled away the earth that had been piled around it so that the wind playing on the wet barrel evaporated the moisture, making the water inside very cool. the canvas bucket. [illustration: fig. 261. bottom of bucket.] this same trick was used for cooling our drinking water whenever we went off on an expedition away from camp. we had a heavy canvas bucket, the kind used on ships. we would fill this bucket with water and then hang it up in the wind. the water seeping out of the pores of the bucket would be evaporated by the wind, and this would, in a few moments, make the water inside delightfully cool. such buckets may be bought for $1.50 to $2.00 apiece, but ours was a home-made affair, and made somewhat differently from the store kind. the canvas used was the heaviest we could find. a piece 9 inches in diameter was cut out for the bottom. a ring 7 inches in diameter, made of heavy brass wire, was laid on the canvas, and the cloth was turned over it and sewed down the inside of the ring. for the sides of the bucket we cut a piece 14 inches wide and 23 inches long. the upper edge was strengthened by a piece of light rope held in place by hemming the cloth over it. the lower edge was now sewed to the bottom, just inside the wire ring and then the ends of the piece were joined, completing the sides of the bucket. the bail of the bucket was formed of a piece of rope fastened to the roped upper edge of the bucket. [illustration: fig. 262. the canvas bucket.] but to return to the current wheel; the day after it was completed, when i went over to lumberville for the mail, i was met by old jim halliday, who wanted to know what sort of a rig we had out on the river. i told him, and after a dint of much persuasion, induced him to take a ride back in the scow with me. he had never visited our camp and hadn't realized how handy we were with the tools, because, with the exception of the current wheel, all our work had been done on the opposite side of the island. we made him a guest of honor, showing him over the whole place. the bridges struck him as remarkably clever, but what pleased him most was our current wheel. "i swan," he said. "ef that ain't jest the thing i have been awantin' for the past twenty year. what'll ye sell me the hull plant fer, boys?" mr. halliday's water wheel. [illustration: fig. 263. mr. halliday's water wheel.] we thought he was fooling at first, but when he had assured us that he was in earnest, bill told him that we needed our own plant, but we could build him a similar and even better current wheel for any amount he thought it was worth to him. the figure settled on was six dollars (a dollar apiece) for our work, mr. halliday paying for the material. it was not a large sum, but it seemed a lot to us, and considering the scarcity of money in that region it was pretty generous pay. we built mr. halliday's current wheel just like our own, except that the paddles were much broader, and instead of using cans for the buckets mr. halliday supplied us with small dinner pails. the method of fastening on the pails is shown in fig. 263. a stick was nailed across the end of each spoke and the bail of the pail was held by a screw eye threaded into this stick. the pails would hang straight, holding all the water without spilling a drop until the receiving trough was reached. this trough was fastened high enough to strike the bottom of the pails as they went by, tipping them over and emptying them of their contents. from the trough the water ran directly into a large cider barrel and from here was carried through a pipe to mr. halliday's barn. a stopcock was here provided so that he could turn the water on or off, as he desired. the use of pails was a great improvement on tin can buckets. fully three times as much water was poured into the receiving trough, because not a drop was spilled out on the way up. chapter xxii. the log cabin. immediately after fitting out jim halliday with his water wheel we set to work on our log cabin. as a model we had a photograph of a log hut which uncle ed had sent us. as the cabin was designed particularly for use in winter time, we decided that it should be located where it would be sheltered from the northern winds and would be exposed to the sun. the ideal spot seemed to be on the southern shore of kite island, which was backed by a thick grove of trees but gave an unobstructed view in front for a distance of about four miles down-stream. foundation of log cabin. first we staked out the plan of the house. it was to be 12 feet long by 10 feet wide, so we leveled off a space of this area, and at the corners, where the greatest weight of the building would come, large rocks were embedded in the ground. a logging expedition. the logs for the house were cut from a tract of wooded land about five miles up the river, belonging to mr. schreiner. to be sure we could have cut the timber from our own island, but when reddy had said something to his father about our building a log cabin, mr. schreiner had warned us not to cut down any of the trees without the owner's permission. all we could learn about the owner was that his name was smith, and that he lived somewhere in new york city. it seemed unlikely that he would ever have anything to say about our cutting down a few trees, but rather than run any risk mr. schreiner advised us to make use of his woods for any timber we might need. accordingly we started out early one morning on a logging expedition. we had no apparatus for handling any logs more than 6 or 8 inches in diameter, and bill reckoned it out that we would have to have about fifty logs of this size for the sides of the building alone. this did not mean that fifty trees had to be chopped down, because we could usually cut two logs from a single tree. as the logs would have to overlap about a foot at each corner, we had to cut the longer ones to a length of 14 feet and the others to a length of 12 feet. aside from these we had to have several 16-foot logs for the roof. only the straightest logs were chosen, and while bill and reddy wielded the axes the rest of us hacked off the small branches with hatchets and hauled the sticks down the river. here we tied them together to make a raft. the log raft. [illustration: fig. 264. tying the logs together.] this was done by running a pair of ropes alternately over and under the logs at each end (see fig. 264). about fifteen were thus fastened together, and then as an extra precaution a log was laid across each end of the raft and tied fast. as soon as we had cut enough timber for our first raft, we all ceased work, to take a ride down the river on the logs. two of us, armed with poles, were to do the steering. there was one spot in the river of which we were rather apprehensive. that was a bit of shallow, swift water three miles from camp. a line of rocks jutted up from the river, forming a natural dam which was broken only at the eastern end. the water swirled madly through this opening, and veering off a huge rock which lay directly in front of the gap turned sharply westward. as we neared this dam the river became deeper and deeper, until finally we could no longer reach bottom with the poles, and could not properly steer the boat. for some time we drifted helplessly round and round in the still water above the dam. then suddenly the current caught us and we swept like a shot for the opening. the gap was quite wide, and had we only thought to provide ourselves with oars we could have steered the raft clear of the rocks below, but we were entirely at the mercy of the current, and with a terrific crash we were hurled head on against the boulder. [illustration: getting dinner.] [illustration: the photo after which our log cabin was modeled.] just what happened then i can not say. when i undertook to record the incident in the chronicles of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., i found there were five entirely different versions of the affair besides my own. i knew that immediately after the shock i found myself struggling in the water just below the rock over which i must have been slung by the force of the impact. dutchy declared up and down that he had sailed fifty feet in the air astride of a log. bill had been almost stunned by a blow on the head and was clinging desperately to a jagged projection of the rock. the ropes that had held the raft together had parted, scattering the logs in all directions, and i could see the rest of the crew hanging on to them for dear life. shouting to bill to let go his hold on the rock. i swam over and caught him as he drifted down, then i helped him ashore. leaving bill to recuperate i rushed down the bank, shouting to the others to paddle the logs over toward shore. then i plunged in, and pulling myself up on the nearest log, paddled shoreward as we had done on the planks when shooting the rapids. in this way one by one we corralled the logs, and after tying them together again resumed our voyage down the river. we now had no swift water to fear and were able to guide the raft successfully down to lake placid. but here we moored it, not venturing to take it past the mill-race until we had gotten the oars from the scow and nailed on oar locks at each side and the rear, so that we could properly row and steer the raft safely to kite island. the sail-rigged raft. [illustration: fig. 265. a sail-rigged raft.] when we went up the river again we carried the oars with us, also the sail and mast belonging to our ice boat, as there was a good breeze blowing down-stream. our second trip was more successful. the mast was stepped in a small but solid box nailed to the logs. in the top of this box a hole was cut for the mast to fit into and then the mast was braced with guy lines. we came down the river in fine style, steering straight for the opening in the dam, and just as we were about to shoot through reddy and i plied the oars for all we were worth on the port (left) side so as to swing the raft around past the boulder. however, we didn't escape entirely without accident, for the raft rode up on a submerged ledge, dipping the starboard side clear under water and nearly tipping us over. but in a moment the raft had righted itself and we had smooth sailing for the rest of the way. building the log cabin. [illustration: fig. 266. foundation logs notched.] [illustration: fig. 267. foundation logs fitted together.] [illustration: fig. 268. a corner of the log wall.] our third expedition completed the number of logs we required for the log cabin. two large 12-foot logs were chosen for the foundation logs at the front and rear of the building. the logs were flattened along the bottom so that they would have a firmer bearing on the ground, and particularly on the corners, where they rested on foundation stones. each log was now notched about a foot from the ends. the notches were 8 inches long and about 2 inches deep. care was taken to place those on one log squarely opposite the notches on the other. a pair of 14-foot logs were now laid across the foundation logs and rolled along them until another half-turn would have dropped them into the notches (shown in fig. 266). then notches were cut in the 14-foot logs to correspond, so that when the final half-turn was given one notch would fit over the other, making a mortise joint (fig. 267). when the side logs were in position notches were cut in their upper surface to receive a pair of 12-foot logs which were rolled onto them, notched and dropped into place. then another pair of side logs were laid on, and so the work progressed. the notches in each log were cut to a depth equal to one-quarter the diameter of the log; that is, if the log was 8 inches in diameter the notch was made 2 inches deep, and if 6 inches in diameter it was cut to a depth of 1-1/2 inches. when the logs were laid in place no space intervened between them, as will be clearly understood by reference to fig. 268. we found, after a few logs had been set in place, that our cabin was growing faster at one end than at the other. the trouble was that our logs were not of uniform diameter throughout, and we had been laying the butt ends, which were larger, all at one end of the building. so we had to take down the logs and relay them with the butt end of the front foundation log at one end and that of the rear foundation log at the other. then the cross logs were laid on with their butt ends on the small ends of the foundation logs. the next end logs were laid with their small ends on the butt ends of the cross logs, and so on, taking care never to lay the butt end of one log across the butt end of another. in this way the walls were built up evenly to a height of 3 feet. [illustration: fig. 269. piece cut out to admit saw.] we had planned to make a large open fireplace in the cabin, and this necessitated cutting an opening in the rear wall. but we did not want to cut the opening until the wall was built up to its full height lest it might buckle while the remainder of the logs were being placed in position. so we merely cut a piece out of the top log to make room for a saw when we were ready to cut the complete opening. as our fireplace was to be 5 feet in width, a 5-foot piece was cut out of the center of the log. then the ends were supported by cleats nailed on each side, as shown in fig. 269. this done the building was continued as before, but as the walls grew we found it more and more difficult to raise the logs to position. we could not lift them directly to the top of the wall, but had to roll them up on "skids"; that is, on a pair of 14-foot logs which were laid against the top of the wall. when the walls had reached a height of about 5 feet above the foundation logs, a length 4 feet 9 inches long was cut out of the top log to allow space for sawing out the front door and window, and also a 30-inch piece was cut out for the side window. cleats temporarily held the sawed ends of the logs, while the walls were carried on up to a height of a little over 6 feet from the foundation logs. the roof of the log cabin. [illustration: fig. 270. skids] then we started laying the roof. a 16-foot log was now notched in place at each side, with its forward end projecting about 3 feet over the front of the cabin to form a shelter in front of the building. a pair of 12-foot logs were then laid in position. the next pair of 16-foot logs were laid about 20 inches in from the sides, and after a pair of the cross logs had been set in place a third pair of logs were laid about 40 inches from the sides. finally, a single 16-foot log was set in place at the center, to serve as the ridge beam of the roof. the roof logs were all carefully tested to see if they were sound before we laid them in place, because we did not want to run any risk of the roof falling in, particularly in the winter time, when it would be heavily covered with snow. a chalk line was drawn from the ridge beam to the lower roof beam, and the cross logs were sawed off along this line, as indicated in fig. 271. several slabs were now procured and laid across the roof beams to serve as rafters. these rafters projected about 18 inches beyond the side walls of the cabin, so as to support the eaves. over the rafters we laid a roofing of slabs, starting with the bottom and lapping them, as we had done on our tree house. [illustration: fig. 271. how the roof logs were laid.] the door and window frames. we were now ready to cut out and frame the doors and window openings. the front window of the cabin was to be close beside the door, so we merely widened the door opening at the top to include the window opening as well (see figs. 271 and 272). the door was made 2-1/2 feet wide, and was cut down to the foundation logs. the window opening was cut to a depth of 24 inches. before sawing out the opening we wedged pieces of wood between the logs along the line we were to follow with the saw, so as to keep them in place. after the opening had been made a couple of stout boards were nailed to the sawed ends of the logs at each side, to hold them securely in place and make a suitable framing for the door. the cleats were then removed. the foundation log and the one at the top of the opening were flattened, to serve as the sill and lintel of the door. between the door and window a short post was wedged in place. this post was flattened on opposite sides, so that the door jamb could be nailed against it on one side and the window frame on the other. the side window was next cut out and framed. after it had been framed it measured 2 feet square. [illustration: fig. 272. the finished roof.] the fireplace. then came the task of building our fireplace. first we sawed out the opening, cutting right through the rear foundation log. then we gathered from the river a large number of the flattest stones we could find. with these we planned to build the three outer walls of our chimney. but the question of getting mortar to bind the stones together bothered us for a while. "if only we could find a bed of clay. don't any of you know of one around here?" queried bill. but none of us remembered seeing any clay bed in the vicinity. "if we were in south jersey now," i said, "we could use some of that red mud they have down there. it sticks like the mischief to shoes and pant legs. i bet it would hold those stones together." "red mud? why there's plenty of it over the hill, back of lumberville," said reddy. "all the roads over there are red shale roads, and i saw some red banks along the river when we went after the logs." that was just what we wanted. the banks reddy referred to turned out to be genuine red shale, and soon we had ferried several scow loads of the stuff down to kite island. when the shale was wet it made quite a sticky mortar. the foundations of the chimney were laid in a trench about 2 feet deep, and the side walls of the chimney were carried inside of the cabin and covered the ends of the logs at the chimney opening. the side walls extended outward a distance of 3 feet, where they were joined by the rear wall of the chimney. the proper way to build a stone wall. in making our chimney we could not rely on the red shale to hold the stones as firmly as good lime mortar would, so we had to be careful that each stone, as it was laid, had a firm bearing. the stones were embedded in a thick layer of mud, and if they showed any tendency to teeter we propped them up by wedging small stones under them until they lay solid. another thing that we were very careful about was to "break joints"; that is, to keep the joints in each layer of the stones from coinciding with those in the next layer, above or below. to make sure of this we made it a point to lay a stone over each joint in the top of the wall and then to fill in the space between the stones with smaller stones. in this way the wall was made very substantial. [illustration: fig. 273. how to build a wall.] when the masonry had been carried up to the top of the chimney opening, a heavy timber about 12 inches wide was laid across the walls close against the wall of the building. this was to support the fourth wall of the chimney, and so we flattened its upper surface. to prevent it from catching fire it was covered with a thick plastering of mud, and then to keep the mud from cracking and flaking off we procured a piece of tin and tacked it over the log. the tin also extended over the top log of the opening. then we went on with the building of the chimney walls, carrying them up about a foot above the ridge of the roof. our chimney was completed by paving the bottom with stones, well packed in mud and nicely smoothed off to make the hearth. the hearth extended about 18 inches into the cabin, and was framed with logs, as shown in fig. 275. the floor of the cabin. a number of logs were now laid on the ground to serve as floor beams. slabs were used for the floor. we had some trouble in making the floor perfectly even, because the floor beams were rather irregular, and a great deal of time was spent in smoothing the logs off to a common level. if we had the work to do over again we would have bought two or three planks and laid them on edge to support the flooring. [illustration: fig. 274. building the chimney.] [illustration: fig. 275. section through the fireplace.] the door hinges and latch. [illustration: fig. 276. the door hinges.] [illustration: fig. 277. the latch guard.] [illustration: fig. 278. door catch.] a door was now constructed by battening together a number of slabs. in place of a hinge a hole was drilled into the sill and another into the lintel directly in line with it. two sticks of wood were then whittled to fit snugly, but without jamming, into these holes. these sticks were then nailed to the inner face of the door, with their whittled ends projecting into the holes, forming pintles on which the door could turn. a narrow strip of wood was nailed to the outer jamb for the door to close against. the latch consisted of a stick of wood, fastened to the door at one end with a nail. it hooked onto a catch whittled out of hard wood to the form illustrated in fig. 278, and nailed to the jamb. then to keep the latch from dropping too far when the door was open, and to guide it when slammed against the catch, we whittled out a guard piece to the form illustrated in fig. 277, and nailed this to the door, with the latch projecting through the slot of the guard. a string was now fastened to the latch and passed through a hole in the door. a block was tied to the end of the latch string to prevent it from slipping back through the hole; but at night, when we did not want to be molested by any intruders, we untied the block and drew in the latch string. the window sash. [illustration: fig. 279. the latch.] for our windows we made wooden sashes which fitted nicely into the window openings. a small hole was drilled through the sash at each side into the frame, and nails inserted in these holes held the sash in place, and served also as hinge pins for the sash to turn on. the sash could be taken out at any time by removing these nails. as we could not afford to use glass for our windows, we covered the sashes first with cloth, and later, when it occurred to us that in winter time it would be difficult to keep the cold air out, we used oiled paper. bunks. [illustration: fig. 280. hinged window sash.] [illustration: fig. 281. bunks.] our next work was directed toward providing sleeping accommodations in the log cabin. a large log was laid on the floor the full length of the cabin, as far out as possible without interfering with the opening of the front door. stakes were laid across this log, with their opposite ends wedged in between the logs of the wall. a nail or two in each slab held it in place. this formed a sort of shelf 12 feet long, which was divided at the center to form two bunks, each wide enough for two persons. but as there were six of us in the society, we had to provide two more berths. a stout post was set into a hole in the ground, and nailed firmly at the bottom to the lower berth log and at the top to one of the roof beams. this post supported a second berth log, which extended the full length of the building at a height of about 3 feet from the floor, and was wedged at the ends between the logs of the house. cleats were nailed to the walls under this berth log to make it perfectly secure. then slabs were nailed across it to form the two bunks. stopping up the chinks. the log cabin was completed by stopping up all the chinks between the logs of the walls. strips of wood and bits of bark plastered with mud were driven into all the cracks and crevices until everything was made perfectly tight. chapter xxiii. the windmill. when our log cabin was completed we immediately transferred our camp from the tent to the hut. but at the very outset we were confronted with the problem of getting drinking water. we hadn't thought of that before. it was easy enough to move the filter barrels, but when it came to moving the water wheel we could find no suitable place for it anywhere near the log cabin. the water of lake placid was too quiet, while the mill-race and the rapids on the other side of kite island ran so swiftly that we were afraid the water wheel would be swept away with its course. the matter was carefully considered at a special meeting of the society. it occurred to bill that we might build a windmill in place of the water wheel, and use it to pump water from a well which could be dug near the hut. "we wouldn't have to use a filter, then," he said. "why not?" i asked. "why, because the sand of the island will strain out all the dirt in the water. you see, the water in the well will have to soak in from the river, and by the time it gets through all the gravel and sand between the river and the well it ought to be filtered pretty clear." digging the well. [illustration: fig. 282. digging the well.] that sounded logical, and so we adopted the plan at once. we chose a spot quite near the hut for our well. when we had dug down about 6 feet we struck water, but continued excavating until the water lay 3 feet deep in the well. while making the excavation we shored up the sides with planks, to prevent the loose soil from falling in on us and smothering us, as it so nearly did when we were digging our first cave. by "shoring," i mean we lined the walls with planks, which were driven into the ground with large wooden mallets. the planks were braced apart with sticks at frequent intervals. as the well hole grew deeper we had to rig up a bucket to haul the dirt out. our bucket was a soap box attached to a rope, which passed through a pulley at the top of the well. the pulley was supported by a tripod made by firmly lashing together the upper ends of three stout poles and spreading their lower ends far enough apart to straddle the mouth of the well, as shown in fig. 282. after the well had been carried down to a sufficient depth, we began laying the stone wall, which was to form the permanent lining. we knew that the wooden walls would not do, because they would soon decay. our stone wall, which was built up of flat stones like the chimney of the log house, was not very strong, i fear, and had not the soil around it been pretty firm it would probably have caved in. however, if it served no other purpose, it formed a fairly good finish for the well. the windmill tower. [illustration: fig. 283. frame for the tower.] the mouth of the well was carefully covered with planks while we constructed the windmill above it. for the tower of the windmill we chose four long sticks. they must have measured about 16 feet in length, and were from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. with them we made two frames of the form given in fig. 283, using slabs to brace them apart. these frames were now set in position, with their lower ends firmly planted in holes in the ground, and the tower was completed by nailing on a number of diagonal braces. a couple of boards were nailed across the upper ends at opposite sides, and holes were drilled through them to provide bearings for the wind wheel shaft. the crank shaft. [illustration: fig. 284. the crank shaft.] the shaft was a piece of heavy iron rod which we procured from the blacksmith at lumberville. under bill's direction the blacksmith hammered a u-shaped bend at the center of the shaft, so as to form a crank, and then he flattened the rod near the ends (see fig. 284). when the shaft was set in its place these flat spots lay just outside of the bearing boards, and then, to keep the shaft from sliding back and forth in its bearings, we fastened on two clamps over these flattened parts. the clamps were made of pairs of hardwood blocks bolted together in the manner indicated in fig. 285. the wind wheel. [illustration: fig. 285. a clamp.] [illustration: fig. 286. wedge for wind wheel.] [illustration: fig. 287. spokes of wind wheel.] [illustration: fig. 288. wind wheel blade.] our next task was to construct the wind wheel. first we procured three boards, each 3 inches wide and 3-1/2 feet long. a 1/2-inch hole was drilled in the center of each board, and then, with these holes coinciding, the boards were nailed together, with their ends projecting, like spokes, equally distant from each other. six wedges were now made of the size indicated in fig. 286. these were made of a 2 x 4-inch scantling, sawed diagonally in two and then planed down to the given dimensions. the wedges were now nailed firmly to the spokes, as shown in fig. 286. for the blades we used six thin boards, each about 4 feet long. each blade measured 10 inches in width at the outer end, and tapered down to a width of 3 inches at the inner end, as illustrated in fig. 288. the blades were now securely nailed to the wedges, and their outer ends were braced together by means of wires stretched from the forward edge of each blade to the rear edge of the next one ahead. the wheel was then fitted onto the shaft and nailed to one of the clamps. in this way it was practically keyed to the shaft. we did not make any vane for our windmill. it did not need any. the wind nearly always blew either up or down the river, more often up the river, for the prevailing summer winds in that part of the country are southerly. but, aside from that, east and west winds could not very well reach us on account of the hills on both sides of the river. the wheel was set facing the north, because the strongest winds came from that direction, and as an extra brace against these winds we stretched wires from the projecting end of the shaft to the center of each blade. a simple break. [illustration: fig. 289. the wind wheel.] a brisk northerly wind was blowing when we set the wheel in place, and it began to revolve at once, before we could nail it to the clamp. to stop it we nailed a stick of wood to the tower, so that its end projected in the path of the blades and kept the wheel from turning around. this brake was swung up to the dotted position illustrated when we were ready to have the wheel revolve, but it could be thrown down at any time to stop it. the pump. [illustration: fig. 290. side view of the wind wheel, showing brake.] our pump was made of a galvanized leader pipe; that is, a pipe used to carry off rain water from the roof of the house. the pipe was only about 8 feet long, and so we had to piece it out with a long wooden box pipe. a block closed the lower end of this box, and the leader pipe fitted snugly into a hole in the block (fig. 291). a spout was set into the upper end of the box pipe to carry the water to the cask, which was to serve as our water reservoir. the pump valves. [illustration: fig. 291. the box pipe.] [illustration: fig. 292. the lower valve.] [illustration: fig. 293. the piston valve.] we plugged the bottom of the leader pipe with a block of wood, in the center of which a large hole was drilled. the hole was covered with a piece of leather nailed at one side, so that it could lift up to let water into the pipe. the piston was made of a disk of wood of slightly smaller diameter than the inside of the pipe, and over it was fastened a piece of leather just large enough to fit snugly against the walls of the pipe. this piston was fastened to a wooden rod long enough to reach from well within the pipe to the wind wheel shaft. a strip of brass was bent over the crank, or u-shaped bend in the shaft, and its ends were fastened to the rod. [illustration: the old windmill at work on a lumberville farm.] action of the pump. [illustration: fig. 294. connection of rod and crank.] it was rather a crude pump, but it did all the work we required of it. as the wheel went around the crank shaft would move the piston up and down. whenever the piston went down, the air in the pipe would press up the edges of the leather disk and squeeze past (see fig. 295). then when the piston came up again, the leather disk, being backed by the wooden disk beneath it, was kept flat, so that no air could force its way back into the pipe. this made a partial vacuum in the pipe, and the water from the well rushed up through the valve at the bottom to fill it (see fig. 296). when next the piston went down the bottom valve closed and more air forced its way past the piston. then on the next upward stroke more water flowed into the pipe, until, after a number of strokes, all the air was pumped out and the water which took its place began to force its way up past the piston and eventually to flow out of the spout into the cask. our old windmill was sold to a farmer near lumberville when we broke camp that fall. we carted it over and set it up for him. a number of years later i saw it still faithfully at work pumping water for his cattle. the original pump had been worn out and a new one substituted, but otherwise the old windmill remained just as we had first rigged it up. [illustration: fig. 295. fig. 296. action of the pump.] chapter xxiv. the gravity railroad. "about all we lack now," said dutchy, when the windmill had been completed, "is a railroad." "then suppose we build one," was bill's unexpected rejoinder. we all thought he was joking, but he wasn't. "i don't mean a steam railroad," he said, "but a gravity railroad." "a what?" "a gravity railroad. oh, you know what that is--a roller toboggan--the kind they have down at coney island." and he went on to explain how we could rig up a simple roller toboggan on our island. his plan was to build an inclined trestle on the high ground just below the lagoon, and then run wooden tracks along the shore down to the pontoon bridge, and across the mill-race to kite island. we started first to dig a road down to the bridge, because the bank was quite high at this point. the task was rather greater than we anticipated, but we kept steadily at it until we had cut a fairly good road through the bank, though the grade was rather steep. before proceeding with the trestle and track we thought the best plan would be to build our car, and then we could use it as a gauge to determine how far apart the rails should be set. the car. [illustration: fig. 297. putting the car body together.] first we got a 2 x 4-inch scantling, and cut from it two lengths, each 4 feet 6 inches long. these were laid on edge just 30 inches apart, and then a number of boards were nailed across from one scantling to the other and sawed off flush with their edges. the floor thus formed was now turned over so that the scantlings lay uppermost and the sides of the car were then nailed on with their edges overlapping the ends of the floor boards. the sides, which were about 18 inches high, were each made of two boards firmly battened together. great care was taken to securely nail both the flooring and the sides to the scantlings, because these scantlings were to carry the wheels of the car. the car body was completed by nailing on the end pieces which overlapped both the flooring and the side walls. the flanged wheels. [illustration: fig. 298. the car wheel.] next we sawed out the wheels of our car. from a board of hardwood 3/4 of an inch thick four disks, 12 inches in diameter, were sawed out. then from a board 1 inch thick four 9-inch disks were sawed out. we cut these disks in the same way as we had made the disks for our surveying rod (see page 78), by making cuts across corners and finally smoothing off the angles with a draw-knife. a half-inch hole was now drilled in the center of each disk. then on each large disk a smaller one was placed, with the center holes of the two coinciding and the grain of one lying across the grain of the other. in this position they were firmly nailed together, making a wheel like those used on a railway car, with the small disc forming the tread of the wheel and the large disk serving as a flange. the car axles. [illustration: fig. 299. car body with axles in place.] for the car axles we bought four 1/2-inch bolts, 6 inches long, with two washers and two nuts for each bolt. in each side of the car, about 8 inches from the ends, we nailed face blocks; that is, blocks of wood for the wheels to bear against. these face blocks were only 1/2 inch thick. then in these blocks holes were drilled which were carried clear through the scantling. the holes were just large enough for the bolts to fit snugly in them. the bolts were inserted from the inside, so that their threaded ends projected out at each side of the car. a patch of wood was nailed to the scantling over each bolt head to prevent the bolt from slipping back into the car. then the wheels were mounted on these bolts, which served as axles. mounting the wheels. [illustration: fig. 300. section showing how to fasten on the wheel.] first a washer was placed on the axle, then the wheel was applied, with the larger or flange disk against the face block, after which another washer was slipped on. a nut was screwed against this washer just tightly enough to keep the wheel snugly in place, and yet let it turn freely on its axle. then to keep this nut from shaking loose a second nut was screwed on against it. while one fellow held the first nut from turning, another screwed the second nut against it as tightly as he could. the second nut is technically known as a "jam nut," or "lock nut." the car was completed by laying a couple of boards across from one scantling to the other to serve as seats. the railway track. [illustration: fig. 301. the inclined trestle.] [illustration: fig. 302. joints of the track.] the trestle was now begun. first we erected a level platform, which was to be the starting point of the railway. this was made very substantial by planting the corner posts firmly in the ground and then bracing them together with diagonal braces. a couple of planks leaning against the platform at one side provided a convenient means for mounting to the top. from the platform the trestle ran down at an easy incline to the ground. it was made of 2 x 4-inch scantlings supported at intervals on posts driven into the ground. the opposite posts were firmly braced with boards fastened diagonally across them. the scantlings were to serve as rails, and so we fastened them at the proper distance apart with ties nailed to the under side. but to be sure that the rails were not too far apart or too close together, the car was rolled over the track and the rails were set to keep the tread disks of the wheels on them and the flange disks just clear of their inner edges. the ends of the rails were cut off at an angle, making a slanting joint, as shown in figs. 301 and 302. they were fastened firmly together by nailing a piece of board on the bottom and also on the outer side. the carpenter's miter box. [illustration: fig. 303. carpenter's miter box.] to make sure that the ends were all cut to the same angle, we made a carpenter's "miter box." two sideboards were nailed to a baseboard, making a trough large enough for the scantling to be set in it. then we sawed through the sides of the trough at an angle of 45 degrees. when we wanted to cut the end of the scantling at an angle it was placed in the trough, and with the saw set in the saw cuts, as a guide, we were sure that they would all be cut at the same angle. laying the track. [illustration: fig. 304. how the track was anchored.] from the bottom of the inclined trestleway we continued the track down the slope to the river; but for the sake of economy, instead of using 2 x 4-inch scantlings for the rails, we bought a number of 2-inch planks at lumberville, and had them sawed up into strips 2 inches wide. these 2-inch square rails were fastened together with slabs nailed on at frequent intervals. to maintain the proper gauge the car was rolled over each pair of rails, which were nailed first at the ends and center. to anchor the track we drove short posts into the ground so that their upper ends lay flush with the surface. a post was provided under each joint and one under the center of each rail, and then the slab ties were nailed securely to these posts. in imitation of a full-sized railway, we made it a point to "break joints" on our track; that is, to make the end of one rail come in line with the center of the opposite rail, as shown in fig. 302. our track was continued across the pontoon bridge and ran around the west shore of kite island. the track was straight as far as the shore of kite island, whence, by an easy curve, it was carried around to the log cabin. the first railway accident. dutchy was the first one to try the railway. he sneaked back to the platform while the rest of us were putting a few last touches on the track. the first we knew the car came tearing down the track at full speed, with dutchy yelling at the top of his voice for us to get out of his way. bill was on the bridge when the car came along and he had no time to run for shore, but with great presence of mind he jumped into the water and clung to one of the barrels. but the joke of it all was that dutchy himself got a wetting too. the track at the middle of the bridge was not quite true to gauge. it was this very spot that bill was fixing up when dutchy came along. the end of a rail was bent in far enough to catch the flange of one of the car wheels, and in a moment dutchy, car and all, was slung head over heels into the mill-race. fortunately no serious harm was done. dutchy landed a little ways down-stream, and reddy, by quick work, managed to rescue the car just as it was floating off under the suspension bridge. the car was undamaged except that the flange of a wheel was split off. of course, bill was as mad as a hornet at dutchy, and expressed his feelings in no mild terms. but his anger was somewhat tempered by the fact that dutchy received as bad a punishment as he had inflicted. [illustration: the start of the gravity railroad.] testing the track. we had to cut a new flange disk for the broken wheel, and to prevent the flanges from splitting off again we nailed a batten across the inner face of each wheel extending down to the very edge of the flange disk. this batten was fastened on across the grain. when everything was completed the car was started down the track empty to see if it would keep the rails. it went beautifully as far as the bridge, but was too light to run much beyond. the next time we loaded it up with stones and had the pleasure of watching it sail down hill, across the bridge and vanish out of sight around the shore of kite island. that was demonstration enough. we knew it would carry us safely and it did. the next time we tried it four of us piled into the small car, and in a moment we were off on a most thrilling ride, which ended right in front of the log cabin, where the car came to a sudden stop after riding off the end of the rails and plowing through the sand for a short space. chapter xxv. the cantilever bridge. there is one more piece of work done by our society which yet remains to be described, and that is the cantilever bridge. this we all voted to be the greatest of our achievements on the island. to be sure, it was uncle ed's design, but i think we justly deserve credit for the masterful way in which it was erected. in our search for types of bridges before building the king post bridge, we came across a simple cantilever bridge that didn't look very difficult to construct. to be sure, none of us knew a thing about stresses and strains, and ingenious though we were, bill realized that the task of designing a cantilever bridge was far beyond him. nevertheless, we were sure we could build one if only we had a good set of plans. a letter was therefore mailed to uncle ed, asking him for the required details. the answer came promptly from western australia, asking us to send him the exact width of the water we wished to span, the depth of the water, the distance from the top of one bank to the top of the other, and the exact height of the banks above water level. we decided we would build the bridge across the mouth of the lagoon. the distance here between the two banks measured a little over 60 feet. the banks were very precipitous, and rose 13-1/2 feet above the level of the water. all these details, together with soundings of the bottom, all the way across, were sent to uncle ed, and on the day after our railway was completed quite a bulky package was received in answer. it contained complete directions for building the bridge of wooden frames, which were so designed that they needed merely to be hooked together to form the bridge, though to make the structure perfectly safe uncle ed cautioned us to tie the frames together wherever they met. i am half afraid to tell my readers how to build this bridge, as it required the utmost care, and had to be built just so to avoid disaster. bridge building is a serious business, and i would not advise any one to attempt building this, of all bridges, who does not propose to follow instructions implicitly. uncle ed told us that if we built it properly, and with sound timbers, we would find the bridge strong enough to support a dozen boys, but he warned us not to crowd more than that number on it. frames for the cantilever bridge. [illustration: fig. 305. a frame (make four).] [illustration: fig. 306. b frame (make four).] [illustration: fig. 307. c frame (make four).] [illustration: fig. 308. d frame (make four).] the frames with which the cantilever bridge was built were made of saplings from 3 to 4 inches in diameter. we procured them from mr. schreiner's lands up the river. in making the frames the sticks were fastened together with 1/2-inch bolts 6 inches long. it was quite a strain on our pocketbooks to buy these bolts, but uncle ed had written that nails or spikes would be useless to stand the strains of so large a bridge, and that if we could not get any bolts we had better give up the idea of building a cantilever bridge. to make sure that we made no mistakes, uncle ed had made a drawing of each different size of frame we would need, designating each with a different letter, and then these same letters were marked on a general view of the bridge, so that we would know exactly where the frames belonged. these drawings are reproduced here in figs. 305 to 316 and 318. we had to make four frames each, of the _a_, _b_, _c_ and _e_ sizes, two each of the _f_, _g_ and _l_ sizes and one each of the _h_, _i_, _j_ and _k_ sizes. of the _d_ frames two were made with the ends cut away on the outer half, as illustrated in fig. 308, and two were cut away at the inner side, the reason for which will appear presently. when fastening the timbers together we cut notches in each stick, as shown in fig. 317. the depth of each notch was just one-quarter the diameter of the stick; that is, the notch was 3/4 of an inch deep in a 3-inch stick and 1 inch deep in a 4-inch stick. care was taken not to exceed this depth, for fear of weakening the sticks. in the case of frame _d_, the sticks were not notched or mortised together. it will be noticed that the measurements are given to the inner edges of the sticks in some cases, and to the outer edges in others. the reason for this, as uncle ed explained it, was because the thickness of our sticks would vary considerably, and it was important that many of the measurements be exact, otherwise the frames would not fit into each other as they should. another thing to which he called our attention was the fact that frames _a_, _b_, _e_, _f_, _h_, _k_ and _l_ were stiffened with cross braces, while the rest were not. the braced frames, he wrote, were those which would be under a compression strain, while the others would be under tension; that is, when any weight was placed on the bridge it would push against the ends of the braced frames, trying to crush them, but would pull on the unbraced frames, trying to tear them apart. in fact, the bridge would have been just as strong had we used heavy iron wire in place of the unbraced frames, and the only reason uncle ed did not recommend our doing so was because we had no simple way of stretching the wire taut. [illustration: fig. 309. e frame (make four).] [illustration: fig. 310. f frame (make two).] [illustration: fig. 311. g frame (make two).] [illustration: fig. 312. h frame (make one).] [illustration: fig. 313. i frame (make one).] [illustration: fig. 314. j frame (make one).] [illustration: fishing off the cantilever bridge.] [illustration: the cantilever bridge in reddy's back yard.] erecting the towers. [illustration: fig. 315. k frame (make one).] [illustration: fig. 316. l frame (make two).] [illustration: fig. 317. notching the sticks together.] we built the complete set of frames before attempting to erect the bridge. then we began by building the towers. two _a_ frames were set on end and spaced 4 feet apart at the top and 5 feet apart at the bottom, measuring not from the inner but from the outer edges of the frames. in this position they were connected by short spars, notched in place. the notches for these connecting spars will be seen in fig. 305 on the main or vertical timbers of frame _a_, just below the upper and middle cross sticks and above the lower cross sticks. the upper connecting spars were wedged tightly under the cross sticks, and served as an additional support for them. diagonal braces were nailed from one frame to the other, as illustrated in fig. 318. the towers were built on opposite banks, at the mouth of the lagoon, and when completed we lowered them carefully down the banks into the water. according to directions they were to be set just 30 feet apart, measuring from the center of one tower to the center of the other. the water was quite shallow where the towers rested, but the bottom was pretty firm. holes were dug in the bottom for the legs of the tower to set into, and then large stones were piled around each leg to provide a firm foundation for the towers. setting up the frames. [illustration: fig. 318. view of part of the bridge, with letters indicating the various frames.] a _b_ frame was now hauled out to one of the towers and lifted by its narrower end, with fall and tackle, until its lower tie piece rested on the projecting ends of the center crosspieces of the tower. the upper end of the frame was held against the top of the tower, while a _c_ frame was hooked over the upper ends of the tower legs; then frame _b_ was allowed to swing outward until its smaller end locked with the outer end of frame _c_. it will be observed in fig. 306 that the upper crosspiece or tie piece of frame _b_ was fastened to one side of the vertical sticks and the lower tie piece to the other side. this was done purposely, so that when the frame was set in position the bottom tie piece would be on the lower side of the frame and the top piece would lie on the upper side, as shown in fig 318, or, better still, in fig. 319. the rest of the frames were all arranged to be set in place with their tie pieces on the lower side, or facing the towers, as will be clearly understood by examining the illustrations. as soon as the _b_ and _c_ frames were set up on one side of the tower, another pair of _b_ and _c_ frames was set up on the other side of the same tower. a cantilever bridge must always be built out on both sides of the tower at the same time, otherwise it will be overbalanced on one side and topple over. after the _b_ and _c_ frames were in place we took two _d_ frames, with oppositely cut ends, and rested their tie sticks on the top of the tower, just under the ends of the _c_ frames. the ends of the two _d_ frames overlapped at the center of the tower, and, as one was cut away at the outer side and the other at the inner side, they fitted neatly together and were fastened with bolts. the _d_ frames were supported near their outer ends with _e_ frames, which rested on the _b_ and _c_ frames. fig. 319 shows an _e_ frame set in position on the landward side of the tower, while two of the boys are climbing out on the opposite _b_ and _c_ frames preparatory to setting up the other _e_ frame. a cross stick was now bolted to each _d_ frame, just beyond the upper ends of the _e_ sticks. this done, the frame _f_ was hooked in between the ends of _b_ and _c_, at the shoreward side of the tower, and its outer ends were supported by frame _g_, which was hooked over frame _d_ and the upper ends of frame _e_. the frame _l_ was then rested on the ends of frame _f_ and _g_, and supported the shore end of frame _d_. a stick nailed across frame _d_ on each side of the upper ends of frame _l_ served to hold the latter in place. binding and anchoring the structure. [illustration: fig. 319. preparing to put an e frame in place.] as the different frames were coupled together, we bound the overlapping ends with soft iron wire. the place where frames _b_, _c_, _e_ and _f_ came together was quite a vital point, and we took pains to make the wire binding at this place doubly strong. as soon as the _l_ frame was in place we anchored the bridge to shore by running wires from the ends of the _d_ frame and the ends of the _g_ frame to stakes driven into the banks. the frames on the second tower were now similarly erected and anchored, after which we were ready to put in the center panels of the bridge. the center panels of the bridge. first, the frame _h_ was wedged into place and thoroughly fastened by a liberal winding of wire. next the frames _i_ and _j_ were set in place, and in order to do this we had to remove the upper tie pieces of these frames. then one frame was hooked in the other, and the two were carried out on the scow under the center of the bridge. ropes were tied to the ends of the two frames, and they were lifted together, like a wide _v_, to the position shown in fig. 318, after which the tie pieces were bolted on again, resting against the ends of the _e_ frames. as an additional security, two sticks were bolted to the under side of the frame _h_, one at each side of the _i_ and _j_ frames. the bridge was then completed by wedging the frame _k_ under the ends of the _d_ frames, and also placing a stick across each tower under the joints of the _d_ frames. we planned to run our gravity railway across this bridge, moving our platform and trestle to the opposite bank; so instead of flooring our bridge with slabs, we fastened ties across at intervals of 15 or 18 inches. these ties were sticks 3 inches in diameter, which were secured to the _d_ frames. a serious interruption. [illustration: fig. 320. a general view of our cantilever bridge.] we were just preparing to lay the tracks across the bridge when we met with a serious interruption. mr. halliday had told us that a few days before our arrival that summer mr. smith, the owner of the island, and another man had paid a visit to the place. jim halliday himself had rowed them over, and learned from their conversation that mr. smith was trying to sell the island, and that the stranger, a mr. gill, was a prospective purchaser. all summer long we had been dreading the return of this customer, though, as time passed without his putting in an appearance, we almost forgot the incident. but now, at the end of august, just as we had about completed our cantilever bridge, who should arrive but this very man gill and three other men with a large tent and camping outfit. it was a sorrowful crowd of boys that watched the wagon with their belongings ford the shallow water over to our island. we felt that the island was ours by right of discovery and occupation, but we were powerless to force our claims. and what if they did not insist on our leaving the island? it would not be the same place with strangers around to meddle with our things. dispossessed. but the new owner of the island was even more of a boor than we had anticipated. as soon as he landed he wanted to know what we were doing on his property, and peremptorily ordered us off. bill answered that we were camping there, and politely asked if we couldn't stay out the summer. but gill would not listen to the idea. we must get off the island that very day or he would see to it that we did. i tell you it made us boil. we were just itching to give the pompous little man the sound thrashing he deserved, but knew that we would stand a very small show against his three powerful companions. at any rate, we were determined not to leave at once. instead, we repaired to kite island, taking our belongings with us. then we cut away the suspension, spar and pontoon bridges, so that we would not be annoyed by any of the gill crowd. we were resolved that they should not benefit by any of the things we had built. at the dead of night we paddled back to willow clump island, crept past the slumbering intruders and waded out to the old water wheel. after a good deal of exertion we managed to dislodge the smaller tower, letting the wheel drop into the river and float away. then we made for the cantilever bridge. it didn't take us very long to cut away the wire bindings, unhook the frames and drop them into the lagoon. but the task was quite a perilous one, as the night was pitch black. finally, nothing remained of the bridge but the two towers, which were left as monuments to mark the spot where our last piece of engineering on the island was done. [illustration: building the cantilever bridge over cedar brook.] farewell to willow clump island. we spent several days on kite island, knowing that we were safe from intrusion, because the gill crowd had but one boat, and that was on the jersey side of the island. we felt confident that they would not take the trouble of wading around point lookout with their boats, as we had done; nevertheless, to prevent a surprise, we kept a sentry posted on the lake placid side of the island and gathered a pile of stones for ammunition. but our fun was spoiled, and we finally decided to break camp and bid farewell forever to willow clump island and its vicinity. our goods were ferried over to jim halliday's farm, where we were given shelter. the windmill, as i have already stated, was sold to a farmer at lumberville, and we were kept busy for several days carting it over and setting it up in place. when everything had been done we stole back to kite island and set fire to the log cabin. the next day mr. schreiner took us home in a couple of his wagons. thus ended our "investigation, exploration and exploitation of willow clump island." the work of two summers was practically all destroyed in a few days. reddy's cantilever bridge. i believe i have given a careful account of everything that was recorded in the chronicles of the society. we were too discouraged to undertake anything new in the two weeks before school opened. i presume i might mention here reddy's cantilever bridge, which, however, had really nothing to do with the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., because our society was formally disbanded the day before bill and i returned to school. about a month after leaving home i received a letter from reddy inclosing three interesting photographs, which are reproduced herewith. reddy certainly had the bridge fever, because soon after we had left he started to work, with the rest of the boys, on a cantilever bridge across cedar brook. the brook was entirely unsuited to such a structure, because the banks were very low; but he made the towers quite short and built an inclined roadway leading up to the top of them. the legs of the towers were driven firmly into the bank, making them so solid that he thought it would be perfectly safe to build the frames out over the brook without building them at the same time on the shore side. but he had made a miscalculation, for when a couple of the boys had crawled out on the _b_ and _c_ frames to set up an _e_ frame the structure commenced to sag. the trouble was remedied by propping up the tower with a stout stick driven into the river bottom and wedged under the upper tie piece of the tower. the towers were really too short to make a well proportioned bridge, for the panels had to be made very long and narrow, so as to reach across. but on the whole it was a very creditable structure when completed, though it had only half as long a span as our cantilever bridge over the lagoon. index a "a" tent, 207 abbreviations, wigwag, 146 accident, railway, the first, 290 ainu snow shoe, 41 alarm clock, a unique, 63 alphabet, wigwag, 145 alpine stock, 198 anchoring cantilever bridge, 303 annex, the, 50 arctic expedition, 193 armchair, barrel, 227 axles of railroad car, 285 b bags, sleeping, 203 banquets, midnight, 179 barrel armchair, 227 barrel filter, 68 barrel hoop snow shoe, 36 barrel stave hammock, 226 barrel stave snow shoe, 36 bat's wings, 33 bed, a camp, 209 bed in shower, 210 belly band, elastic, 235 bending wood, 39 bicycle wheels, mounting frame on, 219 big bug club, 177 "bill," 17 bill's cave, 224 bill's skate sail, 21 binding cantilever bridge, 303 blades of wind wheel, 278 boat, ice, 159 boat mooring, tramp-proof, 142 boat, scow, 59 box kite, diamond, 236 box, the black walnut, 19 brake for wind wheel, 278 bridge building, 95 bridge, cantilever, 292 bridge, king post, 105 bridge, king rod, 102 bridge, pontoon, 101 bridge, reddy's cantilever, 308 bridge, spar, 95 bridge, stiffening, 104 bridge, suspension, 99 bridge wreck, 66 bucket, the canvas, 251 buckets for water wheel, 246 bunks, 270 c camp bed, 209 camp bed in shower, 210 camp, breaking, 158 camp chair, a, 208 camp fire, a costly, 200 camp fire, kindling, 194 canoe, indian paddling, 121 canoe lee boards, 119 canoe rudder, 115 canoe, the sailing, 111 canoe sails, 117 canoe, scooter, 190 canoe, stretching on canvas, 114 canoes, canvas, 109 cantilever bridge, 292 cantilever bridge, anchoring, 303 cantilever bridge, binding frames, 303 cantilever bridge, center panels, 304 cantilever bridge, frames for, 293 cantilever bridge, reddy's, 308 cantilever bridge, setting up frames of, 300 cantilever bridge towers, 299 canvas bucket, 251 canvas canoes, 109 canvas, stretching on canoe, 114 canvas tent, 46 car axles, 285 car for gravity railroad, 284 car, mounting wheels on, 286 carpenter's miter box, 288 cave, bill's, 224 cave, covering the, 177 cave, excavating for, 173 cave, framing, 174 cave-in, a, 171 center panels of cantilever bridge, 304 chain, surveyor's, 77 chair, a camp, 208 chair seat snow shoe, 35 cheek blocks, 162 chinks in log cabin, stopping up, 272 christmas vacation, 19 clamp for crank shaft, 276 clapboards, nailing on, 135 cleat, a, 163 climbing, mountain, 198 clock, a unique alarm, 63 club, the big bug, 177 club pin, 180 club, the subterranean, 171 code, international telegraph, 155 combination lock, 181 council of war, 139 crank shaft, the, 276 creepers, ice, 170 crossbow, 55 crossbow trigger, 57 cutting out disk, 78 d danish sail, 30 derrick, the, 131 diamond box kite, 236 digging the well, 274 disk, cutting out, 78 disk, sighting, 79 dispossessed, 306 diving tree, 84 door hinges, 269 door latch, 269 doors, sliding, 136 double mirror heliograph, 156 double surprise, 140 drill, fire, 69 drowned, how to restore, alone, 92 drowned, restoring the, 89 e easter vacation, 224 elastic belly band, 235 expedition, arctic, 193 expedition, logging, 255 expedition, preparing for, 53 exploration, preliminary, 66 f farewell to willow clump island, 307 fastener, brass, 58 filter, the barrel, 68 filter barrel, cooling the, 250 filter, the small, 67 fire drill, 69 fireplace of log cabin, 265 fireplace, outdoor, 195 fireplace, stone-paved, 196 fissure, path up the, 129 flanged wheels, 285 fly, ridge pole, 54 fly for tent, 54 fly, umbrella with, 211 focusing heliograph instrument, 153 frame on bicycle wheels, 219 frames for cantilever bridge, 293 frames of cantilever bridge, setting up, 300 friend in time of trouble, 201 g goblins' dancing platform, 126 grass hut, 124 gravity railroad, 283 h halliday, jim, 194 hammock, barrel stave, 226 harness, pack, 212 heliograph, the, 147 heliograph, double mirror, 156 heliograph instrument, focusing, 153 heliograph screen, 151 heliograph sight rod, 150 heliograph signaling, 154 heliograph, single mirror, 148 hinge for spars, 30 hinges, door, 269 house building, 124 house, log, 254 house, the tree, 132 hut, cold night in, 197 hut, log, 254 hut, straw, 124 i ice boat, the, 159 ice boats, sledges and toboggans, 158 ice, craft strikes the, 184 ice creepers, 170 indian paddling canoe, 121 instrument, double mirror, 156 instrument, single mirror, 148 instrument, surveying, 73 international telegraph code, 155 iroquois snow shoe, 39 island, mapping the, 82 island, off to the, 63 island, trip to the, 64 j jacob's ladder, 129 jaws of boom, 162 jib-sail for ice boat, 164 jib-sail for scooter scow, 187 jim halliday, 194 k king post bridge, 105 king rod truss, 102 kite, diamond box, 236 kite island, 83 kite, malay, 5-foot, 231 kite, malay, 8-foot, 233 kites, putting to work, 235 kites, tailless, 229 _klepalo_, the, 70 l ladder, the jacob's, 129 ladders, rope, 130 lagoon, the, 83 lake placid, 83 land yacht, 215 land yacht, a sail on, 222 lanteen sail for canoe, 117 lanteen skate sail, 29 latch, door, 269 latch string, 270 lee boards, canoe, 119 "leg-of-mutton" sail, 220 levels, spirit, 74 lock combination, 181 log cabin, 251 log cabin, building the, 259 log cabin door hinges, 269 log cabin door latch, 269 log cabin door and window frames, 263 log cabin fireplace, 265 log cabin, floor of, 267 log cabin, foundation of, 254 log cabin, roof of, 262 log cabin, stopping up chinks, 272 log cabin window sash, 270 log raft, 256 logging expedition, 255 m mainsail for canoe, 117 mainsail for ice boat, 162 malay kite, 5-foot, 231 malay kite, 8-foot, 233 mapping the island, 82 mast of land yacht, stepping, 218 mast step, ice boat, 161 mast step, leather, 30 mast step, wooden, 30 megaphone, 57 megaphone mouthpiece, 58 midnight banquets, 179 mill-race, the, 88 mirror instrument, heliograph, 148 miter box, carpenter's, 288 mizzen sail of canoe, 118 mooring, tramp-proof boat, 142 mountain climbing, 198 mouthpiece of megaphone, 58 "mummy case," 204 n needle, weaving, 39 night, cold, in the hut, 197 nightmare, a, 211 noria, 241 norwegian ski, 42 numerals, wigwag, 145 o oar, the, 61 off to the island, 63 organizing the society, 25 outdoor fireplace, 195 outfits, tramping, 203 p pack harness, 212 paddling canoe, indian, 121 paddles for water wheel, 246 panels, center, of cantilever bridge, 304 path up the fissure, 129 patient, how to work over, alone, 93 pin, the club, 180 plank, swimming on, 86 platform, goblins' dancing, 126 point lookout, 83 pole, ridge, 48 poncho, 210 pontoon bridge, 101 poor shelter, a, 199 preparing for the expedition, 53 protractor, the, 76 provisions and supplies, 54 pump, the, 279 pump, action of, 281 pump valves, the, 280 r raft, log, 256 raft, sail-rigged, 258 railroad car, 284 railroad car axles, 285 railroad flanged wheels, 285 railroad, gravity, 283 railway track, the, 287 railway accident, the first, 290 railway, rope, 97 railway spikes, 50 rapids, shooting the, 88 receiving trough for water wheel, 247 records of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., 19 reddy's cantilever bridge, 308 rennwolf, the, 168 restoring the drowned, 89 ridge pole, 48 ridge pole, fly, 54 riveting, 213 rod, heliograph sight, 150 rod, surveyor's, 78 rope ladders, 130 rope railway, 97 rowlocks, sockets for, 60 rudder, canoe, 115 rudder shoe, ice boat, 160 runner shoe, ice boat, 160 runners of scooter canoe, 190 runners of sledge, 165 rustic table, 66 s s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., records of, 19 sail, jib, for scooter, 187 sail, "leg-of-mutton," 220 sail, mizzen, of canoe, 118 sail-rigged raft, 258 sail, sprit, for scooter, 186 sail stitch, 46 sail through the country, 222 sailing canoe, the, 111 sailor's stitch, 221 sails, canoe, 117 sails for ice boat, 162 sandwiches, straw, 227 schreiner, a visit from mr., 110 scooter canoe, 190 scooter sailing, 188 scooter scow, 185 scooters, 183 scow, the, 59 scow, a sail in, 184 scow, scooter, 185 scow, stolen, 138 screen, heliograph, 151 seat, swing, 97 shaft, the crank, 276 shelter, a poor, 199 shooting the rapids, 88 sight rod, 150 sighting blocks, 74 sighting disk, 79 signaling, heliograph, 154 signals, wigwag, 144 simple method of surveying, 79 single mirror heliograph, 148 sioux snow shoe, 37 skate sail, bat's wings, 33 skate sail, bill's, 21 skate sail, danish, 30 skate sail, double swedish, 26 skate sail, lanteen, 29 skate sail, single swedish, 28 skate sails, 26 ski, norwegian, 42 ski sticks, 43 skids, 262 slabs, 101 sledge, the, 165 sleeping bags, 203 sliding doors, 136 snotter, 187 snow shoe, ainu, 41 snow shoe, barrel hoop, 36 snow shoe, barrel stave, 36 snow shoe, chair seat, 35 snow shoe, iroquois, 39 snow shoe, sioux, 37 snow shoe, swiss, 43 snow shoes, 35 society, meeting of, 189 society, organizing the, 25 spar bridge, 95 spars, hinge for, 30 spikes, railway, 50 spiral spring, 153 spirit levels, 74 spring, spiral, 153 sprit sail, 186 stepping mast of land yacht, 218 stitch, the sail, 46 stitch, sailor's, 221 stick, ski, 43 stiffening the bridge, 104 stone-paved fireplace, 196 stone wall, how to build, 266 straw hut, 124 straw sandwiches, 227 subterranean club, 171 summer toboggan, 229 supplies and provisions, 54 surprise, a double, 140 surveying, 73 surveying, first lesson in, 79 surveying instrument, 73 surveying, a simple method of, 79 surveying for water wheel, 241 surveyor's chain, 77 surveyor's rod, 78 suspension bridge, 99 swamp shoe, 43 swedish sail, double, 26 swedish sail, single, 28 swimming, 84 swimming on a plank, 86 swing seat, 97 swiss snow shoe, 43 t table, a rustic, 66 tailless kites, 229 telegraph code, international, 155 tent, the "a", 207 tent, annex, 50 tent, canvas wall, 46 tent fly, 54 tent making, 44 testing the track, 291 thole pins, 61 tie block, wood, 49 tie, wire, 50 tiger's tail, 83 tiller, ice boat, 161 tiller of land yacht, 219 toboggan, the, 167 toboggan, the summer, 229 tower, the windmill, 275 towers of the cantilever bridge, 299 towers for water wheel, 243 towers of water wheel, setting up, 248 track, laying the, 289 track, the railway, 287 track, testing the, 291 tramping outfits, 203 tramp-proof boat mooring, 142 tramps, trouble with, 138 tree, diving, 84 tree house, the, 132 trigger for crossbow, 57 trip to the island, 64 tripod, the, 75 trouble with tramps, 138 trunk, the old, 18 truss, king rod, 102 turnbuckle, a simple, 216 u umbrella with fly, 211 umbrella rib crossbow, 55 uncle ed, word from, 45 uncle ed's departure, 109 v vacation, christmas, 19 vacation, easter, 224 valves, the pump, 280 van syckel, interview with, 189 vengeance, 139 visit from mr. schreiner, 110 w wall, how to build, 266 wall tent, 46 water wheel, 241 water wheel buckets, 246 water wheel, construction of, 245 water wheel, mr. halliday's, 252 water wheel, mounting the, 249 water wheel paddles, 246 water wheel receiving trough, 247 water wheel, surveying for, 241 water wheel, towers for, 243 water wheel towers, setting up, 248 war, council of, 139 weaving needle, 39 well, digging the, 274 wheel, the wind, 276 wheels for gravity railroad, 285 wheels, mounting, on car, 286 wheels, mounting frame on, 219 wigwag abbreviations, 146 wigwag alphabet, 145 wigwag numerals, 145 wigwag signals, 144 wigwagging and heliographing, 144 wigwagging at night, 147 willow clump island, 23 willow clump island, farewell to, 307 willow clump island in winter, 194 wind wheel, 276 wind wheel blades, 278 wind wheel brake, 278 windmill, 273 windmill tower, 275 window hinge, 270 window sash, log cabin, 270 wings, bat's, 33 wire tie, 50 wood, bending, 39 wood tie block, 49 word from uncle ed, 45 y yacht, land, 215 yacht, land, frame of, 216 the most popular scientific paper in the world scientific american established 1845 weekly, $3.00 a year; $1.50 six months this unrivaled periodical is now in its sixtieth year, and, owing to its ever-increasing popularity, it enjoys the largest circulation ever attained by any scientific publication. every number contains sixteen large pages, beautifully printed, handsomely illustrated; it presents in popular style a descriptive record of the most novel, interesting and important developments in science, arts and manufactures. it shows the progress of the world in respect to new discoveries and improvements, embracing machinery, mechanical works, engineering in all its branches, chemistry, metallurgy, electricity, light, heat, architecture, domestic economy, agriculture, natural history, etc. it abounds in fresh and interesting subjects for discussion, thought or study. to the inventor it is invaluable, as every number contains a complete list of all patents and trade-marks issued weekly from the patent office. it promotes industry, progress, thrift and intelligence in every community where it circulates. the scientific american should have a place in every dwelling, shop, office, school, or library. workmen, foremen, engineers, superintendents, directors, presidents, officials, merchants, farmers, teachers, lawyers, physicians, clergymen--people in every walk and profession in life--will derive satisfaction and benefit from a regular reading of the scientific american. if you want to know more about the paper send for "fifteen reasons why you should subscribe to the scientific american," and for "five reasons why inventors should subscribe to the scientific american." fifty-two numbers make 832 large pages, equal to 3,328 ordinary magazine pages, and 1,000 illustrations are published each year. can you and your friends afford to be without this up-to-date periodical, which is read by every class and profession? remit $3.00 by postal order or check for a year's subscription, or $1.50 for six months. munn & company, publishers no. 361 broadway, new york city just published home mechanics for amateurs by george m. hopkins author of "experimental science" 12mo, 375 pages, 320 illustrations. price, $1.50, postpaid the book deals with wood-working, household ornaments, metal-working, lathe work, metal spinning, silver working; making model engines, boilers and water motors; making telescopes, microscopes and meteorological instruments, electrical chimes, cabinets, bells, night lights, dynamos and motors, electric light, and an electrical furnace. it is a thoroughly practical book by the most noted amateur experimenter in america. every reader of "experimental science" should possess a copy of this most helpful book. it appeals to the boy as well as the more mature amateur. holidays and evenings can be profitably occupied by making useful articles for the home or in building small engines or motors or scientific instruments. table of contents sent on application. munn & company publishers of the "scientific american" 361 broadway, new york scientific american reference book 500 pages six colored plates price $1.50 this book is intended to furnish the reader with information not obtainable in any other work of reference. it is not an encyclopedia, nor is it an annual, but it contains a mass of information that should be within the reach of every family. this work has been prepared in response to the many thousands of inquiries received by the editor of the scientific american on the widest possible range of topics, and it is through these inquiries that the editors of the reference book have been enabled to determine the scope of this work. it deals with the "progress of discovery," "shipping and yachts," "the navies of the world," "the armies of the world," "railroads of the world," "population," "education," "telegraphs," "submarine telegraphs," "wireless telegraphy," "patents," "trade-marks," "copyrights," "manufactures," "iron and steel," "departments of the federal government," "the post-office," "international institutions and bureaus," "mines and mining," "farms and food," "mechanical movements," "chemistry," "astronomy," "weights and measures," and a host of other subjects, such as "aerial navigation," "radium," etc. this valuable compendium has been put at a very low price, so that it may be within the reach of every one. it is fully illustrated, and has colored plates showing the flags of all nations, the funnels and house flags of lines in american trade, and the international signal code. descriptive circular sent upon request munn & company, publishers 361 broadway :: :: new york city note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original 379 illustrations. see 20846-h.htm or 20846-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/0/8/1/20846/20846-h/20846-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/0/8/1/20846/20846-h.zip) handwork in wood by william noyes, m.a. assistant professor, department of industrial arts. teachers college, columbia university new york city [illustration] the manual arts press peoria, illinois copyright william noyes 1910 to my students past present and future a token of gratitude for help and inspiration foreword this book is intended primarily for teachers of woodwork, but the author hopes that there will also be other workers in wood, professional and amateur, who will find in it matter of interest and profit. the successful completion of the book is due chiefly to the untiring assistance of my wife, anna gausmann noyes, who has made almost all of the drawings, corrected the text, read the proof, and attended to numberless details. acknowledgments are hereby thankfully given for corrections and suggestions in the text made by the following persons: mr. chas. w. weick of teachers college, and mr. w. f. vroom of public school no. 5, of new york city, for revision of chapters iv and v on tools and fastenings. mr. clinton s. vandeusen of bradley polytechnic institute, for revision of chapter x on wood finishing. the forest service, washington, d. c. for the originals of figs. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, and 54. the new york state forest fish and game commission for the originals of figs. 12, 14, 15, and 47. t. h. mcallister of new york for the originals of figs. 16 and 20. the detroit publishing company for the original of fig. 6. the b. f. sturtevant company, hyde park, mass., for the original of fig. 57. doubleday, page & co. for the original of fig. 30. mr. louis a. bacon, indianapolis. ind., for the clamping device shown in fig. 255. sargent & company, new haven, conn., w. c. toles & company, chicago, ill., the berlin machine works, beloit, wis., a. a. loetscher, dubuque, iowa, and the stanley rule and level co., new britain, conn., for electrotypes. allis chalmers company, milwaukee, wis., clark brothers, belmont, n. y., the m. garland company, bay city, mich., the prescott company, menominee, mich., for illustrations of sawmilling machinery. and most of all, i wish to acknowledge my obligation to the numerous writers of whose books and articles i have made free use, to which references are made in the appropriate places. contents. chapter page general bibliography 4 i logging 7 ii sawmilling 30 iii the seasoning and measuring of wood 45 iv wood hand tools 51 v wood fastenings 123 vi equipment and care of the shop 136 vii the common joints 151 viii types of wooden structures 183 ix principles of joinery 203 x wood finishing 209 index 224 general bibliography adams, henry, _joints in wood-work._ london: 60 queen victoria st. 1894. alexander, jerome, _the grading and use of glue._ _wood craft_, 5: 168, sep. '06. bailey, charles h., _a study of manual training equipments._ _manual training magazine_, 6: 82. jan. '05. barnard, charles, _tools and machines._ n. y.: silver, burdett and co. 1903. barter, s. m., _woodwork._ london: whittaker and co. 1892. benson, w. a. s., _elements of handicraft and design._ london: macmillan and co. 1893. brannt, w. t., _painter, gilder and varnisher._ philadelphia: h. c. baird & co. 1893. bruncken, ernest, _north american forests and forestry._ n. y.: g. p. putnam's sons. 1899. clark, r. i., _varnish and fossil remains._ london: chas. letts & co. no date. compton, a. g., _first lessons in woodworking._ n. y.: ivison, blakeman, taylor and co. 1888. crawshaw, fred d., _problems in furniture making._ peoria. ill.: the manual arts press. 1906. disston, henry, and sons, _handbook for lumbermen._ philadelphia, pa. dunlap, frederick. _kiln-drying hardwood lumber._ _wood craft_, 6: 133, feb. '07. ellis, george, _modern practical joinery._ london: b. t. batsford, 486 pp., 1902, '03, '04 and '07. encyclopedia britannica, _lac, varnish._ n. y.: scribner's. 1878. foster, edwin w., _elementary woodworking._ boston: ginn and co. goss, w. f. m., _bench work in wood._ boston: ginn and co. 1887 and 1905. griffith, ira s., _essentials of woodworking._ peoria ill.: manual arts press. 1908. hammacher, schlemmer & co., _tools._ catalog no. 355. n. y. 1908. hammacher, schlemmer & co., _cabinet hardware._ catalog no. 151. n. y. 1904. hodgson, fred t., _the up-to-date hardwood finisher._ chicago: fred j. drake and co. 1904. hodgson, fred t., _the carpenter's steel square and its uses._ n. y.: industrial publishing co. 1880. hovey-king, alvin, _the lumber industry of the pacific coast._ _review of reviews_, 27: 317, mr., '03. hulbert, w. h., _the lumber jack and his job. outlook_, 76: 801, ap. 2, '04. international correspondence school, _the building trades pocketbook._ scranton, pa. international textbook co. 2nd edition. 1905. international encyclopedia, _lac-insect varnish._ n. y.: dodd, mead and co. 1902-1904. jones, j. e., _lumbering in the northwest._ _cosmopolitan_, 15: 63, may 1893. larsson, gustaf, _elementary sloyd and whittling._ n. y.: silver, burdett & co. 1906. maire, f., _the modern wood finisher._ chicago: press of the western painter. munn, m. j., _great industries of the u. s.--lumber._ _cosmopolitan_, 37: 441, aug. '04. murray, m. w., _problems in wood-working._ peoria, ill.: manual arts press. 1905. murray, m. w., _the manual training room and its equipment._ _year book of the council of supervisors for-_ 1906, pp. 69-86. park, joseph c. _educational woodworking for school and home._ the macmillan co., 1908. pichot, gifford, _a primer of forestry._ parts i and ii, u. s. dept. of agric. for. serv. bull. no. 24. 1899 and 1905. purfield, h. t., _the length of nails._ _wood craft_, 5: 181, sp. '06. rivingston, see south kensington council on education. rouillion, louis, _economies of manual training._ n. y.: the derry collard company. 1905. roth, filibert, _a first book of forestry._ boston: ginn & co. 1902. sargent & co., _standard steel squares._ new haven, conn. seaton, geo. a., _a clamp for use at the grindstone._ _woodcraft_, 6: 96. jan., '07. selden, f. h., _elementary woodwork._ n. y.: rand, mcnally & co. 1906. sickels, ivin, _exercises in woodworking._ n. y.: d. appleton & co. 1889. smith, k., _lumbering by machinery._ _world's work_, 7: 4435. feb. '04. smith, r. h., _cutting tools._ london: cassell & co. 1884. south kensington council on education, _notes on building construction._ 3 vols. london: rivington. 1883-1889. standage, h. c., _glues and cements for the use of woodworkers._ _wood craft_, 7: 48, may, '07. tate, james m., _training in wood work._ minneapolis: north western school supply co. about 1905. trout, w. h., _the modern saw mill._ _cassier's magazine_, 11: 83-95. 184-195, dec. '96 and jan. '97. u. s. department of agriculture _forest service classified list of publications. forest service bulletins:_ no. 10. filibert, roth. _timber._ 1895. no. 34. wm. f. fox, _a history of the lumber industry in the state of new york, 1902._ no. 41. hermann von schrenk, _seasoning of timber._ 1903. van deusen, clinton s., _methods of wood finishing._ _manual training magazine_, 6: 93. jan. '05. van deusen, clinton s., _logging in the south._ _manual training magazine_, 1: 93. jan. '00. wheeler, c. g., _woodworking for beginners._ n. y.: g. p. putnam's sons. 1899. white, stewart edward, _the blazed trail._ n. y.: mcclure, phillips & co. 1904. white, stewart edward, _from forest to saw mill._ _junior munsey_, 10: 362, je. '01. anonymous. _nails. wood craft._ 5: 103, jl. '06. _a dry-kiln of progressive style._ _wood craft_, 6: 31. nov. '06. _lumbering in louisiana._ _wood craft_, 4: 55, nov. '05. _the lac industry of assam. journal of the society of arts._ 49: 192. feb 8 '01. chapter i. logging. the rough and ready methods common in american logging operations are the result partly of a tradition of inexhaustible supply, partly of the fear of fire and the avoidance of taxes, partly of an eagerness to get rich quick. most of the logging has been done on privately owned land or on shamelessly stolen public land, and the lumberman had no further interest in the forest than to lumber it expeditiously. [illustration: fig. 1. making a valuation survey.] [illustration: fig. 2. "blazes" on trees.] preliminary to the actual logging are certain necessary steps. first of all is _landlooking_. this includes the survey of the forest land for the purpose of locating good timber. fig. 1. most of the woodland has previously been roughly surveyed by the government and maps made indicating which parts are private land and which are still held by the government. the boundaries of townships, sections, quarter sections, eighties, forties, etc., are indicated by "blazes" on trees, fig. 2, so that the "cruiser" or "looker" as he goes thru the woods can identify them with those on his oil paper map. the cruiser also studies the kinds and character of the trees, the contour of the ground, the proximity to streams,--all with the view to marketing the product. acting on the information thus gained by the cruiser, the lumberman purchases his sections at the proper land office, or if he is less scrupulous, buys only enough to serve as a basis for operations. enormous fortunes have been made by timber thieves, now respectable members of the community. as a further preliminary step to lumbering itself, the _tote road_ and _camp_ are built. the tote road is a rough road on which supplies for crew and cattle can be taken to camp from civilization. it is barely passable for a team and a wagon, but it serves its purpose, and over it come more men and horses. lumber for the floors and roofs of the shanties and for the rude pieces of furniture that will be needed, tarred paper to make the roofs tight, a few glazed window sashes, a huge range and a number of box stoves, dishes and kitchen utensils, a little stock of goods for the van, blankets by the dozen and score, and countless boxes and barrels and bags of provisions.[1] [footnote 1: hulbert: the lumber jack; outlook, 76: 801, april 2, '04.] the _camp_ itself, fig. 3, is built of logs, roofed with plank, covered with heavy tar paper, and dimly lighted. there are usually five buildings,--the men's camp, the cook camp, the office, the barn, and the blacksmith's shop. many camps accommodate from eighty to one hundred men. the men's camp is filled with bunks and is heated by a stove and in general roughly furnished. cooking and eating are done in the cook camp, where the cook and his assistant, the "cookee," sleep. the office is occupied by the foreman, log-sealers and clerks. here the books and accounts are kept, and here is the "van," stocked with such goods as will supply the immediate needs of the lumber jacks. [illustration: fig. 3. winter logging camp. itasco county, minnesota.] before winter sets in the _main road_ is built, fig. 15, p. 17, very carefully graded from the camp down to the nearest mill or railway siding, or oftener to the stream down which the logs are to be floated. this road has to be as wide as a city street, 25 feet. the route is carefully chosen, and the grade is made as easy as possible. much labor is spent upon it, clearing away stumps and rocks, leveling up with corduroy, building bridges strong enough to carry enormous loads, and otherwise making it as passable as can be; for when needed later, its good condition is of first importance. this main road is quite distinct from and much superior to the tote road. at intervals alongside the main road, small squares called _skidways_ are cleared of brush and in each of them two tree trunks, "skids," are laid at right angles to the road. on these the logs, when cut later, are to be piled. back from the skidways, into the woods the swampers cut rough, narrow roads called _dray roads_ or travoy roads,--mere trails sufficiently cleared of brush to allow a team of horses to pull a log thru. [illustration: fig. 4. tools used in logging.] all these are operations preliminary to the felling of trees. the tools commonly used in logging are shown in fig. 4. when everything is ready for felling, the "fitter" goes ahead _marking_ each tree to be felled and the direction in which it is to fall by cutting a notch on that side. then come the sawyers in pairs, fig. 5. first they chop a deep gash on the side of the tree toward which it is to fall, and then from the opposite side begin cutting with a long, tuttle-tooth, crosscut-saw. the saw is a long, flexible ribbon of steel, with handles so affixed to each end that they can be removed easily. the cut is made on the pulling stroke, and hence the kerf can be very narrow. as soon as the saw is well within the trunk, the sawyers drive iron wedges into the kerf behind it, partly to keep the weight of the trunk from binding the saw, and partly to direct its fall. then the saw is pulled back and forth, and the wedges driven in farther and farther, until every stroke of the maul that drives them sends a shiver thru the whole tree. just as the tree is ready to go over, the saw handle at one end is unhooked and the saw pulled out at the other side. "timber!," the men cry out as a warning to any working near by, for the tree has begun to lean slightly. then with a hastening rush the top whistles thru the air, and tears thru the branches of other trees, and the trunk with a tremendous crash strikes the ground. even hardened loggers can hardly keep from shouting, so impressive is the sight of a falling giant tree. [illustration: fig. 5. felling red spruce with a saw. adirondack mountains, new york.] [illustration: fig. 6. sawing logs into lengths.] all this seems simple enough in outline, but the actual execution requires considerable skill. trees seldom stand quite vertical, there is danger of lodging in some other tree in thick woods, and it is therefore necessary to throw trees quite exactly. some men become so expert at this that they can plant a stake and drive it into the ground by the falling trunk as truly as if they hit it with a maul. on the other hand, serious accidents often happen in falling trees. most of them come from "side winders," i. e., the falling of smaller trees struck by the felled trees. after "falling" a tree, the sawyers mark off and saw the trunk into log lengths, fig. 6, paying due attention to the necessity of avoiding knots, forks, and rotten places, so that some of the logs are eighteen feet, some sixteen feet, some fourteen feet, and some only twelve feet in length. meanwhile the swampers trim off the branches, fig. 7, a job requiring no little skill, in order that the trunk may be shaved close but not gashed. [illustration: fig. 7. trimming off branches of spruce. adirondack mountains, new york.] [illustration: fig. 8. hauling spruce logs to the skidway. adirondack mountains, new york.] this finishes the second group of operations, the felling. next the logs are _dragged_ out to the dray roads, fig. 8. a heavy pair of tongs, like ice-tongs, is attached to one end, and the log is snaked out by horses to the skidway. if the log is very heavy, one end is put on a dray. by one way or another the log is dragged out and across the two parallel skids, on which it is rolled by cant-hooks to the end of skids toward the road way. if other logs already occupy the skids, each new log as it arrives is piled on the first tier. as the pile grows higher, each log is "decked," that is, rolled up parallel poles laid slanting up the face of the pile, by means of a chain passed under and over the log and back over the pile, fig. 11. a horse hitched to the end of the chain hauls up the log, which is guided by the "send-up men" with their cant-hooks. once piled the logs are "_scaled_," that is measured in order to compute the number of board feet in them, fig. 9. the scaler generally has an assistant, for logs in large piles must be measured at both ends in order to determine which is the top, the body of the log being out of sight. when measured each end of the log is stamped with a hammer with the owner's mark, by which it can afterward be identified. here the logs rest and the felling and skidding continue until deep snow falls and then the sleigh haul begins. [illustration: fig. 9. "scaling" logs on the skids.] [illustration: fig. 10. making an ice road by flooding.] [illustration: fig. 11. decking logs on skidway.] for this the main road is especially prepared. first the road is carefully _plowed_ with an immense v plow, weighted down by logs. to the plow are attached fans. only an inch or two of snow is left on the ground by this plow, which is followed by another special plow to gouge the ruts, and by a gang of "road monkeys" who clear the road thoroly. then follows an immense tank set on runners and holding perhaps seventy-five barrels of water, and so arranged as to flood the road from holes in the bottom of the tank, a sort of rough road sprinkler, fig. 10. the sprinkler goes over the road again and again until the road is covered by a clear, solid sheet of ice often two feet thick, extending from the skidways to the banking grounds. this ice road is one of the modern improvements in logging. once finished, these roads are beautiful pieces of construction with deep, clear ruts. they have to be constantly watched and repaired, and this is the work of the "road monkeys." if possible the road has been made entirely with down grades but some of these are so steep that a man must be prepared with sand or hay to check too headlong a descent. [illustration: fig. 12. loading a sled from a skidway.] [illustration: fig. 13. a load of logs. flathead county, montana.] when all is ready the sleigh haul begins. piling on the sleighs or bobs, fig. 12, is similar to piling on the skidways, but more difficult, for the load has to be carefully balanced, fig. 13. chains bind the loads but the piling is only too apt to be defective, and the whole load "squash out" with a rush. it is a time of feverish activity. the sprinklers are at work till after midnight, the loaders are out long before daylight. the blacksmith is busy with repairs, the road monkeys work overtime, and the cook works all the time. "everybody works." the haul itself is full of excitement. the ponderous load of logs, weighing anywhere from eight to thirty-five tons has to be conducted largely by its own momentum down this glassy road. if a horse fall nothing can save its life. if the runners get out of the ruts, the whole load, driver and all, is likely to be upset. it is an extremely hazardous job, fig. 15. as each load comes down to the _banking grounds_, fig. 14, or log dump, it is stopped opposite long parallel skids. the wrapping chains are unhooked and the lower log on the skid side is worked out with cant-hooks till the whole load flattens out. the logs are then "decked" on immense piles, sometimes a mile long and filling the whole river from bank to bank. a decking chain 300 feet long is sometimes required to roll the logs to their proper places. here the logs rest till the spring freshets come. this completes the transportation by land. [illustration: fig. 14. banking grounds.] with the coming of the spring thaw, the river bed is filled with a freshet of water which seizes and carries the logs down stream. many on the banks, however, have to be started on their way, and this is called "breaking out the roll ways." they often start on their water journey with a great crash. [illustration: fig. 15. the sleigh haul.] [illustration: fig. 16. sacking the rear.] now comes _the drive_, an arduous and often perilous task. some of the men are stationed along the shores to prevent the logs from lodging or floating into bays or setbacks. some stand at the heads of bars or islands, where with pike poles they shove off the logs that might stop there and form a jam; others follow "sacking the rear" to clean out such logs as may have become stranded. this "sacking the rear" takes most of the time, fig. 16. while "on the drive" men often work fourteen hours a day, a good part of the time up to their waists in ice water. their boots are shod with "caulks," or spikes, to keep them from slipping on the logs, and they carry either pike poles or peaveys, fig. 17. the latter are similar to cant-hooks, except that they have sharp pikes at their ends. so armed, they have to "ride any kind of a log in any water, to propel a log by jumping on it, by rolling it squirrel fashion with the feet, by punting it as one would a canoe; to be skilful in pushing, prying, and poling other logs from the quarter deck of the same cranky craft." altho the logs are carried by the river, they have to be "driven" with amazing skill and bravery. [illustration: fig. 17. log driving on the ausable river.] the climax of hardship and courage is reached when a "_jam_" is formed, fig. 18. sometimes one or two logs are caught in such a way as to be locked or jammed and then soon other logs begin to accumulate behind them, till the whole river is full of a seemingly inextricable mass. sometimes these jams can be loosened by being pulled apart, one log at a time. a hundred men can pull out an amazing number of logs in a day. the problem always is to set free or cut out certain "key" logs, which lock the whole mass. following is a description by stewart edward white of the breaking of such a jam: the crew were working desperately. down on the heap somewhere, two logs were crossed in such a manner as to lock the whole. they sought those logs. thirty feet above the bed of the river six men clamped their peaveys into the soft pine; jerking, pulling, lifting, sliding the great logs from their places. thirty feet below, under the threatening face, six other men coolly picked out and set adrift one by one, the timbers not inextricably imbedded. from time to time the mass creaked, settled, perhaps even moved a foot or two; but always the practised rivermen, after a glance, bent more eagerly to their work. * * * suddenly the six men below the jam scattered. * * * holding their peaveys across their bodies, they jumped lightly from one floating log to another in the zig-zag to shore. * * * [illustration: fig. 18. log jam. adirondack mountains, new york.] in the meantime a barely perceptible motion was communicating itself from one particle to another thru the center of the jam. * * * the crew redoubled its exertion, clamping its peaveys here and there, apparently at random, but in reality with the most definite of purposes. a sharp crack exploded immediately underneath. there could no longer exist any doubt as to the motion, altho it was as yet sluggish, glacial. then in silence a log shifted--in silence and slowly--but with irresistible force * * * other logs in all directions up-ended. * * * then all at once down by the face something crashed, the entire stream became alive. it hissed and roared, it shrieked, groaned, and grumbled. at first slowly, then more rapidly, the very fore-front of the center melted inward and forward and downward, until it caught the fierce rush of the freshet and shot out from under the jam. far up-stream, bristling and formidable, the tons of logs, grinding savagely together, swept forward. * * * then in a manner wonderful to behold, thru the smother of foam and spray, thru the crash and yell of timbers, protesting the flood's hurrying, thru the leap of destruction, the drivers zigzagged calmly and surely to the shore. sometimes cables have to be stretched across the chasm, and special rigging devised to let the men down to their dangerous task and more especially to save them from danger when the crash comes. [illustration: fig. 20. splash-dam.] [illustration: fig. 21. logs in boom. glens falls, new york.] in case such efforts are unavailing, it is necessary to "shoot" the jam with dynamite. another device resorted to where the supply of water is insufficient is the _splash-dam_, fig. 20. the object is to make the operator independent of freshets, by accumulating a head of water and then, by lifting the gates, creating an artificial freshet, sufficient to float the timber down stream. [illustration: fig. 22. a sorting jack.] thus by one means and another, the logs are driven along until caught by a boom, fig. 21, which consists of a chain of logs stretched across the river, usually at a mill. since the river is a common carrier, the drives of a number of logging companies may float into the mill pond together. but each log is stamped on both ends, so that it can be sorted out, fig. 22, and sent into the boom of its owner. mechanical methods in lumbering. the operations described above are those common in the lumber regions of the northeast and the lake states. but special conditions produce special methods. a very effective device where streams are small is the flume, fig. 23. this is a long wooden trough thru which water is led, and the logs floated end on. it is sometimes many miles long; in one case in california twenty-five miles. in the south where there is no snow, logs are largely brought out to the railway or river by being hung under immense two-wheeled trucks, called slip-tongue carts, drawn by mules, fig. 24. the wheels are nearly eight feet in diameter. [illustration: fig. 23. six mile flume. adirondack mountains, new york.] some kinds of wood are so heavy that they will not float at all, and some sink so readily that it does not pay to transport them by river. in such cases temporary railways are usually resorted to. [illustration: fig. 24. hauling logs by mules. oscilla, georgia.] on the pacific coast, where the forests are dense, the trees of enormous size, and no ice road is possible, still other special methods have been devised. on so great a scale are the operations conducted that they may properly be called engineering feats. consider for a moment the size of the trees: red fir ranges from five to fifteen feet in diameter, is commonly two hundred fifty feet high, and sometimes three hundred twenty-five feet high. the logs are commonly cut twenty-five feet long, and such logs often weigh thirty to forty tons each, and the logs of a single tree may weigh together one hundred fifty tons. the logging of such trees requires special appliances. until recently all the improved methods were in forms of transportation, the felling still being done by hand with very long saws, fig. 25, but now even the felling and sawing of logs in the forest is partly done by machinery. [illustration: fig. 25. a twenty-five foot saw used for crosscutting big logs.] [illustration: fig. 26. hauling big logs by donkey engine.] to work the saw, power is supplied by a steam or gasoline engine mounted upon a truck which can be taken readily from place to place. as the maximum power required is not over ten-horse-power, the apparatus is so light that it can be moved about easily. the saw can be adjusted to cut horizontally, vertically, or obliquely, and hence is used for sawing into lengths as well as for felling. _falling beds._ since the weight of a two hundred fifty foot fir is such that if the impact of its fall be not gradually checked the force with which it strikes the ground may split the trunk, a bed for its fall is prepared by the swampers. usually piles of brush are placed as buffers along the "falling line" so that the trunk will strike these. if the tree stands on the hill side, it is thrown up hill, in order to shorten the fall. after the felling comes the trimming of branches and knots and "rossing" of bark, to lessen the friction in sliding along the skidway. _the skidway._ by the skidway in the puget sound region is meant a corduroy road. this is constructed of trunks of trees ranging from a foot to two feet in diameter. these are "rossed," that is, stripped of their bark and laid across the road, where they are held in place by pegs driven into the ground, and by strips spiked upon the tops of the logs. if possible they are laid in swampy places to keep the surface damp and slippery. at turns in the road, pulleys are hung, thru which the hauling cables pass. the skidway runs to the railway siding or water's edge. over these skidways the logs are hauled out by various means. formerly "strings" of oxen or percheron horses were used, but they are now largely superseded by some form of donkey engine, fig. 26. these are placed at the center of a "yard." yarding is the skidding of logs to the railway or water way by means of these donkey engines. attached to the donkey engine are two drums, one for the direct cable, three-fourths to one inch in diameter and often half a mile long, to haul in the logs, the other for the smaller return cable, twice as long as the direct cable and used to haul back the direct cable. at the upper end of the skidway, when the logs are ready to be taken to the railway or boomed, they are fastened together, end to end, in "turns" of four or more. the direct cable is attached to the front of the "turn", and the return cable to the rear end. by winding the direct cable on its drum, the "turn" is hauled in. the return cable is used to haul back the end of the direct cable, and also, in case of a jam, to pull back and straighten out the turn. instead of a return cable a horse is often used to haul out the direct cable. signaling from the upper end of the skidway to the engineer is done by a wire connected to the donkey's whistle, by an electric bell, or by telephone. sometimes these donkey engines are in relays, one engine hauling a turn of logs to within reach of the next one, which passes it on to the next until the siding is reached. [illustration: fig. 27. steam skidder at work. grant county, arkansas.] where there are steep canons to be crossed, a wire trolley may be stretched and the great logs carried over suspended from it. in the south a complicated machine called a steam skidder, fig. 27, equipped with drums, booms, etc., is much used both for skidding in the logs and then for loading them on the cars. it is itself mounted on a flat car. an improvement on this is the locomotive boom derrick which is widely used both on the pacific coast and of late in the lake superior region. it is a combined locomotive, skidder and loader. its most unique feature is that it can be lifted off the track so as to allow flat cars to run underneath it. this feat is accomplished thus: a device, which is something like that used in elevating the bodies of coal wagons, lifts the engine several feet above the rails. then steel legs, which are curved outwardly, are lowered until the shoes which are attached to them rest on the outward end of the railroad ties. the truck of the locomotive is then folded up under it out of the way and cars can run under it, the curved legs giving plenty of clearance. the derrick attached is of the breast type, the two legs being firmly fastened. when anchored the engine can be used either for skidding or loading. for skidding, there are two cables, one being run out while the other is being wound on its drum. [illustration: fig. 28. log train, humboldt county, california.] in loading, the machine is located so that the empty car will be directly in front of it, and then the logs are lifted up and placed on the car by the derrick. when the car is loaded the machine can either move on to the next car, or pull it under itself into place. with the help of four men it can load from 125,000 to 150,000 feet of timber in a day. by means of the cable it can make up a train, and then by lowering the truck and raising the legs out of the way, it is converted into a locomotive and hauls the train away to the mill or railway station at the rate of three or four miles at hour. as forests are cut away along the water courses, railways have to be resorted to more and more, fig. 28. this has had a stimulative effect on the logging business, for now the logger is independent of the snow. on account of the steep grades and sharp curves often necessary in logging railways, a geared locomotive is sometimes used, fig. 29. it can haul a train of twenty loaded cars up a twelve per cent grade. the geared engine has also been used as a substitute for cable power, in "yarding" operations. the "turns" of logs are drawn over the ground between the rails, being fastened to the rear of the engine by hook and cable. this has proved to be a very economical use of power and plant. [illustration: fig. 29. donkey engine yarding.] [illustration: fig. 30. giant raft. in the background is a completed raft; in the foreground a cradle in which a raft is being built.] another method of traction where the woodland is open enough is with a traction engine. the ones employed have sixty to one hundred horse power. the great logs may be placed on wood rollers, as a house is when moved, or the logs may be hauled in on a low truck with broad wheels. the "tractor" hauls the log direct to the railway if the distance is not too great. [illustration: fig. 31. snow locomotive. takes the place of 12 teamsters and 12 horses. minnesota.] in northern michigan a "snow locomotive," fig. 31, is coming into use, which has tremendous tractive power, hauling one hundred to one hundred fifty tons of lumber over snow or ice. it moves on runners, but there is between them a large cylinder armed with teeth. this cylinder can be raised or lowered by the operator as it moves over the surface of the ground. the teeth catch in the snow or ice, and since the cylinder is heated by the exhaust steam, it melts and packs the snow for the trucks following it. the drum is six feet in diameter, with walls an inch and a half thick, and it weighs seven tons. it is used in all sorts of places where horses cannot go, as in swamps, and by substituting wheels for runners it has even been used on sand. in the canadian lakes there has been devised a queer creature called an "alligator," a small and heavily equipped vessel for hauling the logs thru the lakes. when its operations in one lake are finished, a wire cable is taken ashore and made fast to some tree or other safe anchorage, the capstan on its forward deck is revolved by steam and the "alligator" hauls itself out of the water across lots to the next lake and begins work there. the greatest improvement in water transportation is the giant raft, fig. 30. when such a raft is made up, logs of uniform length are placed together, the width of the raft being from sixty to one hundred feet and its length, one thousand feet or more. it may contain a million board feet of timber. the different sections are placed end to end, and long boom sticks, i. e., logs sixty to seventy feet long, are placed around them to bind the different sections together, and finally the whole mass is heavily chained. such a raft has been towed across the pacific. logging. references[*]: river lumbering. pinchot, _primer_, ii, pp. 40-53. white, _blazed trail_, pp. 5-15, 25, 38-39, 52-53, 63-65, 72-85, 91-99, 113-125, 134, 181-196, 216-229, 257, 268, 320-343, 355, 365 ff. _for. bull._, no. 34, pp. 33-41, fox. white, _jun. mun._, 10: 362. hulbert, _outl._, 76; 801. _wood craft_, 4: 55. smith, k., _world's work_, 7: 4435. mechanical methods. _world's work_, 7: 4435. _outl._, 76: 812. bruncken, p. 86. bruncken, pp. 76-87. munn, _cosmop._, 37: 441. roth, _first book_, pp. 133-174. hovey-king, _rev. of rev._, 27: 317. jones, _cosmop._, 15: 63. price, _world's work_, 5: 3207. _for. bull._, no. 61. _cassier_, 29: 443, april, '06. _cosmop._, 37: 445. _rev. of rev._, 28: 319. [footnote *: for general bibliography see page 4.] chapter ii. sawmilling. the principal saws in a mill are of three kinds, the circular, fig. 32, the gang, fig. 33, and the band, fig. 34. the circular-saw, tho very rapid, is the most wasteful because of the wide kerf, and of course the larger the saw the thicker it is and the wider the kerf. the waste in sawdust is about one-fifth of the log. in order to lessen this amount two smaller saws, one hung directly above the other, have been used. one saws the lower half of the log and the other the upper half. in this way, it is possible to cut very large logs with the circular-saw and with less waste. the circular-saw is not a perfectly flat disc, but when at rest is slightly convex on one side and concave on the other. this fullness can be pushed back and forth as can the bottom of an oil-can. when moving at a high rate of speed, however, the saw flattens itself by centrifugal force. this enables it to cut straight with great accuracy. [illustration: fig. 32. double circular-saw and carriage.] a gang-saw is simply a series of straight saw-blades set in a vertical frame. this has a reciprocating motion, enabling it to cut a log into a number of boards at one time. it has this drawback, that it must cut the size of lumber for which it is set; that is, the sawyer has no choice in cutting the thickness, but it is very economical, wasting only one-eighth of the log in sawdust. a special form is the flooring gang. it consists of a number of saws placed one inch apart. thick planks are run thru it to saw up flooring. [illustration: fig. 33. gang-saw.] [illustration: fig. 34. band-saw.] the band-saw is fast displacing the other two, wherever it can be used. it cuts with great rapidity and the kerf is narrow. when first used it could not be depended upon to cut straight, but by utilizing the same principle that is used in the circular-saw, of putting the cutting edge under great tension by making it slightly shorter than the middle of the saw, it now cuts with great accuracy. band-saws are now made up to 12 inches wide, 50 feet long, and run at the rate of 10,000 feet a minute. they are even made with the cutting teeth on both edges, so that the log can be sawed both going and coming. this idea was unsuccessful until the invention of the telescopic band-mill, fig. 35. in this the entire mechanism carrying the wheels on which the band-saw revolves can be moved up and down, so as to bring the point where the saw leaves the upper wheel as close to the top of the different sized logs as possible. [illustration: fig. 35. double-carrying telescopic band-mill. mill in raised position for large log.] [illustration: fig. 36. jack-ladder, with endless chain.] the usual modern mill is a two story building, fig. 37, built at a convenient locality both for receiving the logs and for shipping the lumber. whether the logs arrive by water or by rail, they are, if possible, stored in a mill-pond until used in order to prevent checking, discoloration, decay, and worm attack. from the pond they are hauled up out of the water on to a "jack-ladder," by means of an endless chain, provided with saddles or spurs which engage the logs and draw them up into the second story on to the log slip, fig. 36. [illustration: fig. 37. two-story mill at virginia, minnesota, showing jack-ladders and consumer.] [illustration: fig. 38. log-flipper.] [illustration: fig. 39. log-stop and loader. by letting steam into the cylinder, the projecting arm revolves, rolling one log over onto the carriage and holding the next one till wanted.] after the logs have entered the mill, they are inspected for stones lodged in the bark, and for spikes left by the river men, and then measured. under the log-slip is the steam "flipper" or "kicker," fig. 38, by means of which the scaler or his assistant, throwing a lever, causes the log to be kicked over to one side or the other, on to the log-deck, an inclined floor sloping toward the saw-carriage. down this the log rolls until stopped by a log-stop, or log-loader, fig. 39, a double-aimed projection, which prevents it from rolling on the carriage till wanted. this stop is also worked by steam. by letting the steam into the cylinder which controls it, one log is rolled over on the carriage and the next one held. the log on the carriage is at once "dogged," that is, clamped tight by iron dogs, the carriage is set for the proper cut, and moves forward to the saw which cuts off the first slab. the carriage is then "gigged" or reversed. this operation offsets the carriage one-eighth of an inch so that the log returns entirely clear of the saw. in the same way two or three 1" boards are taken off, the dogs are then knocked out, and the log canted over half a revolution. this is done by means of the "steam nigger," fig. 40, a long, perpendicular toothed bar which comes up thru the floor, engages the log, and turns it over till the sawn side comes up against the knees of the carriage. the log is dogged again and a second slab and several boards are taken off. the log or "stock" as it is now called, is 10", 12", 14", or 16" thick; the "nigger" then gives it a quarter-turn, leaving it lying on a sawn side. it is dogged again, and all sawn up except enough to make a few boards. this last piece is given a half-turn, bringing the sawn side against the knees, and it is sawn up. each board as it is sawn off is thrown by the board-flipper or cant-flipper,[2] fig. 41, on to the "live rollers," which take it to the next process. another log comes on the carriage and the process is repeated. [footnote 2: a "cant" is a squared or partly squared log.] [illustration: fig. 40. the steam nigger. the toothed bar turns the log over into the desired position.] [illustration: fig. 41. steam cant-flipper. this machine is used to move cants, timber, or lumber from live rollers to gangs, band resaw mills, or elsewhere. the timber is discharged upon skid rollers, as shown, or upon transfer chains.] [illustration: fig. 42. log-carriage, holding quartered log in position to saw.] the saw-carriage, fig. 42, is propelled forward and back by a piston running in a long cylinder, into either end of which steam can be turned by the operator. [illustration: fig. 43. double gang edger. this machine trims off the rough edges of the "waney" boards by means of the four saws in the main frame of the machine.] [illustration: fig. 44. automatic steam transfer for timber, lumber and slabs. the boards are carried along by the cylinders, ccc, until they hit the bumper, b. this movement admits steam to the cylinder, cy, which raises the revolving chains or skids, which transfers the stock sidewise to other live rollers as required.] as the sawn boards fall off the log, they land on "live," that is, revolving rollers, which carry them along at the rate of 200 to 250 feet a minute. stops are provided farther along to stop the boards wherever wanted, as at the edger, fig. 43, or the slasher. from the live rollers the boards are transferred automatically, fig. 44, by chains running at right angles to the rollers and brought within reach of the edger man. about one-third of the boards of a log have rough edges, and are called "waney." these must go thru the edger to make their edges parallel. the edger man works with great speed. he sees at once what can be made out of a board, places it in position and runs it thru. from the edger the boards are carried to the trimmer, which cuts the length. the lumberman's rule is to "cut so that you can cut again." the so-called 16' logs are really 16' 6". the trimmer, fig. 45, now trims these boards to 16' 1", so that if desired they can still be cut again. the trimmer may be set to cut at any desired length according to the specifications. [illustration: fig. 45. automatic gang lumber-trimmer. it may be set to cut automatically to any desired length.] [illustration: fig. 46. lumber sorting shed. virginia, minnesota.] [illustration: fig. 47.] the boards are now graded as to quality into no. 1, no. 2, etc., fig. 46, and run out of the mill, to be stacked up in piles, fig. 47. big timbers go directly from the saw on the rolls to the back end of the mill, where the first end is trimmed by a butting-saw or cut-off-saw which swings, fig. 48. the timber is then shoved along on dead rolls and the last end trimmed by the butting-saw to a definite length as specified, and shoved out. one of the most remarkable features of the modern mill is its speed. from the time the log appears till the last piece of it goes racing out of the mill, hardly more than a minute may have elapsed. [illustration: fig. 48. cut-off-saw. this saw trims the ends of timbers.] a large part of the problem of sawmilling is the disposal of the waste. the first of these is the sawdust. in all first class mills, this together with shavings (if a planing-mill is combined) is burned for fuel. it is sucked up from the machines and carried in large tubes to the boiler-room and there is mechanically supplied to the fires. the slabs, once considered as waste, contain much material that is now utilized. from the live rolls, on which all the material falls from the main band-saw, the slabs are carried off by transfer chains, and by another set of five rollers to the "slasher," fig. 50, which consists of a line of circular-saws placed 4' 1" apart. this slasher cuts up the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets. fig. 49. or they can be resawn into 16" lengths for shingles or fire-wood. [illustration: fig. 49. ten saw gang lath bolter. this machine cuts up material lengthwise into laths.] [illustration: fig. 50. slab-slasher. this machine cuts up the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets.] from the "slasher" the 4' 1" lengths are carried on by traveling platforms, chains, etc., to the lath-machines, fig. 51, where they are sawn up, counted as sawn, bound in bundles of 100, trimmed to exactly 4' in length and sent off to be stored. the shingle bolts are picked off the moving platforms by men or boys, and sent to the shingle-machine, fig. 52, where they are sawn into shingles and dropped down-stairs to be packed. shingle-bolts are also made from crooked or otherwise imperfect logs. of what is left, a good part goes into the grinder or "hog," fig. 53, which chews up all sorts of refuse into small chips suitable for fuel to supplement the sawdust if necessary. band-saws make so little dust and such fine dust that this is often necessary. [illustration: fig. 51. combination lath-binder and trimmer. with this machine the operator can trim the bundles of lath simply by tilting the packing frame over from him causing the bundles to pass between the saws, thereby trimming both ends at one movement.] [illustration: fig. 52. hand shingle-machine. this machine is used in sawmills in which it is desired to utilize slabs and trimmings by sawing shingles therefrom, or to saw shingles from prepared bolts.] if there is any refuse that cannot be used at all it goes to the scrap-pile, fig. 54, or to the "consumer," the tall stack shown in fig. 37, see p. 33. boards ordinarily sawn from logs are "slash-sawn," i. e., they are tangential or bastard, each cut parallel to the previous one. by this process, only the central boards would be radial or "rift" boards. [illustration: fig. 53. edging grinder or hog. it cuts any kind of wood into coarse or fine chips suitable to be handled by chain conveyor or blower.] [illustration: fig. 54. scrap-pile. oscilla. georgia.] but, for a number of reasons, radial boards are better. they warp less because the annual rings cross the board more evenly. yellow pine flooring that is rift-sawn is more valuable than slash-sawn, because the edge of the annual rings makes a more even grain, fig. 55. where slash-grained flooring is used, the boards should be laid so that the outside of each board will be up in order that the inner rings may not "shell out." [illustration: fig. 55. slash-grain and comb-grain flooring.] in sawing oak for valuable furniture or trim, the log is first "quartered" and then the quarters sawn up as nearly radially as is desired. there are various methods of cutting quartered logs, as illustrated in fig. 56. [illustration: fig. 56. methods of sawing quartered logs.] in making staves for water-tight barrels, it is essential that they be cut radially in the log, in order that the staves be as non-permeable to water as possible. [illustration: fig. 57. lumber-kiln.] sawmilling. references:[*] trout, cassier 11: 83, 184. woodcraft 5: 56, may '06. [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. 4.] chapter iii. seasoning. the seasoning of wood is important for several reasons. it reduces weight, it increases strength, it prevents changes in volume after it is worked into shape, and it prevents checking and decay. decay can also be prevented by submergence and burying, if by so doing logs are kept from fungal attacks. the piles of the swiss lake dwellings, which are in a state of good preservation, are of prehistoric age. wood under water lasts longer than steel or iron under water. but for almost all purposes wood has to be dried in order to be preserved. the wood is cut up, when green, to as thin pieces as will be convenient for its use later, for the rate of drying depends largely upon the shape and size of the piece, an inch board drying more than four times as fast as a four inch plank, and more than twenty times as fast as a ten inch timber. there are various methods of seasoning: (1) natural or air-seasoning is the most common, and in some respects the best. in this method, the wood is carefully and regularly piled in the seasoning-yard, so as to be protected as far as possible from sun and rain, but with air circulating freely on all sides of the boards, fig. 47, see p. 38. to accomplish this, "sticking" is employed, i. e., strips of wood are placed crosswise close to the ends and at intervals between the boards. in this way the weight of the superposed boards tends to keep those under them from warping. the pile is skidded a foot or two off the ground and is protected above by a roof made of boards so laid that the rain will drain off. fire-wood is best dried rapidly so that it will check, making air spaces which facilitate ignition, but lumber needs to be slowly dried in cool air so that the fibers may accommodate themselves to the change of form and the wood check as little as possible. good air-drying consumes from two to six years, the longer the better. (2) kiln-drying or hot-air-seasoning is a much more rapid process than air-seasoning and is now in common use, fig. 57. the drying is also more complete, for while air-dried wood retains from 10% to 20% of moisture, kiln-dried wood may have no more than 5% as it comes from the kiln. it will, however, reabsorb some moisture from the air, when exposed to it. the wood of conifers, with its very regular structure, dries and shrinks more evenly and much more rapidly than the wood of broad-leaved trees, and hence is often put into the kiln without previous air-drying, and dried in a week or even less time. oak is the most difficult wood to dry properly. when it and other hardwoods are rapidly dried without sufficient surrounding moisture, the wood "case-hardens," that is, the outer part dries and shrinks before the interior has had a chance to do the same, and this forms a shell or case of shrunken, and often checked wood around the interior which also checks later. this interior checking is called honeycombing. hardwood lumber is commonly air-dried from two to six months, before being kiln-dried. for the sake of economy in time, the tendency is to eliminate yard-drying, and substitute kiln-drying. kiln-drying of one inch oak, takes one or two weeks, quarter-sawn boards taking one and a half times as long as plain-sawn. the best method of drying is that which gradually raises the temperature of both the wood and of the water which it contains to the point at which the drying is to take place. care is therefore taken not to let the surface become entirely dry before the internal moisture is heated. this is done by retaining the moisture first vaporized about the wood, by means of wet steam. when the surface is made permeable to moisture, drying may take place rapidly. curtains of canvas are hung all around the lumber on the same principle that windows in newly plastered buildings are hung with muslin. the moisture is absorbed on the inner surface of the curtain and evaporates from the outer surface. improvements in kiln-drying are along the line of moist air operation. in common practice, however, the moist air principle is often neglected. there are two methods in operation, the progressive method and the charge method. in the progressive, the process is continuous, the loads going in at one end of the kiln, and out at the other, the temperature and the moisture being so distributed in the kiln, that in passing from the green to the dry end, a load of lumber is first moistened, then heated, and finally dried out. in the charge system, the process is intermittent, one charge being removed before a new one is admitted. this gives the best results with high grade lumber for special uses. a modification of hot-air-seasoning is that which subjects the wood to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products of the combustion of fuel. (3) small pieces of wood may be effectively seasoned by being boiled in water and then dried. the process seems to consist of dissolving out albuminous substances and thus allowing freer evaporation. its effect is probably weakening. (4) soaking in water is sometimes used as a good preparation for air-seasoning. previous soaking hastens seasoning. river men insist that timber is improved by rafting. it is a common practice to let cypress logs soak in the swamps where they grow for several months before they are "mined out." they are eagerly sought after by joiners and carpenters, because their tendency to warp is lessened. ebony is water-soaked in the island of mauritius as soon as cut. salt water renders wood harder, heavier, and more durable and is sometimes applied to ship timbers, but cannot be used with timbers intended for ordinary purposes, as the presence of salt tends to absorb atmospheric moisture. (5) boiling in oil is resorted to for special purposes, both for preservation and to give strength. for example, the best handscrews are so treated. the oil also prevents glue from sticking, the most frequent cause of injury to handscrews. (6) there are a number of "impregnation" methods of preserving timber, and their practice is spreading rapidly. of the various preservative processes, those using coal tar creosote and zinc chloride have proved most efficient. the purpose is to force the preservative into the pores of the wood, either by painting, soaking, or putting under pressure. such impregnation methods double or treble the life of railway ties. it is now being used with great success to preserve electric wire poles, mine-props, piling, fence-posts, etc. wood preservation has three great advantages, it prolongs the life of timbers in use, reduces their cost, and makes possible the use of species that once were considered worthless. for example, the cheap and abundant loblolly pine can be made, by preservative methods, to take the place of high priced long-leaf pine for many purposes. practical suggestions for storing lumber. under the hasty methods prevalent in the mill, very little wood comes to the shop well seasoned, and it should therefore be carefully stored before using, so as to have the fullest possible air circulation around it. where the boards are large enough, "sticking" is the best method of storage, i. e., narrow strips of wood are placed at short intervals between the pieces which are piled flat. the weight of the boards themselves helps to prevent warping. boards set upright or on edge are likely to be distorted soon. it is often wise to press together with weights or to clamp together with handscrews boards that show a tendency to warp, putting the two concave sides together. then the convex side is exposed and the board may straighten thus: fig. 58. by wrapping up small boards in paper or cloth in the intervals between work on them, they may be kept straight until they are assembled. [illustration: fig. 58. clamping up boards to prevent warping.] another precaution to take is to be sure to plane both sides of a board if either is planed, especially if the board has been exposed to air-drying for some time. wood measurements. lumber is a general term for all kinds of sawn wood. logs may be sawn into timber, that is, beams and joists, into planks, which are 2" to 4" thick, or into boards which are from 1/4" to 1-3/4" thick. these may be resawn into special sizes. lumber is measured by the superficial foot, which is a board 1" thick, 12" wide, and 12" long, so that a board 1" thick, (or 7/8" dressed) 6" wide and 12' 0" long, measures 6' b. m. (board measure). boards 1" or more thick are sold by the "board foot" which is equivalent to 12" square and 1" thick. boards less than 1" thick are sold by the square foot, face measure. dressed lumber comes in sizes 1/8" less than sawn lumber. regular sizes are: 5/8" dressed to 1/2" 3/4" dressed to 5/8" 1" dressed to 7/8" 1-1/4" dressed to 1-1/8" 1-1/2" dressed to 1-3/8" 2" dressed to 1-7/8" any of these may be dressed down to thinner boards, or resawn on a special band-saw. in ordering it is common to give the dimensions wanted, in the order of thickness, width, and length, because that is the order in which dimensions are gotten out. e. g.: 6 pcs. quar. oak, 7/8" ã� 6" ã� 3'0" 2 pcs. quar. oak, 3/4" ã� 7-1/2" ã� 15" if a piece wanted is short the way the grain goes, the order would be the same, thus: 3/4" ã� 11" (wide) ã� 6" (long). that is, "long" means the way the grain runs. it is always safe to specify in such a case. it is common when small pieces are ordered to add one-quarter to the cost for waste. in large lots lumber is ordered thus: 800' (b. m.) whitewood, dressed 2 sides to 7/8", 10" and up. this means that the width of any piece must not be less than 10". prices are usually given per "m," i. e., per 1000 ft.: e. g.: basswood may be quoted at $40.00 per m. when thin boards are desired it is often economical to buy inch stuff and have it resawn. some lumber is also ordered by the "running" or lineal foot, especially moldings, etc., or by the piece, if there is a standard size as in fence-posts, studs, etc. laths and shingles are ordered by the bundle to cover a certain area. 1000 4" shingles (=4 bundles) cover 110 sq. ft. with 4" weather exposure. 100 laths (1 bundle) each 1/4" ã� 1-1/2" ã� 4'0" cover about 150 sq. ft. there are several methods of measuring lumber. the general rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by 12, thus: 1" ã� 6" ã� 15' ã· 12 = 7-1/2 feet. the use of the essex board-measure and the lumberman's board-measure are described in chapter 4, pp. 109 and 111. the seasoning and measuring of wood. references:[*] seasoning. _for. bull._, no, 41, pp. 5-12, von schrenk. dunlap, _wood craft_, 6: 133, feb. '07. _for. circ._ no. 40, pp. 10-16, herty. barter, pp. 39-53. boulger, pp. 66-70, 80-88. _wood craft_, 6: 31, nov. '06. _for. circ._ no. 139. _agric. yr. bk._, 1905, pp. 455-464. measuring sickels, pp. 22, 29. goss, p. 12. _building trades pocketbook_, pp. 335, 349, 357. tate, p. 21. [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. 4.] chapter iv. wood hand tools. the hand tools in common use in woodworking shops may, for convenience, be divided into the following classes: 1, cutting; 2, boring; 3, chopping; 4, scraping; 5, pounding; 6, holding; 7, measuring and marking; 8, sharpening; 9, cleaning. 1. cutting tools. the most primitive as well as the simplest of all tools for the dividing of wood into parts, is the wedge. the wedge does not even cut the wood, but only crushes enough of it with its edge to allow its main body to split the wood apart. as soon as the split has begun, the edge of the wedge serves no further purpose, but the sides bear against the split surfaces of the wood. the split runs ahead of the wedge as it is driven along until the piece is divided. it was by means of the wedge that primitive people obtained slabs of wood, and the great change from primitive to civilized methods in manipulating wood consists in the substitution of cutting for splitting, of edge tools for the wedge. the wedge follows the grain of the wood, but the edge tool can follow a line determined by the worker. the edge is a refinement and improvement upon the wedge and enables the worker to be somewhat independent of the natural grain of the wood. in general, it may be said that the function of all cutting tools is to separate one portion of material from another along a definite path. all such tools act, first, by the keen edge dividing the material into two parts; second, by the wedge or the blade forcing these two portions apart. if a true continuous cut is to be made, both of these actions must occur together. the edge must be sharp enough to enter between the small particles of material, cutting without bruising them, and the blade of the tool must constantly force apart the two portions in order that the cutting action of the edge may continue. the action of an ax in splitting wood is not a true cut, for only the second process is taking place, fig. 59. the split which opens in front of the cutting edge anticipates its cutting and therefore the surfaces of the opening are rough and torn. [illustration: fig. 59. wedge action.] [illustration: fig. 60. edge action.] when a knife or chisel is pressed into a piece of wood at right angles to the grain, and at some distance from the end of the wood, as in fig. 60, a continuous cutting action is prevented, because soon the blade cannot force apart the sides of the cut made by the advancing edge, and the knife is brought to rest. in this case, it is practically only the first action which has taken place. both the actions, the cutting and the splitting, must take place together to produce a true continuous cut. the edge must always be in contact with the solid material, and the blade must always be pushing aside the portions which have been cut. this can happen only when the material on one side of the blade is thin enough and weak enough to be readily bent out of the way without opening a split in front of the cutting edge. this cutting action may take place either along the grain, fig. 61, or across it, fig. 62. the bending aside of the shaving will require less force the smaller the taper of the wedge. on the other hand, the wedge must be strong enough to sustain the bending resistance and also to support the cutting edge. in other words, the more acute the cutting edge, the easier the work, and hence the wedge is made as thin as is consistent with strength. this varies all the way from hollow ground razors to cold-chisels. for soft wood, the cutting angle (or bevel, or bezel) of chisels, gouges and plane-irons, is small, even as low as 20â°; for hard wood, it must be greater. for metals, it varies from 54â° for wrought iron to 66â° for gun metal. [illustration: fig. 61. edge and wedge action with the grain.] [illustration: fig. 62. edge and wedge action across the grain.] ordinarily a cutting tool should be so applied that the face nearest the material lies as nearly as possible in the direction of the cut desired, sufficient clearance being necessary to insure contact of the actual edge. there are two methods of using edge tools: one, the chisel or straight cut, by direct pressure; the other, the knife or sliding cut. the straight cut, fig. 63, takes place when the tool is moved into the material at right angles to the cutting edge. examples are: the action of metalworking tools and planing machines, rip-sawing, turning, planing (when the plane is held parallel to the edge of the board being planed), and chiseling, when the chisel is pushed directly in line with its length. [illustration: fig. 63. straight cut.] [illustration: fig. 64. sliding cut.] the knife or sliding cut, fig. 64, takes place when the tool is moved forward obliquely to its cutting edge, either along or across the grain. it is well illustrated in cutting soft materials, such as bread, meat, rubber, cork, etc. it is an advantage in delicate chiseling and gouging. that this sliding action is easier than the straight pressure can easily be proved with a penknife on thin wood, or by planing with the plane held at an angle to, rather than in line with, the direction of the planing motion. the edge of the cutter then slides into the material. the reason why the sliding cut is easier, is partly because the angle of the bevel with the wood is reduced by holding the tool obliquely, and partly because even the sharpest cutting edge is notched with very fine teeth all along its edge so that in the sliding cut it acts like a saw. in an auger-bit, both methods of cutting take place at once. the scoring nib cuts with a sliding cut, while the cutting lip is thrust directly into the wood. the chisel and the knife, one with the edge on the end, and the other with the edge on the side, are the original forms of all modern cutting tools. the _chisel_ was at first only a chipped stone, then it came to be a ground stone, later it was made of bronze, and still later of iron, and now it is made of steel. in its early form it is known by paleontologists as a celt, and at first had no handle, but later developed into the ax and adze for chopping and hewing, and the chisel for cuts made by driving and paring. it is quite likely that the celt itself was simply a development of the wedge. in the modern chisel, all the grinding is done on one side. this constitutes the essential feature of the chisel, namely, that the back of the blade is kept perfectly flat and the face is ground to a bevel. blades vary in width from 1/16 inch to 2 inches. next to the blade on the end of which is the cutting edge, is the shank, fig. 65. next, as in socketed chisels, there is the socket to receive the handle, or, in tanged chisels, a shoulder and four-sided tang which is driven into the handle, which is bound at its lower end by a ferrule. the handle is usually made of apple wood. [illustration: fig. 65. firmer-chisel.] the most familiar form is the _firmer-chisel_, fig. 65, which is said to get its name from the fact that it is firmer or stiffer than the paring-chisel. (see below.) the firmer-chisel is a general utility tool, being suited for hand pressure or mallet pounding, for paring or for light mortising. different varieties of chisels are named; (1) according to their uses; as paring-chisels, framing-chisels, mortise-chisels, carving-chisels, turning-chisels, etc. [illustration: fig. 66. paring-chisel.] [illustration: fig. 67. framing-chisel.] [illustration: fig. 68. mortise-chisel.] the _paring-chisel_, fig. 66, has a handle specially shaped to give control over its movements, and a long thin blade, which in the best form is beveled on the two edges to facilitate grooving. it is intended only for steady pressure with the hand and not for use with a mallet. the _framing-chisel_, fig. 67, is thick and heavy and was formerly much used in house framing. it is usually made with the handle fitting into a socket on the shank, in order to withstand the shock of heavy blows from the mallet. the _mortise-chisel_, fig. 68, is made abnormally thick to give the stiffness necessary for levering the waste out of mortises. (2) chisels are also named according to their shapes: as, skew-chisels, corner-chisels, round-nosed chisels, etc. [illustration: fig. 69. paring with a chisel.] the angle of the bevel of a chisel is determined by the kind of wood for which it is most used, hard wood requiring a wider angle than soft wood, in order to support the edge. for ordinary work, the bevel is correctly ground to an angle of about 20â°. the chisel is a necessary tool in making almost every kind of joint. it may almost be said that one mark of a good workman is his preference for the chisel. indeed an excellent motto for the woodworker is: "when in doubt, use a chisel". in general, there are two uses for the chisel (1), when it is driven by a push with the hand, as in paring, and (2), when it is driven by blows of a mallet, as in digging mortises. in relation to the grain of the wood, it is used in three directions: (1) longitudinally, that is with the grain, called paring; (2) laterally, across the surface, called cutting sidewise; (3) transversely, that is across the end, called cutting end-wood. 1. _paring._ to remove shavings rapidly, the chisel is held flat side up, the handle grasped by the right hand, with the thumb pointing toward the shank, and the blade held in the left hand, as in fig. 69. held in this way great control can be exerted and much force applied. for paring the surface as flat and smooth as possible, the chisel should be reversed, that is, held so that the flat side will act as a guide. held in this way the chisel has no equal for paring except the plane. paring with the chisel is the method used in cutting stop chamfers. (see p. 185, chapter viii.) by holding the cutting edge obliquely to the direction of the grain and of the cut, the effective "sliding cut" is obtained, fig. 64. [illustration: fig. 70. chiseling out a dado. (first step).] [illustration: fig. 71. chiseling out a dado. (second step).] 2. in _sidewise chiseling_ the chisel is held in the same manner as in paring. a typical form of sidewise chiseling is the cutting out of a dado, fig. 70. the work may be placed on the bench-hook or held in the vise with the side up from which the groove is to be cut. the chisel is pushed directly across the grain, the blade being somewhat inclined to the upper surface so as to cut off a corner next the saw kerf. after a few cuts thus made with the chisel inclined alternately both ways, the ridge thus formed is taken off, fig. 71. in this way the surface is lowered to the required depth. if more force be required, the palm of the hand may be used as a mallet. [illustration: fig. 72. perpendicular chiseling.] 3. in _chiseling end-wood_, it is well, if possible, to rest the piece to be trimmed flat on the cutting board or on a piece of waste wood. work done in this way is often called perpendicular chiseling, fig. 72. the handle is grasped in the right hand, thumb up, while the blade of the chisel passes between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, the back of which rests on the work and holds it in place. as the right hand pushes the chisel downwards the thumb and first finger of the left hand control its motion. when chiseling it is well to stand so as to look along the line being cut. incline the chisel toward you, and use the near part of the cutting edge for a guide and the farther corner for cutting, pushing the handle both down and forward at the same time, fig. 73. or, by pushing the chisel sidewise with the thumb of the left hand at the same time that the right hand pushes it downward, the effective sliding cut is obtained. [illustration: fig. 73. chiseling end wood.] [illustration: fig. 74. paring a corner round.] [illustration: fig. 75. right and wrong ways of perpendicular chiseling.] end chiseling requires considerable force and therefore only thin shavings should be cut off at a time. or the mallet may be used with caution. in order to leave a smooth surface the chisel must be very sharp. even then the lower arris (corner) is likely to be splintered off. this can be prevented by clamping the work down tight with a handscrew to a perfectly smooth cutting board. it is often advisable however, to set the piece upright in the vise and pare off thin shavings horizontally, fig. 74. in rounding a corner, both this and perpendicular chiseling are common methods. in both cases care should be taken to cut from the side toward the end and not into the grain, lest the piece split, fig. 75. in horizontal end paring, fig. 74, in order to prevent splintering, it is well to trim down the arrises diagonally to the line and then to reduce the rest of the end surface. in all hand chiseling, it is a wise precaution not to try to cut out much material at each stroke but to work back gradually to the line. [illustration: fig. 76. mallet chiseling. the piece is clamped down on the bench with the bench hook.] a typical form of mallet chiseling is the digging of a mortise, fig. 76. (see also p. 56.) the chisel is held perpendicular in the left hand, while the right hand drives blows with the mallet. the hammer should never be used. (see mallet, p. 96.) by rocking the chisel and at the same time giving it a twisting motion while the edge is kept on the wood, the edge can be stepped to the exact place desired. care should be taken to work back to the lines gradually, to cut only part way thru from each side (in the case of a thru mortise-and-tenon), and to keep the cut faces perpendicular to the surfaces. in sharpening a chisel it is of first importance that the back be kept perfectly flat. the bevel is first ground on the grindstone to an angle of about 20â° and great care should be taken to keep the edge straight and at right angles to the sides of the blade. [illustration: fig. 77. whetting a plane-bit.] after grinding it is necessary to whet the chisel and other edged tools. (see also under oilstones, p. 121.) first see that there is plenty of oil on the stone. if an iron box be used, fig. 77, the oil is obtained simply by turning the stone over, for it rests on a pad of felt which is kept wet with kerosene. place the beveled edge flat on the stone, feeling to see if it does lie flat, then tip up the chisel and rub it at an angle slightly more obtuse than that which it was ground, fig. 78. the more nearly the chisel can be whetted at the angle at which it was ground the better. in rubbing, use as much of the stone as possible, so as to wear it down evenly. the motion may be back and forth or spiral, but in either case it should be steady and not rocking. this whetting turns a light wire edge over on the flat side. in order to remove this wire edge, the back of the chisel, that is, the straight, unbeveled side, is held perfectly flat on the whetstone and rubbed, then it is turned over and the bevel rubbed again on the stone. it is necessary to reverse the chisel in this way a number of times, in order to remove the wire edge, but the chisel should never be tipped so as to put any bevel at all on its flat side. finally, the edge is touched up (stropped) by being drawn over a piece of leather a few times, first on one side, then on the other, still continuing to hold the chisel so as to keep the bevel perfect. [illustration: fig. 78. grinding angle, 20â°. whetting angle, 25â°.] to test the sharpness of a whetted edge, draw the tip of the finger or thumb lightly along it, fig. 79. if the edge be dull, it will feel smooth: if it be sharp, and if care be taken, it will score the skin a little, not enough to cut thru, but just enough to be felt. [illustration: fig. 79. testing the sharpness of a chisel.] the _gouge_ is a form of chisel, the blade of which is concave, and hence the edge curved. when the bevel is on the outside, the common form, it is called an outside bevel gouge or simply a "gouge," fig. 80; if the bevel is on the inside, it is called an inside bevel, or inside ground, or scribing-gouge, or paring-gouge, fig. 81.[3] [footnote 3: another confusing nomenclature (goss) gives the name "inside gouges" to those with the cutting edge on the inside, and "outside gouges" to those with the cutting edge on the outside.] carving tools are, properly speaking, all chisels, and are of different shapes for facility in carving. for ordinary gouging, fig. 82, the blade is gripped firmly by the left hand with the knuckles up, so that a strong control can be exerted over it. the gouge is manipulated in much the same way as the chisel, and like the chisel it is used longitudinally, laterally, and transversely. in working with the grain, by twisting the blade on its axis as it moves forward, delicate paring cuts may be made. this is particularly necessary in working cross-grained wood, and is a good illustration of the advantage of the sliding cut. [illustration: fig. 80. firmer-gouge outside bevel.] [illustration: fig. 81. inside bevel gouge.] in gouging out broad surfaces like trays or saddle seats it will be found of great advantage to work laterally, that is across the surface, especially in even grained woods as sweet gum. the tool is not so likely to slip off and run in as when working with the grain. the gouge that is commonly used for cutting concave outlines on end grain, is the inside bevel gouge. like the chisel in cutting convex outlines, it is pushed or driven perpendicularly thru the wood laid flat on a cutting board on the bench, as in perpendicular chiseling. fig. 72, p. 56. [illustration: fig. 82. gouging.] in sharpening an outside bevel gouge, the main bevel is obtained on the grindstone, care being taken to keep the gouge rocking on its axis, so as to get an even curve. it is then whetted on the flat side of a slipstone, fig. 83, the bevel already obtained on the grindstone being made slightly more obtuse at the edge. a good method is to rock the gouge on its axis with the left hand, while the slipstone held in the right hand is rubbed back and forth on the edge. then the concave side is rubbed on the round edge of the slipstone, care being taken to avoid putting a bevel on it. inside bevel gouges need to be ground on a carborundum or other revolving stone having a round edge. the outfit of the agacite grinder, (fig. 224, p. 120), contains one of these stones. the whetting, of course, is the reverse of that on the outside bevel gouge. [illustration: fig. 83. whetting a gouge.] the _knife_ differs from the chisel in two respects, (1) the edge is along the side instead of the end, and (2) it has a two-beveled edge. knives are sometimes made with one side flat for certain kinds of paring work, but these are uncommon. the two-beveled edge is an advantage to the worker in enabling him to cut into the wood at any angle, but it is a disadvantage in that it is incapable of making flat surfaces. the knife is particularly valuable in woodwork for scoring and for certain emergencies. the sloyd knife, fig. 84, is a tool likely to be misused in the hands of small children, but when sharp and in strong hands, has many valuable uses. a convenient size has a 2-1/2 inch blade. when grinding and whetting a knife, the fact that both sides are beveled alike should be kept in mind. [illustration: fig. 84. sloyd knife.] [illustration: fig. 85. draw-knife.] the _draw-knife_, fig. 85, is ground like a chisel, with the bevel only on one side, but the edge is along the side like a knife. instead of being pushed into the wood, like a chisel, it is drawn into it by the handles which project in advance of the cutting edge. the handles are sometimes made to fold over the edge, and thus protect it when not in use. the size is indicated by the length of the cutting edge. it is particularly useful in reducing narrow surfaces and in slicing off large pieces, but it is liable to split rather than cut the wood. saws. [illustration: fig. 86. hand saw.] the object of the saw is to cut thru a piece of material along a determined line. its efficiency depends upon (1) the narrowness of the saw cut or "kerf," and (2) upon the force required to drive it thru the material. the thinner the blade, the less material will be cut out and wasted, and the less force will have to be applied. in order to have the saw as thin as possible, almost all the people of the world, except the anglo saxons, have saws that cut when they are pulled toward the worker. the blade is in tension while cutting and in compression only when being returned for a new cut. german carpenters use a saw like our turning-saw. english and americans have developed the saw on the opposite principle, namely, that it should cut on the pushing stroke. as a matter of fact, the crosscut-saw cuts somewhat on the back stroke. the pushing stroke necessitates a thickening of the blade sufficient to prevent buckling,--a not uncommon occurrence in the bands of a novice, in spite of this thickening. but tho this requires more force, and involves more waste, there are the compensations that the arm can exert more pressure in pushing than in pulling, especially when the worker stands upright or stoops over his work, and the stiffer wide blade acts as a guide to the sawyer. each method has its advantages. whatever may be true of hand-saws, in machine-saws the tension method, as illustrated by the gang-saw and the band-saw, is steadily displacing the compression method utilized in the circular-saw. many kinds of work, however, can be done only on the circular-saw. in order to diminish the disadvantages of the thrusting stroke, the modern hand-saw, fig. 86, has been gradually improved as the result of much experience and thought. the outline of the blade is tapered in width from handle to point; it is thicker also at the heel (the handle end) than at the point; its thickness also tapers from the teeth to the back. all these tapers gives stiffness where it is most needed. it is made wide for the sake of giving steadiness in sawing. the fact that it is thinner at the back than along the teeth gives it clearance in passing back and forth in the kerf, but the friction is still great, especially in sawing soft or damp wood. to avoid this binding still further, the teeth are "set" alternately one to one side and the next to the other, and so on. [illustration: fig. 87. rip saw teeth: a-edge view, b-side view, c cross-section. crosscut-saw teeth: a'-edge view, b'-side view, c'-cross-section.] the size of saws is indicated by the length of the blade in inches. the coarseness of the tooth is indicated by the number of "points" to the inch. "points" should not be confused with teeth as there is always one more point per inch than there are teeth. for example, a five point rip-saw has five points to the inch but only four full teeth, fig. 87. rip-saws run from 4 to 7 points per inch; crosscut-saws from 6 to 12 points per inch. in general, saws are of two kinds, rip-saws and crosscut-saws. the _rip-saw_, fig. 87, may be thought of as a series of chisels set in two parallel rows which overlap each other, for each tooth is filed to a sharp edge which, at each stroke, chisels off a small particle from the end of the wood fibers. the shape of the teeth is the result of experience in uniting a number of factors: as, strength of the individual tooth, the acuteness of the cutting angle, and the ease of sharpening. the steel of a saw is softer than that of a chisel, in order that it may be filed and set. hence it is weaker and the edge cannot be so acute. a typical form of tooth is shown in fig. 87, in which a is an edge view, b the side view, and c a cross section. the angle of each tooth covers 60â°, one side, the "face", being at right angles to the line of the teeth. the cutting edge runs at right angles to the sides of the blade. this arrangement works with entire success along the grain, but if a rip-saw is used to cut across the grain, since there is no provision for cutting thru the fibers, each tooth catches in them and tears them out, thus leaving a rough and jagged surface. in the _crosscut-saw_, therefore, the teeth are filed to points, and the cutting edge is on the forward side of each alternate tooth. in fig. 87. a' is the edge view, b' is the side view and c' is a cross-section. in a properly filed crosscut-saw a needle will slide between these two rows of teeth from one end of the saw to the other. [illustration: fig. 88. rip-sawing on a horse.] in action the points, especially their forward edges, cut or score the fibres of wood, and then the triangular elevation of wood left between the two rows of points is crumbled off by friction as the saw passes through. thus it drops farther and farther into the cut. a crosscut-saw may be thought of as a series of knife points, arranged in two parallel rows. ordinarily the angle of the "face" of each tooth with the line of the teeth is about 65â°, and slightly steeper than the back of the tooth. the angle of the cutting edge of each tooth may be filed more acute when the saw is to be used for soft wood only. a crosscut-saw when used to rip a board, works slowly, for there is no chisel action to cut out the fibres between the points, but the cut, tho slow, is smooth. in cutting diagonally across a piece of wood, especially soft wood, a rip-saw cuts faster, but a crosscut, smoother. in ripping a board, allowance should always be made for planing to the line afterward. in starting a cut with the rip-saw, the weight of the saw should be borne by the right hand so that the teeth may pass over the edge of the wood as lightly as possible. the left thumb acts as a guide. if the saw be handled thus, and the angle with the board be quite acute, it is not necessary to start with a back stroke. when the kerf is well started, the whole weight of the saw may be applied. an easy light stroke is better than a furious one. the line should be followed carefully, but if the saw runs from the line it may be brought back by taking short strokes near the point of the saw and twisting the blade slightly in the desired direction. if the saw binds and buckles because of the springing together of the wood, the kerf may be wedged open with a screwdriver or a bit of waste wood. a drop of oil rubbed across each side of the saw will make it work more easily. care should be taken in finishing a cut to hold up firmly the part of the wood which is being sawn off so that it will not split off or splinter. [illustration: fig. 89. rip-sawing with wood held in bench-vise.] sawing may be done either on a saw-horse, fig. 88, or at a bench. for big, rough work, the former is the common way, the worker holding the material in place with one knee, because this method enables him to exert his greatest strength. a convenient way for rip-sawing a small piece of wood is to insert it in the vise, fig. 89, with the broad side of the board parallel to the vise screw, and the board inclined away from the worker who stands upright. the start is easy, the sawdust does not cover the line, and the board is not in danger of splitting. the board, however, has to be reversed after it is sawn part way thru, in order to finish the saw cut. the _back-saw_ or _tenon-saw_, fig. 90, is a fine crosscut-saw, with a rib of steel along the back, which gives to it its name. since it is intended for small accurate work, the teeth have little or no set. in sawing, the wood may be held either in the vise or on the bench-hook. to help start the saw and at the same time to keep the edges of the cut sharp, it is well to make a little groove with the knife, on the waste side of the line to be followed, cutting the side of the groove next to the line at right angles to the surface. the saw drops directly into this groove, fig. 91. in starting the saw cut, the saw should be guided by holding the thumb of the left hand against the side of the saw just above the teeth. until the kerf is well started, the saw should be held so that the teeth just touch the wood. it is better not to attempt to start the saw level, i.e., with the teeth resting clear across the wood, but the handle should be raised so that the start is made only at the farther edge of the wood. then as the saw is gradually lowered, the kerf will extend quite across the wood. fig. 92. when the back-saw is used for ripping, the wood is held in the vise, end up. begin sawing as in crosscutting, that is, at the farther corner with the handle end of the saw up, and gradually drop the handle. watch the lines on both the front and back sides, and if necessary, reverse the piece to follow them. [illustration: fig. 90. using the back-saw with bench-hook.] [illustration: fig. 91. starting a saw cut in a trough cut with knife.] [illustration: fig. 92. direction of the back-saw.] [illustration: fig. 93. dovetail-saw.] [illustration: fig. 94. compass-saw.] the _dovetail-saw_, fig. 93, is a small back-saw for delicate work. the _compass-saw_, fig. 94, is narrow, pointed, thick, to prevent buckling, and with a wide set to the teeth, to help in following the curves. the teeth are a cross between the rip and crosscut teeth. it is used in sawing curves. the _turning-saw_, fig. 95, is a narrow saw, set in a frame, which stretches the saw tight, so that it works as a tension saw (cf. p. 62). the best frames are made so that the handles which hold the blade can revolve in the frame. the turning-saw is used chiefly for cutting curves. a 14 inch blade, 3/16 of an inch wide is a good size for ordinary use. the teeth are like those of a rip-saw, so that they are quite likely to tear the wood in cutting across the grain. allowance should be made for this and the surplus removed with a spokeshave. the turning-saw may be used to cut on either the pulling or the pushing stroke, with the teeth pointed either toward or away from the worker. the pulling cut is generally better, as it puts less strain on the frame than the pushing cut. both hands should grasp the frame as near the end of the blade as possible, fig. 95. turns are made by revolving the frame on the blade as an axis, which should always be kept at right angles to the surface of the board. care should be taken not to twist the blade. [illustration: fig. 95. using a turning saw.] [illustration: fig. 96. saw-vise.] _to file and set a saw_, the saw is first fastened in the saw-vise, fig. 96, with the teeth up. it is then top-jointed by running a flat file or a saw-jointer, fig. 97, back and forth lengthwise along the tops of the teeth to bring them to a level. after jointing the saw should be set. for this purpose a saw-set, fig. 98, is necessary. every alternate tooth is bent in the direction of its set by the plunger in the instrument pushing against the anvil, which is an adjustable eccentric disc. after the saw is set, it is filed. this is done with a triangular file, fig. 144, p. 90, which is held in the right hand and its point in the thumb and fingers of the left. pressure is applied only on the forward stroke, which should be long and even, the file being raised above the tooth on the return stroke. the file should cut in the direction of the set, that is, the teeth having the set away from the worker are filed first. every alternate tooth, 1st. 3d, 5th, etc., is filed, and then the saw is reversed and the other set, the 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc., is filed. [illustration: fig. 97. a saw-jointer.] [illustration: fig. 98. saw-set.] in filing a rip-saw the file should move exactly perpendicularly to the plane of the saw blade, that is, directly across the teeth. the filing is done on the back of the teeth, the file just touching the face of the next one. the filing is continued, with one, two, or three strokes, for each tooth, as the case may require, or just until each tooth is sharp. in filing a crosscut-saw, the file is held pointing upward and toward the point of the saw. the file should cut in the direction of the set. the angle of the cutting edge is determined by the horizontal inclination of the file to the blade; the angle of the point is determined by the perpendicular inclination of the file to the blade. finally the sides of the teeth are rubbed lightly with a slipstone to remove the wire edge. it should always be remembered that a saw is an edge tool, and its edges are as liable to injury as any edges. planes. the _plane_ is a modified chisel. the chief difference in action between a chisel and a plane in paring is this: the back of the chisel lies close down on the surface of the wood that is cut, and acts as a guide; whereas, in the plane, the cutter is elevated at an angle away from the surface of the wood, and only its cutting edge touches the wood, and it is held and guided mechanically by the plane mechanism. in other words, a plane is a chisel firmly held in a device which raises the cutter at an angle from the work, regulates the depth of the cut, and favors the cutting rather than the splitting action. an illustration of a chisel converted into a plane is the adjustable _chisel-gage_, fig. 99. [illustration: fig. 99. adjustable chisel-gage.] [illustration: fig. 100. wooden bench-plane.] [illustration: fig. 101. section of jack plane.] the plane has developed as follows: it was first a chisel held in a block of wood. this is all that oriental planes are now, simply a sharpened wedge driven into a block of wood. when the hole works too loose, the japanese carpenter inserts a piece of paper to tighten it, or he makes a new block. the first improvement was the addition of a wooden wedge to hold in place the "plane-iron", as the cutter was formerly called. in this form, the cutter or plane-iron, tho still wedge-shaped, was reversed, being made heavier at the cutting edge in order to facilitate fastening it in the wooden plane-stock by means of the wooden wedge. then a handle was added for convenience. then came the cap, the object of which is to break back the shaving and thus weaken it as soon as possible after it is cut. until a few years ago, this was all that there was in a plane, and such planes are still common, fig. 100. finally there appeared the iron plane, fig. 101, with it various mechanical adjustments. the following are the parts of the bailey iron plane:[4] 1. cutter, or bit, or blade, or _plane-iron_. 2. cap, or _plane-iron cap_, or curling iron. 3. cutter screw, or _plane-iron screw_. 4. clamp, or _lever cap_, or wedge. 5. clamp screw, or _cap screw_. 6. _frog_. 7. _y adjustment_. 8. brass set screw, or _brass adjusting nut_. 9. lever (for _lateral adjustment_). 10. _frog screw_. 11. _handle_. 12. _knob_. 13. _handle bolt and nut_. 14. knob screw, or _knob bolt and nut_. 15. _handle screw_. 16. _bottom_, or sole. 17. toe. 18. heel. 19. throat. 20. thumb piece, or clamp lever, or cam. [footnote 4: the numbers and names in italics are those given in stanley's catalog, no. 34. some of these names, as "plane-iron," are survivals from the days of the wooden plane and are obviously unsuitable now.] there are various principles involved in the action of the plane. the effect of the flat sole is to regulate the cut of the cutter. if the surface be uneven, the cutter will not cut at all, or but little, in passing over low places, since the toe and heel of the sole will then be resting on higher places; but when the cutter reaches a high place a shaving will be taken off. hence it follows that the longer the plane, the straighter will be the surface produced. the length of the plane used is determined by the length of the wood to be planed, and the degree of straightness desired. the part of the sole directly in front of the cutter presses firmly down on the wood and so prevents the shaving from splitting far in advance of the edge. it follows that the narrowness of the mouth in a plane is an important factor in the production of smooth surfaces. this can be regulated by adjusting the toe in the block-plane, and by moving the frog in the jackand smooth-planes. a recent improvement in jack-, smooth-, and fore-planes consists of an adjustable frog, by means of which the throat can be narrowed or widened at will by means of a set-screw in the rear of the frog without removing the clamp and cutter. it is made by sargent and company. the stanley "bed rock" plane has a similar but less convenient device. [illustration: fig. 102. sighting along the sole of jack-plane.] the splitting of the wood in advance of the edge is also prevented by the breaking of the shaving as it hits against the cutter or its cap. hence the advantage of bending up and breaking or partly breaking the shaving as soon as possible after it is cut. this shows why the cap is set close to the edge of the cutter. another reason is that it thereby stiffens the cutter and prevents "chattering." if a thick shaving be desired the cap has to be set farther back. in a smooth-plane 1/32 inch is enough, in a jack-plane 1/8 inch is often desirable. the following are the planes in common use: the _jack-plane_, fig. 102, 14" to 15" long, is the one used where a considerable amount of material is to be taken off to bring a piece of wood to size, and therefore the outline of the cutting edge instead of being straight is slightly curved or "crowned" so that in planing the surface of a board it makes a series of shallow grooves, the ridges of which must afterward be smoothed off by another plane. also for beginners whose hands are not strong it is sometimes wise to grind the cutter with some "crown", in order to take off narrow shavings, which require less strength. for school use, where the jack-plane is used for all purposes, the cutter is usually ground almost straight and only the corners rounded as in the smooth-plane and the fore-plane.[5] [footnote 5: in whetting a plane-bit, a slight crown may be given it by rubbing a bit harder at the ends of the edge than in the middle. strop in the same way as a chisel (p. 59).] the _fore-plane_, 22" to 26" long, and the _jointer_, 28" to 30" long, are large planes, similar to the jack-plane, except that the cutting edge is straight. they are used for straightening and smoothing long pieces. the _smooth-plane_, 5-1/2" to 10" long, is a short plane, similar to the jack-plane, except that the cutting edge is straight. it is used for smoothing. these four planes, the jack-plane, the fore-plane, the jointer, and the smooth-plane, are essentially alike, and directions for the use of one apply to all. there are two chief adjustments in the bailey iron plane: the brass set-screw, see 8 in fig. 101, which regulates the depth of the cut, and the lever, 9, which moves the cutter sidewise so that it may be made to cut evenly. the skilful worker keeps constant watch of these adjustments. it is well to form the habit of always sighting along the sole before beginning to plane, in order to see that the cutter projects properly, fig. 102. it is a common mistake among beginners to let the cutter project too far. it is important to know what is the best order of procedure in planing up a board. there are often reasons for omitting the planing up of one or more surfaces, but it is wise to form the habit of following a regular order, and the following is suggested as a good one: 1. working face. plane one broad side flat and smooth. finish with the plane set to cut line shavings. test with try-square. mark this face with a distinct pencil mark, a, fig. 103. 2. working edge. plane one narrow side straight and square with the working face. test with try-square, pressing the block of the try-square against the working face. mark the working edge with two distinct pencil marks, b, fig. 103. 3. end. first mark the width on the working face with the marking-gage, c, 1-2, fig. 103. chisel off the corner, _a_, of the piece outside this gaged line. true and smooth this end with the plane, making it square with both working face and working edge, d, 2, 3, 4, fig. 103. 4. length. measure the length from the finished end, d, 2-3-4, score across the working face, d, 5-6, and working edge, d, 6-7, using a sharp knife point and the try-square. saw just outside this line, d, 5-6-7, with the back-saw, cut off the narrow corner, d, _b_, beyond the gaged line and plane true, e, fig. 103. 5. width. plane to the center of the gaged line, e, 1-2. test this edge from the working face, f, fig. 103. 6. thickness. mark the thickness with the marking-gage all around the piece, f, 8-9-10. plane to the center of the gaged line, g, fig. 103. test this face for flatness. [illustration: fig. 103. the order of planing a board.] in a word, the order to be followed is graphically represented in h, fig. 103. the surfaces are numbered consecutively in the order in which they are to be planed. the advantages of this order are these: by planing the working face first, a broad surface is secured to which the others may be made true. by planing the ends before the width is planed, the danger of splitting off fragments can be avoided by chiseling the corner of the unfinished edges, c, _a_, and d, _b_, fig. 103, into a buttress. by planing the ends and the width before the thickness is planed, a dressed face is secured all around for gaging the thickness. in following this order all measurements and markings are made on a dressed face. [illustration: fig. 104. sighting for wind.] if there be any "wind" or twist in the board, this should be discovered first of all. this may be done roughly by sighting across the broad side of the board, fig. 104, and more accurately by the use of "winding sticks," see fig. 205, p. 113. or the surface may be tested with the plane itself by tilting the plane on its long corner edge, and resting it on the board, while the worker looks between the board and the plane toward the light. it is evident that the plane must be turned in various directions to test for wind, and that a board only as long or as wide as the plane is long can be tested in this way. the try-square or any straight edge may be used for the same purpose, fig. 105. if there be any wind in the board, this should at once be taken out of one face by planing down the high corners. [illustration: fig. 105. testing from edge to edge.] in starting to plane, the worker should bear down on the knob at the front end of the plane. when the plane is well on the board, he should bear down equally on both knob and handle, and as the plane begins to pass off the board he should put all the pressure on the handle end, fig. 106. by taking pains thus, a convex surface will be avoided, the making of which is a common error of beginners. on the return stroke, the plane should be lifted or tilted so that the cutting edge will not be dulled by rubbing on the wood. this is especially important on rough and dirty boards, as it saves the cutting edge, and in fine work, as it saves the work. if the plane tear the wood instead of cutting it smooth, as it should, it is because the planing is "against the grain". this can often be avoided by noticing the direction of the grain before beginning to plane. but even if it be not noted beforehand, a stroke or two will show the roughness. in such a case, it is necessary simply to turn the wood around. [illustration: fig. 106. planing an edge.] the accuracy of the work as it progresses should frequently be tested, and the eye should constantly be trained so that it can more and more be depended upon to detect inaccuracy, fig. 107. as each surface is trued, it should be carefully smoothed with the cutter set to cut fine shavings. [illustration: fig. 107. sighting an edge.] in planing a very cross-grained piece of wood, there are several methods to use for securing a smooth surface. the frog of the plane should be moved forward so that the throat in the front of the cutter is a mere slit. in the ordinary plane it is necessary to remove the cutter in order to reset the frog, but in the sargent plane and the stanley "bed rock" plane, it can be set by a set-screw at the rear of the frog. next, the cap should be set so that the cutter projects but very little beyond it, or, in technical language, the cutter should be set "fine." a sliding cut, see p. 53, should be taken with the plane, and sometimes it may be necessary to move the plane nearly at right angles to the general direction of the grain. by these means even refractory pieces of wood can be well smoothed. see also scrapers, p. 91. the choking of a plane is the stoppage of the throat by shavings. it may be due simply to the fact that the cutter is dull or that it projects too far below the sole of the plane. in a wooden plane choking is sometimes due to the crowding of shavings under some part of the wedge. when the adjustable frog in a modern plane is improperly placed choking may result. the frog should be far enough forward so that the cutter rests squarely upon it. choking may, and most commonly does, take place because the cap does not fit down tight on the cutter. this happens if the cap be nicked or uneven. in consequence, minute shavings are driven between these two irons and choking soon results. the remedy is to sharpen the cap, so that its edge makes a close fit with the cutter. the fit may be made still tighter by rubbing with a screwdriver the edge of the cap down on the cutter after it is screwed in place. in no tool is it more important to keep the cutter sharp than in the plane. to remove the cutter, in order to sharpen it, first loosen the clamp lever and remove the clamp. carefully remove the cap and cutter taking pains not to let the edge hit any part of the plane, then using the clamp as a screwdriver, loosen the cap-screw and slide the cap back along the slot in the cutter, where it can be held fast by a turn of the cap-screw. the edge is now free and can readily be whetted. when the cap needs to be entirely removed, for instance, for grinding, after it has been slid along the cutter slot, as before, it is turned at right angles to the cutter, and then slid down the slot until the cap-screw unbuttons from the cutter. the object in sliding the cap up the slot before turning it, is to prevent the danger of injuring the edge. some caps are now made with the buttonhole at the upper end of the slot. after sharpening, (see under sharpening, p. 117.) the order is reversed for replacing the cutter. the cap is set at right angles to the cutter, the cap-screw dropped into the slot, the cap is slid up the slot, and turned into line with the cutter, and then slid down the slot till the edge of the cap comes quite near the edge of the cutter. then the two are held firmly together with the left hand until the cap screw is turned tight. in replacing the cutter and cap in the plane, care should be taken not to injure the edge and to see that the y adjustment lever fits into the little slot in the cap; then finally the lever is thrown down tight. then, by turning the plane sole upward and glancing down it, the proper adjustments with the brass set-screw and lateral adjustment lever are made. when the plane is not being used, it should rest either on a pillow (a little strip of wood in the bench trough), or on its side. in no case should it be dropped sole down flat on the bench. the _block-plane_, fig. 108, gets its name from the fact that it was first made for planing off the ends of clap-boards, a process called "blocking in". [illustration: fig. 108. section of block-plane.] the names of the parts of the bailey block-plane are[6]: 1. cutter or bit or _plane-iron_. 2. clamp or _lever cup_. 3. _cap-screw_. 4. _adjusting lever_. 5. _adjusting nut_. 6. _lateral adjustment_. 7. _bottom_. 8. _mouth piece_. 9. _eccentric plate_. 10. _knob_. [footnote 6: see footnote p. 70] the block-plane was devised for use with one hand, as when it is used by carpenters in planing pieces not readily taken to a vise or in planing with a bench-hook. hence it is made small, 3-1/2" to 8" long, the clamp is rounded so as to act as a handle, and the cutter is lowered to an angle of about 20â° to make the plane easy to grasp. the lower angle of the cutter makes it necessary that the bevel be on the upper side. otherwise, to give clearance, the bevel would have to be made so long and so thin as to be weak. by putting the bevel up, the angle between the wood and the cutter is maintained practically as in the smooth-plane. since the block-plane is intended chiefly for use on end grain, no cap is needed to break the shavings. the adjustable throat makes it possible to cut a very fine shaving. to facilitate the cutting action, several forms of block-planes with a very low angle are now made. where both hands are free to hold the plane, the block-plane has no advantage over a smooth-plane, even on end grain. moreover, the cutter cannot be held so firmly in place as that of a smooth-plane, so that it requires constant adjustment. hence it is not an easy tool for amateurs to handle. there is considerable lost motion in the adjusting nut, and the set-screw, which acts as a knob, is likely to work loose and be lost. it is hardly to be recommended as a part of the equipment of the individual bench in school shops. the piece to be planed with the block-plane may be held either in the vise, end up, or on a bench-hook, fig. 109. in end planing in the vise, in order to avoid splintering the precaution should be taken to trim off a corner on the undressed edge, as directed on page 73, or else the planing must be done from both edges toward the center. the sliding cut is much easier than the straight cut, and hence there is a constant temptation to turn the plane at an angle perhaps at an expense of the flat surface desired. [illustration: fig. 109. using the block-plane and bench-hook.] in using the bench-hook the piece to be block-planed is placed with the working edge against the block, with the end to be planed to the right and flush with the edge of the bench-hook, in which position it is held with the left hand. the block-plane, held in the right hand, is placed on its side on the bench facing toward the work. in planing, the left hand holds the work firmly against the block of the bench-hook, pressing it somewhat to the right against the plane. the right hand holds the side of the plane flat on the bench and presses it to the left against the bench-hook and work. held in this position the plane is pushed forward and back until the end is smoothed. considerable practice is necessary to handle the block-plane well. the _scrub-plane_ is a short plane in which the crown of the cutter, fig. 110, is quite curved. it is used to reduce surfaces rapidly. the _scratch-plane_, fig. 111, has a toothed cutter which scratches fine lines along its course. it is used to roughen surfaces of hard wood which are to be glued together, for otherwise the glue would not adhere well. some tropical woods are so hard that their surfaces can be reduced only by a scratch-plane. it is also useful in preparing the surface of a very cross-grained piece of wood which cannot be planed without chipping. by first scratching it carefully in all directions, it can then be scraped smooth. it is also called a _scraper-plane_, because accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be inserted in the same stock and inclined at any required angle. this plane-stock prevents the scraper from unduly lowering some portions of the surface. see also veneer-scraper, p. 91. [illustration: fig. 110. cutter of scrub-plane.] [illustration: fig. 111. scratch-plane and scraper-plane.] [illustration: fig. 112. rabbet-plane.] [illustration: fig. 113. molding-plane.] the _rabbeting-_ or _rebating-plane_, fig. 112, is designed for use in cutting out a rectangular recess, such as the rabbet on the back of the picture-frames. in line with the right hand corner of the cutter is a removable spur to score the wood so that the shaving which follows may be cut out clean and not torn out. with the addition of a guiding fence it is called a _filletster_. this may be used on either the right or left side. in the form shown in fig. 112, there is also a depth gage. in using this plane see that the corner of the cutter is in line with the sole, and that both it and the spur are sharp. set the fence and the stop at the desired width and depth of the rabbet. at the first stroke the spur will score the width. this and every stroke should be taken as evenly and carefully as if it were the only one. in the effort to keep the fence pressed close to the side of the wood, the tendency is to tilt the plane over. this causes the very opposite effect from that desired, for the spur runs off diagonally, as in fig. 114. [illustration: fig. 114. result of careless use of rabbet-plane.] if this happens stop planing at once, clean out the recess properly with a chisel and then proceed. the _dado-plane_ is much like the rabbeting-plane, except that it is provided with two spurs, one at each side of the cutting edge, to score the wood before cutting. the _molding-plane_, fig. 113, as it name indicates, is for making moldings of various forms; as, quarter-round, half-round, ogee, etc. [illustration: fig. 115. tonguing-and-grooving plane.] the _tonguing-and-grooving-plane_, fig. 115, is for matching boards, i.e. making a tongue in one to fit into a groove in another. see fig. 269, no. 72, p. 182. the _circular-plane_, fig. 116, has a flexible steel face which can be adjusted to any required arc, convex or concave, so that curved surfaces may be planed. [illustration: fig. 116. circular-plane.] the _universal plane_, fig. 117, is a combination of various molding-, rabbeting-, matchingand other planes. it is capable of many adjustments and applications. the principal parts of this plane are: a _main stock_, _a_, with two sets of transverse sliding arms, a _depth-gage_, _f_, adjusted by a screw, and a _slitting cutter_ with stop, a _sliding section_, _b_, with a vertically adjustable bottom, the _auxiliary center bottom_, _c_, to be placed when needed in front of the cutter as an extra support or stop. this bottom is adjustable both vertically and laterally. _fences_, _d and e_. for fine work, fence _d_ has a lateral adjustment by means of a thumb-screw. the fences can be used on either side of the plane, and the rosewood guides can be tilted to any desired angle up to 45â°, by loosening the screws on the face. fence _e_ can be reversed for center-beading wide boards. for work thinner than the depth of the fence, the work may overhang the edge of the bench and fence _e_ be removed. an _adjustable stop_, to be used in beading the edges of matched boards, is inserted on the left side of the sliding section _b_. a great variety of cutters are supplied, such as: molding, matching, sash, beading, reeding, fluting, hollow, round, plow, rabbet, and filletster. special shapes can be obtained by order. [illustration: fig. 117. universal plane.] _the use of the universal plane._ insert the proper cutter, adjusting it so that the portion of it in line with the main stock, _a_, will project below the sole the proper distance for cutting. adjust the bottom of the sliding section, _b_, so that the lowest portion of the cutter will project the proper distance below it for cutting. tighten the check nuts on the transverse arms and _then_ tighten the thumb-screws which secure the sliding section to the arms. the sliding section is not always necessary, as in a narrow rabbet or bead. when an additional support is needed for the cutter, the auxiliary center bottom, _c_, may be adjusted in front of it. this may also be used as a stop. [illustration: fig. 118. iron spokeshave.] [illustration: fig. 119. pattern-maker's spokeshave.] adjust one or both of the fences, _d_ and _e_, and fasten with the thumb-screws. adjust the depth-gage, _f_, at the proper depth. for a _dado_ remove the fences and set the spurs parallel with the edges of the cutter. insert the long adjustable stop on the left hand of the sliding section. for slitting, insert the cutter and stop on the right side of the main stock and use either fence for a guide. for a _chamfer_, insert the desired cutter, and tilt the rosewood guides on the fences to the required angle. for _chamfer beading_ use in the same manner, and gradually feed the cutter down by means of the adjusting thumb-nut. there are also a number of planelike tools such as the following: the _spoke-shave_, fig. 118, works on the same principle as a plane, except that the guiding surface is very short. this adapts it to work with curved outlines. it is a sort of regulated draw-shave. it is sometimes made of iron with an adjustable mouth, which is a convenient form for beginners to use, and is easy to sharpen. the _pattern-makers spokeshave_, fig. 119, which has a wooden frame, is better suited to more careful work. the method of using the spokeshave is shown in fig. 120. (see p. 100.) [illustration: fig. 120. using a spokeshave.] the _router-plane_, figs. 121 and 122, is used to lower a certain part of a surface and yet keep it parallel with the surrounding part, and it is particularly useful in cutting panels, dadoes, and grooves. the cutter has to be adjusted for each successive cut. where there are a number of dadoes to be cut of the same depth, it is wise not to finish them one at a time, but to carry on the cutting of all together, lowering the cutter after each round. in this way all the dadoes will be finished at exactly the same depth. [illustration: fig. 121. router-plane.] the _dowel-pointer_, fig. 123, is a convenient tool for removing the sharp edges from the ends of dowel pins. it is held in a brace. the cutter is adjustable and is removable for sharpening. the _cornering tool_, fig. 124, is a simple device for rounding sharp corners. a cutter at each end cuts both ways so that it can be used with the grain without changing the position of the work. the depth of the cut is fixed. [illustration: fig. 122. using a router-plane.] 2. boring tools. some boring tools, like awls, force the material apart, and some, like augers, remove material. the _brad-awl_, fig. 125, is wedge-shaped, and hence care needs to be taken in using it to keep the edge across the grain so as to avoid splitting the wood, especially thin wood. the size is indicated by the length of the blade when new,--a stupid method. the awl is useful for making small holes in soft wood, and it can readily be sharpened by grinding. [illustration: fig. 123. dowel-pointer.] [illustration: fig. 124. cornering tool.] [illustration: fig. 125. brad-awl.] [illustration: fig. 126. twist-drill.] [illustration: fig. 127. twist-bit.] [illustration: fig. 128. german gimlet-bit.] [illustration: fig. 129. bit-point drill.] [illustration: fig. 130. auger-bit.] [illustration: fig. 131. plug-cutter.] [illustration: fig. 132. center-bit.] [illustration: fig. 133. foerstner auger-bit.] [illustration: fig. 134. expansive-bit.] [illustration: fig. 135. reamer.] [illustration: fig. 136. rose countersink.] _gimlets_ and _drills_ are alike in that they cut away material, but unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet is on the side, while the cutting edge of the drill is on the end. _twist-drills_, fig. 126, are very hard and may be used in drilling metal. they are therefore useful where there is danger of meeting nails, as in repair work. their sizes are indicated by a special drill gage, fig. 220, p. 117. _twist-bits_, fig. 127, are like twist-drills except that they are not hard enough to use for metal. their sizes are indicated on the tang in 32nds of an inch. both twist-bits and drill-bits have the advantage over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood. twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone, care being taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that the edge will meet the wood and there will be clearance. _german gimlet-bits_, fig. 128, have the advantage of centering well. the size is indicated on the tang in 32nds of an inch. they are useful in boring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes. they cannot be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced. _bit-point drills_, fig. 129, are useful for accurate work, but are expensive. _auger-bits_, fig. 130, have several important features. the spur centers the bit in its motion, and since it is in the form of a pointed screw draws the auger into the wood. two sharp nibs on either side score the circle, out of which the lips cut the shavings, which are then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the tool. the size of auger-bits is indicated by a figure on the tang in 16ths of an inch. thus 9 means a diameter of 9/16". there are three chief precautions to be taken in using auger-bits. (1) one is to bore perpendicularly to the surface. a good way to do this is to lay the work flat, either on the bench or in the vise, and sight first from the front and then from the side of the work, to see that the bit is perpendicular both ways. the test may also be made with the try-square, fig. 137, or with a plumb-line, either by the worker, or in difficult pieces, by a fellow worker. the sense of perpendicularity, however, should constantly be cultivated. (2) another precaution is that, in thru boring, the holes should not be bored quite thru from one side, lest the wood be splintered off on the back. when the spur pricks thru, the bit should be removed, the piece turned over, and the boring finished, putting the spur in the hole which is pricked thru in boring from the first side. it is seldom necessary to press against the knob of the brace in boring, as the thread on the spur will pull the bit thru, especially in soft wood. indeed, as the bit reaches nearly thru the board, if the knob is gently pulled back, then when the spur pricks thru the bit will be pulled out of its hole. this avoids the necessity of constantly watching the back of the board to see if the spur is thru. (3) in stop boring, as in boring for dowels or in making a blind mortise, care should be taken not to bore thru the piece. for this purpose an auger-bit-gage, fig. 219, p. 116, may be used, or a block of wood of the proper length thru which a hole has been bored, may be slipped over the bit, or the length of bit may be noted before boring, and then the length of the projecting portion deducted, or the number of turns needed to reach the required depth may be counted on a trial piece. tying a string around a bit, or making a chalk mark on it is folly. [illustration: fig. 137. using a try-square as a guide in boring.] auger-bits are sharpened with an auger-bit file, fig. 142, p. 90, a small flat file with two narrow safe edges at one end and two wide safe edges at the other. the "nibs" should be filed on the inside so that the diameter of the cut may remain as large as that of the body of the bit. the cutting lip should be sharpened from the side toward the spur, care being taken to preserve the original angle so as to give clearance. if sharpened from the upper side, that is, the side toward the shank, the nibs will tend to become shorter. the _plug-cutter_, fig. 131, is useful for cutting plugs with which to cover the heads of screws that are deeply countersunk. _center-bits_, fig. 132, work on the same principle as auger-bits, except that the spurs have no screw, and hence have to be pushed forcibly into the wood. sizes are given in 16ths of an inch. they are useful for soft wood, and in boring large holes in thin material which is likely to split. they are sharpened in the same way as auger-bits. _foerstner bits_, fig. 133, are peculiar in having no spur, but are centered by a sharp edge around the circumference. the size is indicated on the tang, in 16ths of an inch. they are useful in boring into end grain, and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur would pierce thru. they can be sharpened only with special appliances. _expansive-bits_, fig. 134, are so made as to bore holes of different sizes by adjusting the movable nib and cutter. there are two sizes, the small one with two cutters, boring from 1/2" to 1-1/2" and the large one with three cutters boring from 7/8" to 4". they are very useful on particular occasions, but have to be used with care. _reamers_, fig. 135, are used for enlarging holes already made. they are made square, half-round and six cornered in shape. _countersinks_, fig. 136, are reamers in the shape of a flat cone, and are used to make holes for the heads of screws. the rose countersink is the most satisfactory form. [illustration: fig. 138. washer-cutter.] the _washer-cutter_, fig. 138, is useful not only for cutting out washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood. the size is adjustable. 3. chopping tools. the primitive celt, which was hardly more than a wedge, has been differentiated into three modern hand tools, the _chisel_, see above, p. 53, the _ax_, fig. 139, and the _adze_, fig. 141. the _ax_ has also been differentiated into the _hatchet_, with a short handle, for use with one hand, while the ax-handle is long, for use with two hands. its shape is an adaption to its manner of use. it is oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow and also in order that the axman may feel and guide the direction of the blade. the curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the left hand at the moment of striking the blow, and the knob keeps it from slipping thru the hand. in both ax and hatchet there is a two-beveled edge. this is for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood at any angle. there are two principal forms, the common ax and the two bitted ax, the latter used chiefly in lumbering. there is also a wedge-shaped ax for splitting wood. as among all tools, there is among axes a great variety for special uses. [illustration: fig. 139. ax.] [illustration: fig. 140. shingling hatchet.] [illustration: fig. 141. carpenter's adze.] the _hatchet_ has, beside the cutting edge, a head for driving nails, and a notch for drawing them, thus combining three tools in one. the shingling hatchet, fig. 140, is a type of this. the _adze_, the carpenter's house adze, fig. 141, is flat on the lower side, since its use is for straightening surfaces. wood hand tools. references:[*] (1) cutting. goss, p. 22. smith, r. h., pp. 1-8. chisel. barnard, pp. 59-73. selden, pp. 44-50, 145-147. barter, pp. 93-96. griffith, pp. 53-64. goss, pp. 20-26. sickels, pp. 64-67. wheeler, 357, 421, 442. knife. barnard, pp. 48-58. selden, pp. 26-28, 158. saw. griffith, pp. 20-27. barnard, pp. 114-124. selden, pp. 41-43, 179-182. wheeler, pp. 466-473. hammacher, pp. 309-366. goss, pp. 26-41. sickels, pp. 76-79, 84. smith, r. h., 43-55. diston, pp. 129-138. plane. barnard, pp. 74-80. selden, pp. 11-26, 165-175. sickels pp. 72-75, 116. wheeler, pp. 445-458. hammacher, pp. 377-400. smith, r. h., 16-31. larsson, p. 19. goss, pp. 41-52. barter, pp. 96-109. griffith, pp. 28-45. (2) boring tools. barnard, pp. 125-135. goss, pp. 53-59. griffith, pp. 47-52. seldon, pp. 38-40, 141-144. wheeler, pp. 353-356. (3) chopping tools. barnard, pp. 80-88. [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. 4.] chapter iv, continued. wood hand tools. 4. scraping tools. scraping tools are of such nature that they can only abrade or smooth surfaces. [illustration: fig. 142. auger-bit-file.] [illustration: fig. 143. single-cut blunt, flat, bastard file.] [illustration: fig. 144. three-square single-cut file.] [illustration: fig. 145. open cut, taper, half-round file.] [illustration: fig. 146. double-cut file.] [illustration: fig. 147. cabinet wood-rasp.] [illustration: fig. 148. file-card.] _files._ figs. 142-146, are formed with a series of cutting edges or teeth. these teeth are cut when the metal is soft and cold and then the tool is hardened. there are in use at least three thousand varieties of files, each of which is adapted to its particular purpose. lengths are measured from point to heel exclusive of the tang. they are classified: (1) according to their outlines into blunt, (i. e., having a uniform cross section thruout), and taper; (2) according to the shape of their cross-section, into flat, square, three-square or triangular, knife, round or rat-tail, half-round, etc.; (3) according to the manner of their serrations, into single cut or "float" (having single, unbroken, parallel, chisel cuts across the surface), double-cut, (having two sets of chisel cuts crossing each other obliquely,) open cut, (having series of parallel cuts, slightly staggered,) and safe edge, (or side,) having one or more uncut surfaces; and (4) according to the fineness of the cut, as rough, bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. the "mill file," a very common form, is a flat, tapered, single-cut file. [illustration: fig. 149. a. diagram of a rasp tooth. b. cross-section of a single-cut file.] _rasps_, fig. 147, differ from files in that instead of having cutting teeth made by lines, coarse projections are made by making indentations with a triangular point when the iron is soft. the difference between files and rasps is clearly shown in fig. 149. it is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only as a last resort, when no cutting tool will serve. great care must be taken to file flat, not letting the tool rock. it is better to file only on the forward stroke, for that is the way the teeth are made to cut, and a flatter surface is more likely to be obtained. both files and rasps can be cleaned with a _file-card_, fig. 148. they are sometimes sharpened with a sandblast, but ordinarily when dull are discarded. [illustration: fig. 150. molding-scrapers.] _scrapers_ are thin, flat pieces of steel. they may be rectangular, or some of the edges may be curved. for scraping hollow surfaces curved scrapers of various shapes are necessary. convenient shapes are shown in fig. 150. the cutting power of scrapers depends upon the delicate burr or feather along their edges. when properly sharpened they take off not dust but fine shavings. scrapers are particularly useful in smoothing cross-grained pieces of wood, and in cleaning off glue, old varnish, etc. there are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or handles, such as the scraper-plane, fig. 111, p. 79, the veneer-scraper, and box-scrapers. the _veneer-scraper_, fig. 151, has the advantage that the blade may be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in the middle of the back, just as an ordinary scraper is when held in the hands. in use, fig. 152, the scraper may be either pushed or pulled. when pushed, the scraper is held firmly in both hands, the fingers on the forward and the thumbs on the back side. it is tilted forward, away from the operator, far enough so that it will not chatter and is bowed back slightly, by pressure of the thumbs, so that there is no risk of the corners digging in. when pulled the position is reversed. [illustration: fig. 151. using a veneer-scraper.] one method of sharpening the scraper is as follows: the scraper is first brought to the desired shape, straight or curved. this may be done either by grinding on the grindstone or by filing with a smooth, flat file, the scraper, while held in a vise. the edge is then carefully draw-filed, i. e., the file, a smooth one, is held (one hand at each end) directly at right angles to the edge of the scraper, fig. 153, and moved sidewise from end to end of the scraper, until the edge is quite square with the sides. then the scraper is laid flat on the oilstone and rubbed, first on one side and then on the other till the sides are bright and smooth along the edge, fig. 154. then it is set on edge on the stone and rubbed till there are two sharp square corners all along the edge, fig. 155. then it is put in the vise again and by means of a burnisher, or scraper steel, both of these corners are carefully turned or bent over so as to form a fine burr. this is done by tipping the scraper steel at a slight angle with the edge and rubbing it firmly along the sharp corner, fig. 156. [illustration: fig. 152. using a cabinet-scraper.] to resharpen the scraper it is not necessary to file it afresh every time, but only to flatten out the edges and turn them again with slightly more bevel. instead of using the oilstone an easier, tho less perfect, way to flatten out the burr on the edges is to lay the scraper flat on the bench near the edge. the scraper steel is then passed rapidly to and fro on the flat side of the scraper, fig. 157. after that the edge should be turned as before. [illustration: fig. 153. sharpening a cabinet-scraper: 1st step, drawfiling.] _sandpaper._ the "sand" is crushed quartz and is very hard and sharp. other materials on paper or cloth are also used, as carborundum, emery, and so on. sandpaper comes in various grades of coarseness from no. 00 (the finest) to no. 3, indicated on the back of each sheet. for ordinary purposes no. 00 and no. 1 are sufficient. sandpaper sheets may readily be torn by placing the sanded side down, one-half of the sheet projecting over the square edge of the bench. with a quick downward motion the projecting portion easily parts. or it may be torn straight by laying the sandpaper on a bench, sand side down, holding the teeth of a back-saw along the line to be torn. in this case, the smooth surface of the sandpaper would be against the saw. [illustration: fig. 154. sharpening a cabinet-scraper: 2nd step, whetting.] [illustration: fig. 155. sharpening a cabinet-scraper: 3rd step, removing the wire-edge.] sandpaper should never be used to scrape and scrub work into shape, but only to obtain an extra smoothness. nor ordinarily should it be used on a piece of wood until all the work with cutting tools is done, for the fine particles of sand remaining in the wood dull the edge of the tool. sometimes in a piece of cross-grained wood rough places will be discovered by sandpapering. the surface should then be wiped free of sand and scraped before using a cutting tool again. in order to avoid cross scratches, work should be "sanded" with the grain, even if this takes much trouble. for flat surfaces, and to touch off edges, it is best to wrap the sandpaper over a rectangular block of wood, of which the corners are slightly rounded, or it may be fitted over special shapes of wood for specially shaped surfaces. the objection to using the thumb or fingers instead of a block, is that the soft portions of the wood are cut down faster than the hard portions, whereas the use of a block tends to keep the surface even. [illustration: fig. 156. sharpening a cabinet-scraper: 4th step, turning the edge.] _steel wool_ is made by turning off fine shavings from the edges of a number of thin discs of steel, held together in a lathe. there are various grades of coarseness, from no. 00 to no. 3. its uses are manifold: as a substitute for sandpaper, especially on curved surfaces, to clean up paint, and to rub down shellac to an "egg-shell" finish. like sandpaper it should not be used till all the work with cutting tools is done. it can be manipulated until utterly worn out. 5. pounding tools. the _hammer_ consists of two distinct parts, the head and the handle. the head is made of steel, so hard that it will not be indented by hitting against nails or the butt of nailsets, punches, etc., which are comparatively soft. it can easily be injured tho, by being driven against steel harder than itself. the handle is of hickory and of an oval shape to prevent its twisting in the hand. [illustration: fig. 157. resharpening a cabinet-scraper: flattening the edge.] hammers may be classified as follows: (1) hammers for striking blows only; as, the blacksmith's hammer and the stone-mason's hammer, and (2) compound hammers, which consist of two tools combined, the face for striking, and the "peen" which may be a claw, pick, wedge, shovel, chisel, awl or round head for other uses. there are altogether about fifty styles of hammers varying in size from a jeweler's hammer to a blacksmith's great straight-handled sledge-hammer, weighing twenty pounds or more. they are named mostly according to their uses; as, the riveting-hammer, fig. 159, the upholsterer's hammer, fig. 160, the veneering-hammer, fig. 162, etc. magnetized hammers, fig. 161, are used in many trades for driving brads and tacks, where it is hard to hold them in place with the fingers. [illustration: fig. 158. claw-hammer.] [illustration: fig. 159. riveting-hammer.] [illustration: fig. 160. upholster's hammer.] [illustration: fig. 161. magnetized hammer.] [illustration: fig. 162. veneering-hammer.] in the "bell-faced" hammer, the face is slightly convex, in order that the last blow in driving nails may set the nail-head below the surface. it is more difficult to strike a square blow with it than with a plain-faced hammer. for ordinary woodwork the plain-faced, that is, flat-faced claw-hammer, fig. 158, is best. it is commonly used in carpenter work. it is essential that the face of the hammer be kept free from glue in order to avoid its sticking on the nail-head and so bending the nail. hammers should be used to hit iron only; for hitting wood, mallets are used. in striking with the hammer, the wrist, the elbow and the shoulder are one or all brought into play, according to the hardness of the blow. the essential precautions are that the handle be grasped at the end, that the blow be square and quick, and that the wood be not injured. at the last blow the hammer should not follow the nail, but should be brought back with a quick rebound. to send the nail below the surface, a nailset is used. (see below.) [illustration: fig. 163. drawing a nail with claw-hammer.] the claw is used for extracting nails. to protect the wood in withdrawing a nail a block may be put under the hammer-head. when a nail is partly drawn, the leverage can be greatly increased by continuing to block up in this way, fig. 163. [illustration: fig. 164. mallets.] the _mallet_, fig. 164, differs from the hammer in having a wooden instead of a steel head. a maul or beetle is a heavy wooden mallet. the effect of the blow of a mallet is quite different from that of a hammer, in that the force is exerted more gradually; whereas the effect of the hammer blow is direct, immediate, and local, and is taken up at once. but a mallet continues to act after the first impulse, pushing, as it were. this is because of the elasticity of the head. a chisel, therefore, should always be driven with a mallet, for the chisel handle would soon go to pieces under the blows of a hammer, because of their suddenness; whereas the mallet blow which is slower will not only drive the blade deeper with the same force, but will not injure the handle so rapidly. mallet-heads are made square, cylindrical, and barrel-shaped. carver's mallets are often turned from one piece, hammer and head on one axis. _nailsets_, fig. 165, are made with hardened points, but softer butts, so that the hammer will not be injured. they were formerly made square when nail heads were square, but now round ones are common. to obviate slipping, some have "cup points," that is, with a concave tip, and some spur points. [illustration: fig. 165. using a nailset.] to keep the nailset in its place on the nail-head it may be held closely against the third finger of the left hand, which rests on the wood close to the nail. when a nailset is lacking, the head of a brad, held nearly flat, may be used. but care is necessary to avoid bruising the wood. 6. holding tools. a. _tools for holding work._ the advance in ease of handworking may largely be measured by the facilities for holding materials or other tools. the primitive man used no devices for holding except his hands and feet. the japanese, who perhaps are the most skilful of joiners, still largely use their fingers and toes. on the other hand, anglo-saxons have developed an enormous variety of methods for holding work and tools. [illustration: fig. 166. bench made with pinned mortise-and-tenon joints, low back.] [illustration: fig. 167. woodworking bench used at pratt institute, showing self-adjusting upright vise.] _benches._ the essential features of a work-bench are a firm, steady table with a vise and places for tools. the joints are either pinned or wedged mortise-and-tenon, or draw-bolt joints. the best benches are made of maple, the tops being strips joined or tongued-and-grooved together. it is common also to have a trough at the back of the top of the bench, i. e., a space 6" or 8" wide, set lower than the upper surface, in which tools may be placed so as not to roll off. a low pillow, fastened at the left hand end of the trough, on which to set planes in order that the edge of the cutter may not be injured, is an advantage. the tool-rack is of capital importance. it has been common in school benches to affix it to a board, which rises considerably above the top of the bench, fig. 169, but a better plan is to have the top of it no higher than the bench-top, fig. 166. then the light on the bench is not obscured, and when a flat top is needed for large work it can readily be had by removing the tools. elaborate benches with lock drawers are also much used in the shops of large city schools. [illustration: fig. 168. a rapid-acting vise.] _vises_ for holding wood are of three general styles, (1) those with an upright wooden jaw, fig. 167, which holds wide pieces of work well. they are now made with an automatic adjusting device by which the jaw and the face of the bench are kept parallel; (2) wooden vises with a horizontal jaw, guided by parallel runners, fig. 166, and, (3) metal rapid-acting vises, fig. 168. the latter are the most durable and in most respects more convenient. special vises are also made for wood-carvers, for saw-filing, etc. [illustration: fig. 169. holding a large board in vise for planing.] the best woodworking benches are equipped with both sideand tail-vises. the tail-vise is supplemented by movable bench-stops for holding pieces of different lengths. in planing the side of a board it is held in place between the tail-vise and one of the bench-stops. a board should not be squeezed sidewise between the jaws of a vise when it is to be planed, lest it be bent out of shape. in planing the edge of a board it is ordinarily held in the side-vise. a long board, one end of which is in the vise, may also need to be supported at the other end. this may be done by clamping to it a handscrew, the jaw of which rests on the top of the bench, fig. 169. when the vise is likely to be twisted out of square by the insertion of a piece of wood at one end of it, it is well to insert another piece of equal thickness at the other end of the vise to keep it square, as in fig. 120, p. 82. in this case, (fig. 120,) the extra piece also supports the piece being worked upon. [illustration: fig. 170. saw-horse.] the vise is also of great use in carrying on many other processes, but a good workman does not use it to the exclusion of the saw-horse and bench-hook. horses are of great use both for the rough sawing of material and in supporting large pieces during the process of construction. the common form is shown in fig. 170, but a more convenient form for sawing has an open top, as in fig. 171. [illustration: fig. 171. saw-horse.] the _picture-frame-vise_, fig. 172, is a very convenient tool for making mitered joints, as in picture-frames. the vise holds two sides firmly so that after gluing they may be either nailed together or a spline inserted in a saw cut previously made. see fig. 268, no. 55, p. 181. if the last joint in a picture-frame does not quite match, a kerf may be sawn at the junction of the two pieces, which can then be drawn close together. [illustration: fig. 172. picture-frame-vise.] _handscrews_, fig. 173, consist of four parts, the shoulder jaw and the screw jaw, made of maple, and the end spindle and the middle spindle, made of hickory. the parts when broken can be bought separately. handscrews vary in size from those with jaws four inches long to those with jaws twenty-two inches long. the best kind are oiled so that glue will not adhere to them. in adjusting the jaws, if the handle of the middle spindle is held in one hand, and the handle of the end spindle in the other hand, and both are revolved together, the jaws may be closed or opened evenly, fig. 174. in use care must be taken to keep the jaws parallel, in order to obtain the greatest pressure and to prevent the spindles from being broken. it is always important to have the jaws press on the work evenly. to secure this, the middle spindle should be tightened first, and then the end spindle. handscrews are convenient for a great variety of uses, as clamping up glued pieces, holding pieces together temporarily for boring, fig. 247, p. 153, holding work at any desired angle in the vise, as for chamfering or beveling, fig. 175, etc. [illustration: fig. 173. handscrew.] _clamps_ are made of both wood and iron, the most satisfactory for speed, strength, and durability are steel-bar carpenter clamps, fig. 176. they vary in length from 1-1/2 ft. to 8 ft. the separate parts are the steel bar a, the cast-iron frame b, the tip c into which fits the screw d, on the other end of which is the crank e, and the slide f with its dog g, which engages in the notches on the bar. any part, if broken, can be replaced separately. [illustration: fig. 174. adjusting handscrew.] _iron handscrews_, also called c clamps and carriage-makers' clamps. fig. 177, are useful in certain kinds of work, as in gluing in special places and in wood-carving. all iron clamps need blocks of soft wood to be placed between them and the finished work. _pinch-dogs_, fig. 178, are a convenient device for drawing together two pieces of wood, when injury to the surfaces in which they are driven does not matter. they vary in size from 3/4" to 2-3/4". for ordinary purposes the smallest size is sufficient. for especially fine work, double-pointed tacks, properly filed, are convenient. the _bench-hook_, fig. 179, is a simple device for holding firmly small pieces of work when they are being sawn, chisled, etc. it also saves the bench from being marred. the angles should be kept exactly square. [illustration: fig. 175. using a handscrew to hold a board at an angle.] the _miter-box_, fig. 180, is a similar device with the addition of a guide for the saw. the _iron miter-box_, fig. 181, with the saw adjustable to various angles, insures accurate work. such tools as _pliers_, fig. 182, _pincers_, fig. 183, and _nippers_, fig. 184, made for gripping iron, are often useful in the woodworking shop. so are various sorts of _wrenches_; as fixed, socketed, adjustable, monkeyand pipe-wrenches. [illustration: fig. 176. steel-bar carpenter's clamp. a. steel bar. b. frame. c. tip. d. screw. e. crank. f. slide. g. dog.] [illustration: fig. 177. iron handscrew, (carriage-maker's clamp).] [illustration: fig. 178. pinch-dog.] b. _tools for holding other tools._ the _brace_ or _bit-stock_, fig. 185, holds all sorts of boring tools as well as screwdrivers, dowel-pointers, etc. the simple brace or bit-stock consists of a chuck, a handle, and a knob, and is sufficient for ordinary use; but the ratchet-brace enables the user to bore near to surfaces or corners where a complete sweep cannot be made. it is also useful where sufficient power can be applied only at one part of the sweep. by means of pawls which engage in the ratchet-wheel, the bit can be turned in either direction at the will of the user. the size of the brace is indicated by the "sweep," that is, the diameter of the circle thru which the swinging handle turns. to insert a bit or other tool, fig. 186, grasp firmly with one hand the sleeve of the chuck pointing it upward, and revolve the handle with the other hand, unscrewing the sleeve until the jaws open enough to admit the whole tang of the bit. then reverse the motion and the bit will be held tightly in place. various hand-, breast-, bench-, bow-drills and automatic drills are of use in doing quick work and for boring small holes, fig. 187. [illustration: fig. 179. bench-hook.] [illustration: fig. 180. miter-box.] [illustration: fig. 181. iron miter-box.] the _screwdriver_, fig. 188, is a sort of holding tool for turning, and so driving screws. various devices have been tried to prevent the twisting in the handle. this is now practically assured in various makes. the other important matter in a screwdriver is that the point be of the right temper, so as neither to bend nor to break. if the corners break they can be reground, but care should be taken not to make the angle too obtuse or the driver will slip out of the slot in the screw-head. the bevel should have a long taper. a shop should be equipped with different sizes of screwdrivers to fit the different sizes of screws. screwdrivers vary in size, the shank ranging in length from 2-1/2" to 18". a long screwdriver is more powerful than a short one, for the screwdriver is rarely exactly in line with the axis of the screw, but the handle revolves in a circle. this means an increased leverage, so that the longer the screwdriver, the greater the leverage. [illustration: fig. 182. pliers.] [illustration: fig. 183. pincers.] [illustration: fig. 184. nippers.] [illustration: fig. 185. ratchet-brace.] for heavy work, screwdriver-bits, fig. 189, in a bit-stock are useful, and for quick work, the spiral screwdriver, fig. 190, and for small work, the ratchet-screwdriver. 7. measuring and marking tools. it is a long step from the time when one inch meant the width of the thumb, and one foot meant the length of the foot, to the measuring of distances and of angles which vary almost infinitesimally. no such accuracy is necessary in measuring wood as in measuring metal, but still there is a considerable variety of tools for this purpose. [illustration: fig. 186. inserting a bit in stock.] [illustration: fig. 187. hand-drill.] [illustration: fig. 188. screwdriver.] [illustration: fig. 189. screwdriver-bit.] [illustration: fig. 190. spiral screwdriver.] for measuring distances, the _rule_, fig. 191, is the one in most common use. it is usually made of boxwood. for convenience it is hinged so as to fold. a rule is called "two-fold" when it is made of two pieces, "four-fold" when made of four pieces, etc. when measuring or marking from it, it can be used more accurately by turning it on edge, so that the lines of the graduations may come directly against the work. the one in most common use in school shops, is a two-foot, two-fold rule. some instructors prefer to have pupils use a four-fold rule, because that is the form commonly used in the woodworking trades. steel bench-rules, fig. 192, are satisfactory in school work because unbreakable and because they do not disappear so rapidly as pocket rules. they need to be burnished occasionally. [illustration: fig. 191. two-foot rule. two fold.] [illustration: fig. 192. steel bench-rule.] [illustration: fig. 193. back of steel square, brace measure.] the _steel square_, figs. 193, 194, 196, 197, is useful, not only as a straight-edge and try-square, but also for a number of graduations and tables which are stamped on it. there are various forms, but the one in most common use consists of a blade or "body" 24"ã�2" and a "tongue," 16"ã�1-1/2", at right angles to each other. sargent's trade number for this form is 100. it includes graduations in hundredths, thirty-seconds, sixteenths, twelfths, tenths, and eighths of an inch, also a brace-measure, an eight-square measure, and the essex board-measure. another style, instead of an essex board-measure, and the hundredths graduation has a rafter-table. the side upon which the name of the maker is stamped, is called the "face," and the reverse side the "back." the brace-measure is to be found along the center of the back of the tongue, fig. 193. it is used thus: the two equal numbers set one above the other represent the sides of a square, and the single number to their right, represents in inches and decimals, the diagonal of that square. e. g., 54/54 76.37 means that a square the sides of which are 54" would have a diagonal of 76.37". for determining the length of the long side (hypothenuse) of a right angle triangle, when the other two given sides are not equal, the foot rule, or another steel square may be laid diagonally across the blade and arm, and applied directly to the proper graduations thereon, and the distance between them measured on the rule. if the distance to be measured is in feet, use the 1/12" graduations on the back of the square. [illustration: fig. 194. face of steel square, octagon, "eight-square," scale.] to use the octagonal (or 8-square) scale, fig. 194, which is along the center of the face of the tongue, with the dividers, take the number of spaces in the scale to correspond with the number of inches the piece of wood is square, and lay this distance off from the center point, on each edge of the board. connect the points thus obtained, diagonally across the corners, and a nearly exact octagon will be had. e.g., on a board 12" square, fig. 195, find a.b.c.d., the centers of each edge. now with the dividers take 12 spaces from the 8-square scale. lay off this distance on each side as a' a" from a, b' b" from b, etc. now connect a" with b', b" with c', c" with d', d" with a', and the octagon is obtained. [illustration: fig. 195. method of using the eight-square scale on the steel-square.] in making a square piece of timber octagonal, the same method is used on the butt, sawed true. when the distance from one center is laid off, the marking-gage may be set to the distance from the point thus obtained to the corner of the timber, and the piece gaged from all four corners both ways. cutting off the outside arrises to the gaged lines leaves an octagonal stick. [illustration: fig. 196. back of steel square, essex board measure.] the board-measure is stamped on the back of the blade of the square, fig. 196. the figure 12 on the outer edge of the blade is the starting point for all calculations. it represents a 1" board, 12" wide, and the smaller figures under it indicate the length of boards in feet. thus a board 12" wide, and 8' long measures 8 square feet and so on down the column. to use it, for boards other than 12" wide:--find the length of the board in feet, under the 12" marked on the outer edge of the blade, then run right or left along that line to the width of the board in inches. the number under the width in inches on the line showing the length in feet, gives the board feet for lumber 1" thick. for example, to measure a board 14' long, and 11" wide,--under the figure 12, find 14 (length of the board); to the left of this, under 11 is the number 12.10; 12' 10" is the board-measure of the board in question. since a board 12' long would have as many board feet in it as it is inches wide, the b. m. is omitted for 12' boards. likewise a board 6' long would have 1/2 the number of board feet that it is inches wide. if the board is shorter than the lowest figure given (8) it can be found by dividing its double by 2.; e. g., to measure a board 5' long and 9" wide, take 10 under the 12, run to the left of the number under 9, which is 7' 6": 1/2 of this would be 3' 9", the number of board feet in the board. if the board to be measured is longer than any figure given, divide the length into two parts and add the result of the two parts obtained separately. for example, for a board 23' long and 13" wide,--take 12'ã�13" = 13'; add to it, 11'ã�13" = 11' 11"; total, 24'11". [illustration: fig. 197. steel square with rafter table.] a good general rule is to think first whether or not the problem can be done in one's head without the assistance of the square. the table is made, as its name, board-measure (b. m.) implies, for measuring boards, which are commonly 1" thick. for materials more than 1" thick, multiply the b. m. of one surface by the number of inches thick the piece measures. the rafter-table is found on the back of the body of the square, fig. 197. auxiliary to it are the twelfth inch graduations, on the outside edges, which may represent either feet or inches. [illustration: fig. 198. the "run" and "rise" of a rafter.] by the "run" of the rafter is meant the horizontal distance when it is set in place from the end of its foot to a plumb line from the ridge end, i. e., one half the length of the building, fig. 198. by the "rise" of the rafter is meant the perpendicular distance from the ridge end to the level of the foot of the rafter. by the pitch is meant the ratio of the rise to twice the run, i. e., to the total width of the building. in a 1/2 pitch, the rise equals the run, or 1/2 the width of the building; in a 1/3 pitch the rise is 1/3 the width of the building; in a 3/4 pitch the rise is 3/4 the width of the building. [illustration: fig. 199. lumberman's board rule.] to find the length of a rafter by the use of the table, first find the required pitch, at the left end of the table. opposite this and under the graduation on the edge representing the run in feet, will be found the length of the rafter; e.g., a rafter having a run of 12' with a 1/4 pitch, is 13' 5" long, one with a run of 11' and a 1/3 pitch, is 13' 2-8/12", one with a run of 7' and a 5/8 pitch, is 11' 2-6/12" long, etc. when the run is in inches, the readings are for 1/12 of the run in feet: e.g., a rafter with a run of 12" and a 1/4 pitch is 13-5/12", one with a run of 11" and a 1/3 pitch, is 13-3/12". where the run is in both feet and inches, find the feet and the inches separately; and add together; e.g., a rafter with a run of 11' 6", and a 1/2 pitch, is 15' 6-8/12" + 8-6/12" = 16' 3-2/12". [illustration: fig. 200. try-square. fig. 201. miter-square. fig. 202. sliding-t bevel.] the _lumberman's board-rule_, fig. 199. to measure wood by it, note the length of the board in feet at the end of the measure. the dot nearest the width (measured in inches) gives the b. m. for lumber 1" thick. the _try-square_, fig. 200, which is most commonly used for measuring the accuracy of right angles, is also convenient for testing the width of a board at various places along its length, for making short measurements, and as a guide in laying out lines with a pencil or knife at right angles to a surface or edge. the sizes are various and are indicated by the length of the blade. a convenient size for the individual bench and for ordinary use has a blade 6" long. it is also well to have in the shop one large one with a 12" blade. [illustration: fig. 203. using the try-square.] [illustration: fig. 204. scribing with knife by try-square.] in testing the squareness of work with the try-square, care must be taken to see that the head rests firmly against the surface from which the test is made, and then slipped down till the blade touches the edge being tested, fig. 203. the edge should be tested at a number of places in the same way: that is, it should not be slid along the piece. the try-square is also of great use in scribing lines across boards, fig. 204. a good method is to put the point of the knife at the beginning of the desired line, slide the square, along until it touches the knife-edge; then, resting the head of the square firmly against the edge, draw the knife along, pressing it lightly against the blade, holding it perpendicularly. to prevent the knife from running away from the blade of the try-square, turn its edge slightly towards the blade. the _miter-square_, fig. 201, is a try-square fixed at an angle of 45â°. the _sliding t bevel_, fig. 202, has a blade adjustable to any angle. it may be set either from a sample line, drawn on the wood, from a given line on a protractor, from drawing triangles, from the graduations on a framing square, or in other ways. it is used similarly to the t-square. [illustration: fig. 205. winding-sticks, 12 inches long.] _winding-sticks_, fig. 205, consist of a pair of straight strips of exactly the same width thruout. they are used to find out whether there is any twist or "wind" in a board. this is done by placing them parallel to each other, one at one end of the board, and the other at the other end. by sighting across them, one can readily see whether the board be twisted or not, fig. 206. the blades of two framing-squares may be used in the same manner. [illustration: fig. 206. method of using the winding-sticks.] _compasses_ or _dividers_, fig. 207, consist of two legs turning on a joint, and having sharpened points. a convenient form is the wing divider which can be accurately adjusted by set-screws. a pencil can be substituted for the removable point. they are used for describing circles and arcs, for spacing, for measuring, for subdividing distances, and for scribing. in scribing a line parallel with a given outline, one leg follows the given edge, or outline, and the point of the other, marks the desired line. used in this way they are very convenient for marking out chamfers, especially on curved edges, a sharp pencil being substituted for the steel point. the _beam-compass_, fig. 208, consists of two _trammel-points_ running on a beam which may be made of any convenient length. it is used for describing large circles. a pencil may be attached to one point. _calipers_, outside and inside, figs. 209, 210, are necessary for the accurate gaging of diameters, as in wood-turning. [illustration: fig. 207. winged dividers.] [illustration: fig. 208. beam-compass or trammel points.] [illustration: fig. 209. outside calipers.] [illustration: fig. 210. inside calipers.] the _marking-gage_, fig. 211, consists of a head or block sliding on a beam or bar, to which it is fixed by means of a set-screw. on the face of the head is a brass shoe to keep the face from wearing. projecting thru the beam is a steel spur or point, which should be filed to a flat, sharp edge, a little rounded and sharpened on the edge toward which the gage is to be moved, fig. 212. it should project about 1/8" from the beam. if the spur be at all out of place, as it is likely to be, the graduations on a beam will be unreliable. hence it is best to neglect them entirely when setting the gage and always to measure with the rule from the head to the spur, fig. 213. [illustration: fig. 211. marking-gage.] [illustration: fig. 212. spur of marking-gage.] in use the beam should be tilted forward, so as to slide on its corner, fig. 214. in this way the depth of the gage line can be regulated. ordinarily, the finer the line the better. the head must always be kept firmly pressed against the edge of the wood so that the spur will not run or jump away from its desired course. care should also be taken, except in rough pieces, to run gage lines no farther than is necessary for the sake of the appearance of the finished work. to secure accuracy, all gaging on the surface of wood, should be done from the "working face" or "working edge." [illustration: fig. 213. setting a marking-gage.] [illustration: fig. 214. using the marking-gage.] it is sometimes advisable, as in laying out chamfers, not to mark their edges with a marking-gage, because the marks will show after the chamfer is planed off. a pencil mark should be made instead. for this purpose a pencil-gage may be made by removing the spur of a marking-gage, and boring in its place a hole to receive a pencil stub with a blunt point, or a small notch may be cut in the back end of the beam, in which a pencil point is held while the gage is worked as usual except that its position is reversed. for work requiring less care, the pencil may be held in the manner usual in writing, the middle finger serving as a guide, or a pair of pencil compasses may be used, one leg serving as a guide. a special gage is made for gaging curved lines, fig. 215. [illustration: fig. 215. marking-gage for curves.] the _cutting-gage_, fig. 216, is similar to a marking-gage, except that it has a knife-point inserted instead of a spur. it is very useful in cutting up soft, thin wood even as thick as 1/4". [illustration: fig. 216. cutting-gage.] the _slitting-gage_ is used in a similar way, but is larger and has a handle. the _mortise-gage_, fig. 217, is a marking-gage with two spurs, with which two parallel lines can be drawn at once, as in laying out mortises. one form is made entirely of steel having, instead of spurs, discs with sharpened edges. the _scratch-awl_, fig. 218, has a long, slender point which is useful not only for marking lines, but for centering. [illustration: fig. 217. roller mortise-gage.] the _auger-bit-gage_, fig. 219, is a convenient tool for measuring the depth of holes bored, but for ordinary purposes a block of wood sawn to the proper length thru which a hole is bored, is a satisfactory substitute. _screwand wire-gages_, fig. 220, are useful in measuring the lengths and sizes of screws and wire when fitting or ordering. the _spirit-level_, and the _plumb-line_ which it has largely replaced, are in constant use in carpentering, but are rarely needed in shopwork. [illustration: fig. 218. scratch-awl.] [illustration: fig. 219. auger-bit-gage.] _blackboard compasses_, _triangles_, etc., are convenient accessories in a woodworking classroom. [illustration: fig. 220. screwand wire-gages. a. screw-gage. b. wire-gage. c. twist-drill-gage.] 8. sharpening tools. the _grindstone_ for woodworking tools is best when rather fine and soft. the grinding surface should be straight and never concave. the stone should run as true as possible. it can be made true by using a piece of 1" gas pipe as a truing tool held against the stone when run dry. power grindstones usually have truing devices attached to them, fig. 221. a common form is a hardened steel screw, the thread of which, in working across the face of the grindstone, as they both revolve, shears off the face of the stone. the surface should always be wet when in use both to carry off the particles of stone and steel, and thus preserve the cutting quality of the stone, and to keep the tool cool, as otherwise, its temper would be drawn, which would show by its turning blue. but a grindstone should never stand in water or it would rot. it is well to have the waste from the grindstone empty into a cisternlike box under it, fig. 221. in this box the sediment will settle while the water overflows from it into the drain. without such a box, the sediment will be carried into and may clog the drain. the box is to be emptied occasionally, before the sediment overflows. [illustration: fig. 221. power grindstone.] in order that the tool may be ground accurately, there are various devices for holding it firmly and steadily against the stone. a good one is shown in figs. 221 and 222. this device is constructed as follows: a board a is made 2" thick, 6" wide, and long enough when in position to reach from the floor to a point above the level of the top of the stone. it is beveled at the lower end so as to rest snugly against a cleat nailed down at the proper place on the floor. the board is held in place by a loop of iron, b, which hooks into the holes in the trough of the grindstone. in the board a series of holes (say 1" in diameter) are bored. these run parallel to the floor when the board is in place, and receive the end of the tool-holder. the tool-holder consists of four parts: (1) a strip c, 1-1/2" thick, and as wide as the widest plane-bit to be ground. the forward end is beveled on one side; the back end is rounded to fit the holes in the main board a. its length is determined by the distance from the edge of the tool being ground to the most convenient hole in a, into which the rear end is to be inserted. it is better to use as high a hole as convenient, so that as the grindstone wears down, the stick will still be serviceable; (2) a strip, d, of the same width as a and 7/8" thick, and 15" to 18" long; (3) a cleat, e, 5/8"ã�3/4", nailed across d; (4) a rectangular loop of wrought iron or brass, f, which passes around the farther end of the two strips, c and d, and is fastened loosely to d by staples or screws. [illustration: fig. 222. grinding device.] [illustration: fig. 223. holder for grinding chisels or plane-bits.] the tool to be ground slips between this loop and the strip c, and is held firmly in place by the pressure applied to the back end of d, which thus acts as a lever on the fulcrum e. any desired bevel may be obtained on the tool to be sharpened, by choosing the proper hole in a for the back end of c or by adjusting the tool forward or backward in the clamp. as much pressure may be put on the tool as the driving belt will stand without slipping off. a still simpler holder for the plane-bit only, is a strip of wood 1-1/2" thick and 2" wide, cut in the shape g shown in fig. 223. the plane-bit fits into the saw-kerf k, and in grinding is easily held firmly in place by the hand. by inserting the rear end of the stick g into a higher or lower hole in the board a, any desired angle may be obtained. g is shown in position in fig. 221. [illustration: fig. 224. agacite grinder.] all such devices necessitate a perfectly true stone. the essential features are, to have a rigid support against which the tool may be pushed by the revolving stone, to hold the tool at a fixed angle which may be adjusted, and to press the tool against the stone with considerable pressure. the wheel should revolve toward the edge which is being ground, for two reasons. it is easier to hold the tool steadily thus, and the danger of producing a wire edge is lessened. the edge as it becomes thin, tends to spring away from the stone and this tendency is aggravated if the stone revolves away from the edge. if the stone does not run true and there is a consequent danger of digging into the stone with the tool which is being sharpened, the stone would better revolve away from the edge. the grinding should continue until the ground surface reaches the cutting edge and there is no bright line left along the edge. if the grinding is continued beyond this point, nothing is gained, and a heavy wire edge will be formed. a very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool, fig. 224, sold as the "_agacite grinder_,"[7] has a number of different shaped grinding stones made chiefly of carborundum. the _oilstone_. after grinding, edge tools need whetting. this is done on the whetstone, or oilstone. the best natural stones are found near hot springs, arkansas. the fine white ones are called arkansas stones, and the coarser ones washita stones. the latter are better for ordinary woodworking tools. the _india oilstone_, an artificial stone, fig. 77, p. 58, cuts even more quickly than the natural stones. it is made in several grades of coarseness. the medium grade is recommended for ordinary shop use. oil is used on oilstones for the same purpose as water on a grindstone. when an oilstone becomes hollow or uneven by use, it may be trued by rubbing it on a flat board covered with sharp sand, or on sandpaper tacked over a block of wood. [illustration: fig. 225. slipstone.] _slipstones_, fig. 225, are small oilstones, made into various shapes in order to fit different tools, as gouges, the bits of molding-planes, etc. _files_ are used for sharpening saws, augers, scrapers, etc. see above, p. 90. 9. cleaning tools. the _bench duster_. one may be noted hanging on the bench shown in fig. 166, p. 98. bristle brushes for cleaning the benches are essential if the shop is to be kept tidy. _buffer._ wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft is available, a buffer made of many thicknesses of cotton cloth is very valuable for polishing tools. the addition of a little tripoli greatly facilitates the cleaning. [footnote 7: made by the empire implement co., albany, n. y.] wood hand tools.--_continued._ references:[*] (4) scraping tools. barnard, pp. 136-142. wheeler, pp. 465, 473. griffith, pp. 71-75. selden, pp. 149, 177, 182. hodgson, i, pp. 61-74. (5) pounding tools. barnard, pp. 24-47. sickels, p. 70. wheeler, pp. 414, 428-432. selden, pp. 31, 111, 156. goss, p. 60. barter, p. 128. (6) punching tools. barnard, p. 29. wheeler, p. 433. selden, p. 161. (7) gripping tools. for holding work: goss, p. 63. wheeler, pp. 65-75, 475. selden, pp. 140, 147, 186, 194. hammacher, pp. 286-291. for holding other tools: goss, pp. 56-59. selden, p. 143. (8) measuring and marking tools. goss, pp. 9-20. griffith, pp. 9-19. hodgson, _the steel square_. wheeler, p. 465. tate, pp. 21-25. _building trades pocketbook_, pp. 234-237. selden, pp. 149, 150-152, 175. sargent's _steel squares_. (9) sharpening tools. barnard, pp. 136-142. sickels, pp. 80-85. wheeler, pp. 480-488. selden, pp. 153, 162, 172, 180. goss, pp. 39, 64-69. [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. 4.] chapter v. wood fastenings. the following are the chief means by which pieces of wood are fastened together: nails, screws, bolts, plates, dowels, glue, hinges, and locks. nails _nails_, fig. 226, may be classified according to the material of which they are made; as, steel, iron, copper, and brass. iron nails may be galvanized to protect them from rust. copper and brass nails are used where they are subject to much danger of corrosion, as in boats. nails may also be classified according to the process of manufacture; as, cut nails, wrought nails, and wire nails. cut nails are cut from a plate of metal in such a way that the width of the nail is equal to the thickness of the plate, and the length of the nail to the width of the plate. in the third dimension, the nail is wedge-shaped, thin at the point and thick at the head. unless properly driven, such nails are likely to split the wood, but if properly driven they are very firm. in driving, the wedge should spread with and not across the grain. [illustration: fig. 226. a. cut nail, common. b. flat-head wire nail, no. 1, common. c. finishing nail, or brad.] wrought nails are worked into shape from hot steel, and have little or no temper, so that they can be bent over without breaking, as when clinched. horseshoeand trunk-nails are of this sort. they are of the same shape as cut nails. wire nails are made from drawn steel wire, and are pointed, headed, and roughened by machinery. they are comparatively cheap, hold nearly if not quite as well as cut nails, which they have largely displaced, can be bent without breaking, and can be clinched. nails are also classified according to the shape of their heads; as, common or flat-heads, and brads or finishing nails. flat-heads are used in ordinary work, where the heads are not to be sunk in the wood or "set." some nails get their names from their special uses; as, shingle-nails, trunk-nails, boat-nails, lath-nails, picture-nails, barrel-nails, etc. the size of nails is indicated by the length in inches, and by the size of the wire for wire nails. the old nomenclature for cut nails also survives, in which certain numbers are prefixed to "penny." for example, a threepenny nail is 1-1/4" long, a fourpenny nail is 1-1/2" long, a fivepenny nail is 1-3/4" long, a sixpenny nail is 2" long. in other words, from threepenny to tenpenny 1/4" is added for each penny, but a twelvepenny nail is 3-1/4" long, a sixteenpenny nail is 3-1/2" long, a twentypenny nail is 4" long. this is explained as meaning that "tenpenny" nails, for example, cost tenpence a hundred. another explanation is that originally 1000 of such nails weighed a pound. the size of cut nails is usually still so indicated. nails are sold by the pound. the advantages of nails are that they are quickly and easily applied, they are strong and cheap, and the work can be separated, tho with difficulty. the disadvantages are the appearance and, in some cases, the insecurity. the holding power of nails may be increased by driving them into the wood at other than a right angle, especially where several nails unite two pieces of wood. by driving some at one inclination and some at another, they bind the pieces of wood together with much greater force than when driven in straight. the term brads was once confined to small finishing nails, but is now used for all finishing nails, in distinction from common or flat-headed nails. the heads are made round instead of flat so that they may be set easily with a nailset and the hole filled with a plug, or, where the wood is to be painted, with putty. they are used for interior finishing and other nice work. [illustration: fig. 227. tack.] _tacks_, fig. 227, vary in size and shape according to their use; as, flat-headed, gimp, round-headed, and double-pointed or matting tacks, a sort of small staple. their size is indicated by the word "ounce." for example, a two-ounce tack is 1/4" long, a three-ounce tack is 3/8" long, a four-ounce tack is 7/16" long, a six-ounce tack is 1/2" long, etc. this term once meant the number of ounces of iron required to make 1000 tacks. tacks are useful only in fastening to wood thin material, such as veneers, textiles, leather, matting, tin, etc. tinner's tacks, which are used for clinching, are commonly called clinch-nails. wire tacks, altho made, are not so successful as cut tacks because they lack a sharp point, which is essential. [illustration: fig. 228. corrugated fastener.] _corrugated fasteners_, fig. 228, or fluted nails, are used to fasten together two pieces of wood by driving the fastener so that one-half of it will be on each side of the joint. their size is indicated by the length and the number of corrugations, as 1/2", four. they are often useful where nails are impracticable. _glaziers' points_ are small, triangular pieces of zinc, used to fasten glass into sashes. screws (a) _wood-screws_, fig. 229, may be classified by the material of which they are made; as, steel or brass. steel screws may be either bright,--the common finish,--blued by heat or acid to hinder rusting, tinned, or bronzed. brass screws are essential wherever rust would be detrimental, as in boats. (b) screws are also classified by shape; as, flat-headed, round-headed, fillister-headed, oval-countersunk-headed, and square-headed screws. flat-heads are most commonly used. there are also special shapes for particular purposes. round-heads may be used either for decoration or where great drawing power is desirable. in the latter case, washers are commonly inserted under the heads to prevent them from sinking into the wood. oval-heads are used decoratively, the head filling the countersunk hole, as with flat-heads, and projecting a trifle besides. they are much used in the interior finish of railway cars. they are suitable for the strap hinges of a chest. the thread of the screw begins in a fine point so that it may penetrate the wood easily where no hole has been bored as is often the case in soft wood. the thread extends about two-thirds the length of the screw. any longer thread would only weaken the screw where it most needs strength, near the head, and it does not need friction with the piece thru which it passes. the size of screws is indicated by their length in inches, and by the diameter of the wire from which they are made, using the standard screw-gage, fig. 220, p. 117. they vary in size from no. 0 (less than 1/16") to no. 30 (more than 7/16") in diameter, and in length from 1/4" to 6". [illustration: fig. 229. a. flat-head wood-screw. b. round-head wood-screw. c. fillister-head wood-screw. d. oval-countersunk-head wood-screw. e. drive-screw. f. square-head (lagor coach-) screw.] the following is a good general rule for the use of screws: make the hole in the piece thru which the screw passes, large enough for the screw to slip thru easily. countersink this hole enough to allow the head to sink flush with the surface. make the hole in the piece into which the screw goes small enough for the thread of the screw to catch tight. then all the strength exerted in driving, goes toward drawing the pieces together, not in overcoming friction. the hole must be deep enough, especially in hard wood and for brass screws, to prevent the possibility of twisting off and breaking the screw. soap is often useful as a lubricant to facilitate the driving of screws. where it is desirable that the heads do not show, a hole may first be bored with an auger-bit large enough to receive the head and deep enough to insert a plug of wood, which is cut out with a plug-cutter, fig. 131, p. 84, and glued in place. if pains are taken to match the grain, the scar thus formed is inconspicuous. in rough work, the screw may be driven into place with a hammer thru most of its length, and then a few final turns be given with a screwdriver, but this breaks the fibers of the wood and weakens their hold. in "drive-screws," fig. 229, e, the slot is not cut all the way across the head, in order that the blows of the hammer may not close the slot. the advantages of screws are, that they are very strong and that the work can easily be taken apart. if they loosen they can be retightened. the disadvantages are, that they are expensive, that they take time to insert, that they show very plainly, and that they do not hold well in end grain. bolts bolts with nuts are useful where great strength is desired. there are three chief varieties, fig. 230. [illustration: fig. 230. a. stove-bolt. b. carriage-bolt. c. machine-bolt.] _stove-bolts_ are cheaply made (cast) bolts having either flat or round heads with a slot for the screwdriver, like ordinary screws. _carriage-bolts_ are distinguished by having the part of the shank which is near the head, square. _machine-bolts_ have square, hexagonal, or button heads. _machine-screws_, fig. 231, are similar to stove-bolts, but are accurately cut and are measured with a screw-gage. the varieties are, _a_, flat-head, _b_, round-head, _c_, fillister-head, _d_, oval-countersunk-head, all with slots for screwdriver. _plates_, fig. 232, include corner-irons, straight plates and panel-irons. these are made of either iron or brass and are used in fastening legs to the floor, in stiffening joints, affixing tops, etc. _dowel-rods._ dowel-rods are cylindrical rods, from 3/16" to 1" in diameter, and 36", 42", and 48" long. they are commonly made of birch or maple, but maple is more satisfactory as it shrinks less and is stronger than birch. dowels are used as pins for joining boards edge to edge, and as a substitute for mortise-and-tenon joints. [illustration: fig. 231. machine-screws. a. flat-head. b. round-head. c. fillister-head. d. oval-countersunk-head.] there is, to be sure, a prejudice against dowels on the part of cabinet-makers due, possibly, to the willingness to have it appear that doweling is a device of inferior mechanics. but doweling is cheaper and quicker than tenoning, and there are many places in wood construction where it is just as satisfactory and, if properly done, just as strong. certain parts of even the best furniture are so put together. shoe pegs serve well as small dowels. they are dipped in glue and driven into brad-awl holes. [illustration: fig. 232. a. corner-iron. b. straight plate. c. panel-iron.] _wedges_ are commonly used in door construction between the edges of tenons and the insides of mortises which are slightly beveled, no. 34, fig. 266, p. 179. or the end of a tenon may be split to receive the wedges, no. 35, fig. 266. the blind wedge is used in the fox-tail joint, no. 36, fig. 266. glue glue is an inferior kind of gelatin, and is of two kinds,--animal glue and fish glue. animal glue is made of bones and trimmings, cuttings and fleshings from hides and skins of animals. sinews, feet, tails, snouts, ears, and horn pith are also largely used. cattle, calves, goats, pigs, horses, and rabbits, all yield characteristic glues. the best glue is made from hides of oxen, which are soaked in lime water until fatty or partly decayed matter is eaten out and only the glue is left. the product is cleaned, boiled down and dried. the best and clearest bone glues are obtained by leaching the bones with dilute acid which dissolves out the lime salts and leaves the gelatinous matters. such leached bone is sold as a glue stock, under the name of "osseine." this material together with hides, sinews, etc., has the gelatin or glue extracted by boiling again and again, just as soup stock might be boiled several times. each extraction is called a "run." sometimes as many as ten or fifteen runs are taken from the same kettle of stock, and each may be finished alone or mixed with other runs from other stock, resulting in a great variety of commercial glues. manufacturers use many tests for glue, such as the viscosity or running test, the odor, the presence of grease or of foam, rate of set, the melting-point, keeping properties, jelly strength (tested between the finger tips), water absorption (some glues absorb only once their weight, others ten or twelve times), and binding or adhesive tests. this latter varies so much with different materials that what may be good glue for one material is poor for another. putting all these things together, glues are classified from grade 10 to 160, 10 being the poorest. the higher standards from 60 and upwards are neutral hide glues, clear, clean, free from odor, foam, and grease. the lower standards are chiefly bone glues, used for sizing straw hats, etc. they are rigid as compared with the flexibility of hide glues. for wood joints the grade should be 70 or over. for leather, nothing less than 100 should be used, and special cements are better still. the best glue is transparent, hard in the cake, free from spots, of an amber color, and has little or no smell. a good practical test for glue is to soak it in water till it swells and becomes jelly-like. the more it swells without dissolving the better the quality. poor glue dissolves. glue is sometimes bleached, becoming brownish white in color, but it is somewhat weakened thereby. fish glue is made from the scales and muscular tissue of fish. isinglass is a sort of glue made from the viscera and air bladder of certain fish, as cod and sturgeon. liquid glue may be made either from animal or fish glue. the lepage liquid glue is made in gloucester, mass., one of the greatest fish markets in the country. liquid glue is very convenient because always ready, but is not so strong as hot glue, and has an offensive odor. liquid glues are also made by rendering ordinary glue non-gelatinizing, which can be done by several means; as, for instance, by the addition of oxalic, nitric, or hydrochloric acid to the glue solution. to prepare hot glue, break it into small pieces, soak it in enough cold water to cover it well, until it is soft, say twelve hours, and heat in a glue-pot or double boiler, fig. 243, p. 148. the fresher the glue is, the better, as too many heatings weaken it. when used it should be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thin stream, so that it will fill the pores of the wood and so get a grip. two surfaces to be glued together should be as close as possible, not separated by a mass of glue. it is essential that the glue be hot and the wood warm, so that the glue may remain as liquid as possible until the surfaces are forced together. glue holds best on side grain. end grain can be made to stick only by sizing with thin glue to stop the pores. pieces thus sized and dried can be glued in the ordinary way, but such joints are seldom good. surfaces of hard wood that are to be glued should first be scratched with a scratch-plane, fig. 111, p. 79. to make waterproof glue, add one part of potassium bichromate to fifty parts of glue. it will harden when exposed to the air and light and be an insoluble liquid.[8] [footnote 8: for recipes for this and other glues, see woodcraft, may '07, p. 49.] _general directions for gluing._[9] before applying glue to the parts to be fastened together, it is a good plan to assemble them temporarily without glue, to see that all the parts fit. when it is desirable that a certain part, as the panel, in panel construction, should not be glued in place, it is a wise precaution to apply wax, soap, or oil to its edges before insertion. since hot glue sets quickly, it is necessary after the glue is applied to get the parts together as soon as possible. one must learn to work fast but to keep cool. to expedite matters, everything should be quite ready before the process is begun, clamps, protecting blocks of wood, paper to protect the blocks from sticking to the wood, braces to straighten angles, mallet, try-square, and all other appliances likely to be required. [footnote 9: for special directions, for particular joints, see under the various joints, (chap. vii.)] whenever it is possible to break up the process into steps, each step can be taken with more deliberation. for example, in assembling framed pieces that are doweled, it is well to glue the dowels into one set of holes beforehand, making tenons of them, as it were. time is thus saved for the final assembling when haste is imperative. the superfluous glue around the dowels should be carefully wiped off. likewise in gluing up framed pieces, sections may be put together separately: as, the ends of a table, and when they are dry then the whole may be assembled. when the pieces are together the joints should be tested to see that they are true, and that there are no twists. a good way to insure squareness, is to insert a diagonal brace on the inside, corner to corner, as in fig. 294, p. 195. such a brace should be provided when the trial assembly is made. another good way to insure squareness is to pass a rope around two diagonally opposite posts, and then by twisting the rope, to draw these corners toward each other until the frame is square. the superfluous glue may be wiped off at once with a warm damp cloth, but not with enough water to wet the wood. or by waiting a few minutes until the glue thickens, much of it can readily be peeled off with an edge tool. either of these ways makes the cleaning easier than to let the superfluous glue harden. the work when glued should remain at least six hours in the clamps to harden. hinges hinges, fig. 233, are made in several forms. the most common are the butt-hinge or butt, the two leaves of which are rectangular, as in a door-hinge; the strap-hinge, the leaves of which are long and strap-shaped; the tee-hinge, one leaf of which is a butt, and the other strap-shaped; the chest-hinge, one leaf of which is bent at a right angle, used for chest covers; the table-hinge used for folding table tops with a rule joint; the piano-hinge, as long as the joint; the blank hinge or screen-hinge which opens both ways; the stop-hinge, which opens only 90â°; and the "hook-and-eye" or "gate" hinge. [illustration: fig. 233. a. butt-hinge. b. tee-hinge. c. chest-hinge. d. table-hinge. e. blank or screen-hinge.] the knuckle of the hinge is the cylindrical part that connects the two leaves, fig. 234. the "acorn" is the head of the "pintle" or pin that passes thru the knuckle. sizes of butts are indicated in inches for length, and as "narrow," "middle," "broad" and "desk" for width. the pin may be either riveted into the knuckle as in box-hinges or removable as in door-butts. sometimes, as in blind-hinges, the pintle is fastened into one knuckle, but turns freely in the other. a butt-hinge may be set in one of three positions, fig. 235: (1) where it is desired to have the hinge open as wide as possible, as in a door. here the knuckle is set well out from the wood. (2) where it is desired to have the hinged portion open flat and no more. here the center of the pin is in line with the outside surface of the wood. this is less likely to rack the hinge than the other two positions. (3) where it is desired to have the knuckle project as little as possible. [illustration: fig. 234. parts of a butt-hinge. 1.1. leaves. 2.2.2. knuckle. 3. pintle. 4. acorn.] hinging in setting the hinges of a box cover, first see that the cover fits the box exactly all the way around. in the case of a door, see that it fits its frame, evenly all the way around, but with a little play. to insure a tighter fit at the swinging edge this edge should be slightly beveled inwards. in attaching a butt-hinge, the essential thing is to sink the hinge into the wood, exactly the thickness of the knuckle. the gains may be cut in one or both of the pieces to be hinged together. with these matters determined proceed as follows: in the case of a box cover, the hinges should be set about as far from the ends of the box as the hinge is long. in the case of an upright door, locate the hinges respectively above and below the lower and upper rails of the door. mark with the knife on the edge of the door the length of the hinge, and square across approximately the width of the gain to receive it. do this for both hinges. between these lines gage the proper width of the gains. set another gage to one half the thickness of the knuckle and gage on the door face the depth of the gains. chisel out the gains, set the hinges in place, bore the holes, and drive the screws. place the door in position again to test the fit. if all is well, mark the position of the hinges on the frame, gage and cut the gains, and fasten in the hinges. where the hinge is gained its full thickness into the door, no gain, of course, is cut in the frame. if the hinges are set too shallow, it is an easy matter to unscrew one leaf of each and cut a little deeper. if they are set too deep the screws may be loosened and a piece of paper or a shaving inserted underneath along the outer arris of the gain. locks the chief parts of a lock are: the _bolt_, its essential feature, the _selvage_, the plate which appears at the edge of the door or drawer, the _box_, which contains the mechanism including the _tumbler_, _ward_, _spring_, etc., the key-pin, into or around which the key is inserted, the _strike_, the plate attached opposite the selvage, (often left out as in drawer-locks, but essential in hook-bolt locks, and self-locking locks,) and the _escutcheon_, the plate around the keyhole. [illustration: fig. 235. three positions of hinges.] locks may be classified: (1) according to their _uses_, of which there are two types. (a), fig. 236, for drawers, cupboards, tills, wardrobes, and doors. in these the bolt simply projects at right angles to the selvage into the strike, and resists pressure sidewise of the lock. (b), fig. 237, for desks, roll-top desks, chests, boxes and sliding doors. in these, the bolt includes a hook device of some kind to resist pressure perpendicular to the selvage. in some locks, the hook or hooks project sidewise from the bolt, in others the bolt engages in hooks or eyes attached to the strike. [illustration: fig. 236. rim-lock, for drawer. 1. bolt. 2. selvage. 3. box. 4. key-pin.] (2) according to the _method of application_, as rim locks, which are fastened on the surface, and mortise locks which are mortised into the edge of a door or drawer or box. inserting locks to insert a _rim-lock_, measure the distance from the selvage to the key-pin, locate this as the center of the keyhole, and bore the hole. if the lock has a selvage, gain out the edge of the door or drawer to receive it. if the lock box has to be gained in, do that next, taking care that the bolt has room to slide. cut the keyhole to the proper shape with a keyhole-saw or small chisel. fasten the lock in place, and if there is a strike or face-plate, mark its place and mortise it in. [illustration: fig. 237. mortise-lock, for box.] to insert a _mortise-lock_, locate and bore the keyhole, mortise in the box and the selvage, finish the keyhole, fasten in the lock, add the escutcheon, locate and mortise in the strike, and screw it in place. wood fastenings references:[*] hammacher & schlemmer. catalog no. 151. nails. goss, p. 153. purfield, _wood craft_, 5: 181. park, pp. 129-135. griffith, pp. 75-78. _wood craft_, 5: 103. wheeler, pp. 428-433. tacks. wheeler, pp. 429-433. sickels, p. 70. goss, p. 155. barter, pp. 84-86. screws. goss, p. 155. wheeler, p. 476. barter, p. 86. griffith, pp. 78-80. park, pp. 136-140. dowels. goss, p. 153. wheeler, p. 374. sickels, p. 104. griffith, p. 92. wedges. goss, p. 151. glue. goss, p. 156. rivington, iii, p. 432. barter, p. 82. standage, _wood craft_, 7: 48. park, pp. 141-146. sickels, p. 106. wheeler, pp. 391-396. alexander, _wood craft_, 5: 168. griffith, pp. 80-83. hinges. sickels, p. 118. wheeler, p. 402. [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. 4.] chapter vi. equipment and care of the shop. _tool equipment._ the choice of tools in any particular shop best comes out of long experience. some teachers prefer to emphasize certain processes or methods, others lay stress on different ones. the following tentative list is suggested for a full equipment for twenty-four students. one bench and its tools may be added for the teacher. the prices given are quoted from discount sheet no. 1 for catalogue of tools, no. 355 issued by hammacher, schlemmer & co., fourth avenue and 13th street, new york city, dated 1908, and are correct at the present date (1910). aggregate orders, however, are always subject to special concessions, and it is suggested that before ordering the purchaser submit a list of specifications for which special figures will be quoted. there are good benches, vises, and tools of other makes on the market, but those specified below are typical good ones. following are two equipments for classes of twenty-four pupils, one severely economical to cost approximately $400, and the other more elaborate to cost approximately $750. $400 tool equipment. individual tools. 24 manual training school benches, h. & s. "l," @ $8.50. $204.00 24 stanley jack-planes, no. 5, 14", @ $1.74 each. 41.76 24 disston's back-saws, no. 4, 10", @ 93c each. 22.32 12 buck brothers' firmer-chisels, no. 2, 1/4", handled and sharpened. 2.21 12 buck brothers' firmer-chisels, no. 2, 1/2", handled and sharpened. 2.68 24 buck brothers' firmer-chisels, no. 2, 1", handled and sharpened. 7.31 24 sloyd knives, no. 7, 2-1/2". 6.50 12 hammond's adze-eye claw-hammer, no. 3, 7 oz. 4.90 24 try-squares, no. 5-1/2, 6". 5.32 24 beech marking-gages, no. 64-1/2. 4.86 24 boxwood rules, no. 3, 12" long. 1.80 12 faber's measuring compass, no. 1752. 1.50 12 bench-hooks. 2.00 12 bench-dusters, no. 10. 2.70 ------total for individual tools. $309.86 general tools 6 disston's crosscut-saws, no. 7, 22", 10 points. $6.75 6 disston's rip-saws, no. 7, 22", 8 points. 6.75 2 turning-saws in frames, 14", m. f. & co. 1.74 1 dozen turning-saw blades, 14", h. s. & co. 1.06 1 hack-saw frame, no. 50. .45 1 disston's dovetail-saw, 6", iron back. .48 1 stanley miter-box, no. 240. 8.20 2 stanley block-planes, no. 65-1/2. 1.56 1 stanley fore-plane, no. 6. 2.22 1 stanley rabbet-plane and filletster, no. 78. 1.10 1 stanley "bed rock" plane, no. 603. 1.58 6 iron spokeshaves, no. 54. 1.42 1 veneer-scraper, no. 80. .70 6 each molding-scrapers, no. 2 and no. 7. .90 1 scraper steel, richardson's. .10 3 flat bastard files, k. & f., 8", handled. .45 3 half-round files, k. & f., 8", handled. .55 3 rat-tail files, k. & f., 8", handled. .33 4 files, k. & f., 6", slim taper. .36 1 auger-bit-file. .13 1 file-card, no. 1. .14 1 empire tool-grinder. 2.80 1 grindstone, no. 11, with stone. 15.00 1 india oilstone, no. 0, in box. .95 1 soft arkansas oil slipstone, no. 6. .18 1 copperized steel oiler, no. 14a, 1/2 pint. .23 2 disston's sliding t bevel, no. 3, 6". .46 1 stanley miter-square, no. 16, 10". .60 1 sargent steel square, no. 2. .69 1 pair starrett's winged dividers, no. 92, 8". .75 1 chisel, no. 2, 1/8", handled. .20 3 buck brothers' firmer-gouges, no. 8, 1". 1.29 1 buck brothers' gouge, no. 10, inside bevel, regular sweep, 3/4". .43 4 barber's braces, no. 14, 6" sweep. 3.52 1 barber's ratchet-brace, no. 31, 12" sweep. 1.62 5 gimlet-bits, 1 each of 2/32", 3/32", 4/32", 5/32", 6/32". .40 1 set auger-bits, r. jennings'. 4.46 1 clark's expansive-bit, small. .57 2 screwdriver-bits, 1/2", round blade, no. 10, 4". .32 3 rose countersinks, no. 10, 5/8". .68 6 brad-awls, assorted 1"-1-1/2". .30 1 hand-drill, no. 5-1/2. 2.45 extra drills, 2 each of no. 107, size, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60. 1.42 6 new century screwdrivers, 4". .96 1 new century screwdriver, 12". .54 6 o. k. nailsets, assorted. .42 6 carpenter's steel bar clamps, 3 ft. 9.60 12 aldrich's oiled handscrews, no. 16, 10". 4.79 12 aldrich's oiled handscrews, no. 17-1/2, 6". 3.42 4 carriage-maker's clamps, 6". 1.32 1 automatic miter-clamp. 1.80 1 pair pliers, no. 200, 5". .21 1 coe's monkey-wrench, 10". .60 1 glue-pot, no. 3. .82 1 parker's wood-working vise, no. 276. 8.07 1 gas stove, 99a. .55 1 pair end-cutting nippers, no. 154, 5". .88 1 glass-cutter, no. 10. .27 3 flat varnish brushes, no. 54, 1-1/2", hard-rubber-bound (for shellac). .96 6 cheap brushes, 1", tin-bound (for stains), "ee". .90 6 extra jack-plane cutters (no. 5). 1.80 6 enamel cups, 1/2 pint. .60 1 maple yard-stick, no. 41. .17 ------total for general tools. $114.97 total for individual tools. 309.86 ------ $424.83 discount for schools, 10 per cent. 42.48 ------ $382.35 lockers for individual work. $150.00 $750 tool equipment including 1 bench and set of tools for instructor and individual tools 25 manual training school benches, hammacher, schlemmer & co.'s "j" with toles' quick-acting vise on side, @ $20. $500.00 25 stanley jack-planes, no. 5, 14", @ $1.74 each. 43.50 25 disston's back-saws, no. 4, 10", @ 93c each. 23.25 25 buck brothers' firmer-chisels, 1/4", handled and sharpened, @ $2.21 doz. 4.61 25 buck brothers' firmer-chisels, 1/2", handled and sharpened, @ $2.68 doz. 5.58 25 buck brothers' firmer-chisels, 1", handled and sharpened, @ $3.65 7.61 30 sloyd knives, no. 7, 2-1/2" blade (6 extra) @ $3.25 doz. 8.12 25 hammond's adze-eye hammers, no. 3, 7 oz., @ $4.90 doz. 10.21 25 round hickory mallets, no. 4, @ $1.40 doz. 2.91 25 hardened blade try-squares, no. 5-1/2, 6", @ $2.66 doz. 5.57 25 beech marking-gages, no. 64-1/2, 8", @ $2.43 doz. 5.07 25 steel bench-rules, no. 300d, @ $4.80 doz. 10.00 36 faber's measuring compass, no. 1752 (12 extra). 4.50 25 maple bench-hooks, @ $2.00 doz. 4.18 25 bench-dusters, no. 10, @ $2.70 doz. 5.63 ------total for individual tools. $640.74 general tools 6 disston's crosscut-saws, no. 7, 22", 10 points. $ 6.75 6 disston's rip-saws, no. 7, 22", 8 points. 6.75 4 turning-saws in frames, 14". 3.48 1 doz. turning-saw blades, 14". 1.06 1 compass-saw, disston's no. 2, 10". .27 1 stanley miter-box, no. 240. 8.20 1 disston's dovetail-saw, 6", iron back. .48 2 coping-saws, no. 110. .40 1 gross coping-saw blades, 6". 1.00 6 stanley block-planes, no. 65-1/2. 4.68 1 stanley fore-plane, no. 6. 2.22 1 stanley rabbet-plane and filletster, no. 78. 1.10 2 stanley's "bed rock" smooth-planes, no. 603 or 3.16 sargent's adjustable-frog smooth-plane. 12 extra jack-plane cutters (no. 5), 2". 3.60 1 stanley beading rabbet, and matching plane, no. 45. 5.85 1 stanley router-plane, no. 71. 1.37 6 iron spokeshaves, no. 54. 1.42 6 pattern-makers' spokeshaves, applewood, small, 1-1/2". 1.52 2 drawing-knives, white's no. 31, 6". 1.60 1 stanley adjustable scraper-plane, no. 112, with toothing cutter. 1.43 1 veneer-scraper, no. 80. .70 3 each molding-scrapers, no. 2, no. 7. .45 2 dowel-pointers, no. 1. .60 1 dowel-plate. .30 1 scraper steel, richardson's. .10 1 iron screw-box, french, 3/8". 1.80 4 flat bastard files, k. & f., 8", handled. .60 4 half-round files, k. & f., 8", handled. .72 4 rat-tail files, k. & f., 8", handled. .44 4 files, 6", slim taper. .36 2 auger-bit-files. .25 1 file-card, no. 1. .14 1 empire tool-grinder. 2.80 1 grindstone, no. 11, (iron frame and stone). 15.00 2 india oilstones, no. 29 (medium), in iron box. 1.34 1 soft arkansas oil slipstone, no. 6. .18 2 copperized steel oilers, 14a, 1/2 pint. .46 6 disston's sliding t bevels, no. 3, 6". 1.38 1 stanley miter-square, no. 16, 10". .60 1 sargent steel square, no. 2. .60 2 pairs dividers, starrett's winged, no. 92, 8". 1.50 3 scratch-awls, collier's, 4". .33 1 pair trammel-points, no. 1. .74 1 try-square, no. 5-1/2, 12", hardened blade. .52 1 mortise-gage, no. 77. .55 1 cutting-gage, no. 70. .17 3 each firmer-chisels, buck bros.' no. 2, handled and sharpened; 1/16", 1/8", 3/16", 3/8", 3/4", 1-1/2". 4.42 3 each outside-bevel gouges, buck bros.' firmer, no. 8 handled and sharpened: 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1". 3.55 3 addis' carving-tools, round maple handles, no. 11, 5/32". .96 3 addis' veining-tools, round maple handles, no. 11, 1/16". .96 3 inside-bevel gouges, regular sweep, no. 10, 3/4". 1.29 6 barber's nickel-plated braces, no. 14, 6" sweep. 5.25 1 barber's ratchet-brace, no. 31, 12" sweep. 1.62 3 each german gimlet-bits, 2/32", 3/32", 4/32", 5/32", 6/32". 1.00 3 each russell jennings' auger-bits, 3/16", 4/16", 5/16", 6/16", 7/16", 8/16". 4.18 2 each russell jennings' auger-bits, genuine, 10/16", 11/16", 12/16", 13/16", 14/16", 15/16", 16/16". 6.19 1 each foerstner's auger-bits, 1/4", 3/8", 1/2". 1.79 1 clark's expansive-bit, 1/2" to 1-1/2". .57 3 buck bros.' rose countersinks, no. 10, 5/8". .78 1 washer-cutter, no. 350. .65 1 plug-cutter, 3/8". .32 2 screwdriver-bits, 1/2", round blade, 4" long. .32 4 each brad-awls, handled, 1", 1-1/4", 1-1/2". .60 6 new century screwdrivers, 4". .96 1 new century screwdriver, 12". .54 1 new century screwdriver, 8". .36 1 new century screwdriver, 3-1/2", slim. .16 1 dowel-plate, cast steel. .30 6 o.k. nailsets, assorted 1/16", 3/32", 1/8". .42 6 carpenter steel bar clamps, 3 ft. 9.60 2 carpenter steel bar clamps, 5 ft. 3.60 12 aldrich's oiled handscrews, no. 16, 10". 4.79 12 aldrich's oiled handscrews, no. 17-1/2, 6". 3.42 4 carriage-makers' clamps, 6". 1.32 1 automatic miter-clamp. 1.80 2 doz. acme pinch-dogs, 3/4". .30 1 glue-pot, no. 3. .82 1 gas stove, no. 99a. .55 1 coe's monkey-wrench, 10". .60 1 glass-cutter, no. 10. .27 6 flat varnish brushes no. 54. 1-1/2", hard-rubber-bound (for shellac). 1.58 12 cheap brushes, tin-bound, (for stains), ee, 1". 1.80 6 enameled cups, 1/2 pint. .60 1 maple yard-stick, no. 41. .17 1 pair blackboard compasses or dividers. 1.50 1 blackboard triangle, 45â°. .50 1 blackboard triangle, 30â°ã�60â°. .50 ------total for general tools. $189.83 metal working tools 1 bench, no. 1, without vises. $ 8.00 1 parker's wood-working vise, no. 276. 8.07 1 hand-vise, no. 1230-1/2, 4". .54 1 hay-budden anvil, 10 lb. 3.07 1 riveting-hammer, atha, 4 oz. .32 1 rivet-set, no. 4. .27 1 cold-chisel, 3/8" cutting edge. .11 1 cold-chisel, 5/8" cutting edge. .15 1 cape-chisel, 3/8" cutting edge. .13 1 round-nosed chisel, 3/8". .13 1 pair end-cutting nippers, no. 154, 5". .88 1 pair compton's metal snips, no. 12, 2". .63 2 pair flat-nose pliers, no. 1806-1/2, 5". .58 1 die-holder, no. 11. .32 1 die, 5/8"ã�1/4", 6/32". .27 1 hand-drill, no. 5-1/2. 2.45 extra drills, morse's no. 107, 2 each, nos. 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60. 1.42 1 metal countersink, no. 15, 5/8". .18 1 hack-saw frame, no. 50. .45 6 hack-saw blades, 8", h. s. & co. .25 1 melting ladle, 3". .19 1 soldering copper, 1 lb. .31 1 mill bastard file, 8", 1 safe edge, handled.} 1 mill smooth file, 6", handled. } 1 square bastard file, 8", handled. } 1 half-round bastard file, 8", handled. } 1 slim taper saw-file, 6", handled. } 1 round bastard file, 4", handled. } .85 1 atha machinist's hammer, ball-peen, 6 oz. .38 -----total for metal working tools. $29.95 glue and stain bench. $ 15.00 lockers for individual work for 360 pupils. 360.00 nail and screw cabinet. 35.00 ------ $410.00 individual tools. $640.74 general tools. 189.83 ------ $830.57 discount for schools, 10 per cent. 83.06 ------ $747.51 cabinets, lockers, etc. 410.00 -------- $1,157.51 the care of the woodworking shop _the general arrangement of the room._ the important factors are the source or sources of light, and the lines of travel. the common arrangement of benches where two sides of the room are lighted, is shown in _a_, fig. 238. by this arrangement, as each worker faces his bench, he also faces one set of windows and has another set of windows at his left. the advantage of this arrangement is that it is easy to test one's work with the try-square by lifting it up to the light. another arrangement, shown in _b_, fig. 238, has this advantage, that there are no shadows on the work when it is lying on the bench and the worker is holding his rule or try-square on it with his left hand. when all the windows are on one side of the room the latter is the more advantageous arrangement. in determining the position of the benches, especially with reference to their distance from each other, thought should be given to the general lines of travel, from the individual benches to the general tool-rack, to the finishing-table, to the lockers, etc. even if all the aisles cannot be wide enough both for passage and for work, one wider one thru the center of the room may solve the difficulty. where rooms are crowded, space may be economized by placing the benches in pairs, back to back, _c_ and _d_, fig. 238. in any case, room should always be reserved for a tier of demonstration seats, facing the teacher's bench, for the sake of making it easy for the pupils to listen and to think. [illustration: fig. 238. four different arrangements of benches in a shop.] _the tools._ every shop soon has its own traditions as to the arrangement of tools, but there are two principles always worth observing. (1) it is an old saying that there should be "a place for everything and everything in its place." this is eminently true of a well-ordered woodworking shop, and there is another principle just as important. (2) things of the same sort should be arranged together, and arranged by sizes, whether they be general tools or individual tools. in arranging the rack for general tools, a few suggestions are offered. in the first place, arrange them so that there will be no danger of cutting one's fingers on one tool when attempting to take down another. where the rack must needs be high, all the tools can be brought within reach, by placing long tools, like files, screwdrivers, etc., at the top. such an arrangement is shown in fig. 239. as to the individual benches, those without high backs are to be preferred, not only because of their convenience when it is desired to work on large pieces, like table tops, and because the backs do not interfere with the light, but because it is easier for the teacher to look over the room to see that everything is in order. if the equipment is kept complete, it is an easy matter to glance over all the benches and the general rack to see that everything is in place. [illustration: fig. 239. general tool rack in a school shop.] in general, there are two methods of keeping guard over tools, the open and the closed. in the open method, everything is kept in sight so that empty places can be discovered readily. this method is a convenient one, and, besides, the tools are always easily accessible. in the closed method, the tools are kept in drawers and cases where they can be locked up. this method is suitable where pupils are equipped with individual sets of cutting tools. in such a case, the common tools for each bench are kept in a common drawer and individual pupils' tools in separate drawers. this method has the disadvantage that things are out of sight, and if they disappear their loss may not be discovered immediately. on the other hand, where the drawers and cases are kept carefully locked, the danger of loss is reduced almost to a minimum. sometimes a combination of both methods is tried, the tools being kept in unlocked drawers. this method furnishes the greatest difficulty in keeping tools from disappearing. [illustration: fig. 240. nail and screw cabinet.] even when tools are well arranged, one of the most serious difficulties in the way of shop order, is to keep tools in their places. pupils who are in a hurry, slip in the tools wherever they will fit, not where they belong. labels at the places of the different sets may help somewhat; a more efficient method is to paste or paint the form of each tool on the wall or board against which it hangs. pupils will see that, when they will not stop to read a label. in spite of all precautions, some tools will disappear. a plan to cover the cost of these, which works well in some schools, is to require a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses. then at the end of the year, after deducting the cost of losses, the balance is returned pro rata. [illustration: fig. 241. an inexpensive locker for unfinished work.] there is diversity of practice in the distribution of tools on the general case and on the individual benches. some tools, like the plane and chisel, and try-square, are so frequently in use that each worker must have one at hand. as to others, the demand must determine the supply. one other consideration may be expressed by the principle that those tools, the use of which is to be encouraged, should be kept as accessible as possible, and those whose use is to be discouraged, should be kept remote. some tools, like files, it may be well to keep in a separate locker to be had only when asked for. [illustration: fig. 242. a more expensive locker for unfinished work.] a cabinet of drawers, such as that shown in fig. 240, for holding nails, screws, and other fastenings, is both a convenience and a material aid in preserving the order of the shop. as for the care of tools during vacation, they should be smeared with vaseline, which is cheap, and put away out of the dampness. the planes should be taken apart and each part smeared. to clean them again for use, then becomes an easy matter. the best method of removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing wheel on which has been rubbed some tripoli. they may then be polished on a clean buffer without tripoli. _the lockers._ in order to maintain good order in the shop, an almost indispensable part of the equipment is a set of lockers for holding the unfinished work of pupils. an inexpensive outfit may consist simply of sets of shelves, say 5" apart, 12" deep, and 18" long, fig. 241. ordinary spring-roller curtains may be hung in front of each set of shelves to conceal and protect the contents. such a case should cost at the rate of about 40c. for each compartment. a more substantial and more convenient case, shown in fig. 242, consists of compartments each 9-1/2" high, 6" wide, and 18" deep. these proportions may be changed to suit varying conditions. in front of each tier of 12 compartments is a flap door opening downward. such a case built of yellow pine (paneled) may cost at the rate of $1.00 per compartment. [illustration: fig. 243. gluing and staining bench covered with zinc.] there should, of course, be a separate compartment for each pupil using the shop. where possible, there should be a special table for staining and gluing. where strict economy must be practiced, a good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose. a better equipment would include a well-built bench, such as that shown in fig. 243, the top and back of which are covered with zinc. where no staining-table is possible, temporary coverings of oilcloth may be provided to lay over any bench which is convenient for the purpose. [illustration: fig. 244. shellac utensils.] _care of brushes and materials used in finishing wood._ shellac should be kept in glass or pottery or aluminum receptacles but not in any metal like tin, which darkens it. a good plan is to have a bottle for fresh, untouched shellac, a wide-mouthed jar for that which has been diluted and used, and an enameled cup for use. there should also be a special brush, fig. 244. at the time of using, first see that the brush is soft and pliable. if it is stiff, it can be soaked quickly and softened in a little alcohol in the cup. this alcohol may then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking. then pour out a little from the jar into the cup, and if it is too thin, thicken with some fresh shellac. after using, pour back the residue into the jar, carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar; and if it is not to be used again for some time, rinse it in a little alcohol, which may also be poured into the jar, which should then be covered. what little shellac remains in the brush and cup will do no harm and the brush may be left standing in the cup until required. the important things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for _shellac only_, (indeed, it is a good plan to label them "shellac only,") and to keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in it will not evaporate. in a pattern-making shop, where the shellac cup is to be frequently used, it is well to have cups with covers thru which the brushes hang, like the brush in a mucilage jar. varnish brushes need to be cleaned thoroly after each using. if they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great difficulty. brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing with water and then laying them flat in a box. cups in which the water stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water. brushes for oil stains are most easily kept in good condition, by being hung in a brush-keeper, fig. 245, (sold by devoe & reynolds, 101 fulton st., n. y. c.) partly filled with turpentine. the same brushes may also be used for fillers. oil stains should be poured back into their respective bottles, and the cups wiped out with cotton waste. when they get in bad condition, they can be cleaned readily after a preliminary soaking in a strong solution of potash. the same treatment may be given to brushes, but if they are left soaking too long in the solution, the bristles will be eaten off. [illustration: fig. 245. brush-keeper.] equipment and care of the shop references:[*] murray, _year book_ 1906, p. 69. bailey, _m. t. mag._, 9: 138. dec. '07. robillion, pp. 48-90. hammacher and schlemmer, passim. [footnote *: for general bibliography, see p. 4.] chapter vii. the common joints. wherever two or more pieces of wood are fastened together we have what is properly called joinery. in common usage the term indicates the framing of the interior wood finish of buildings and ships, but it is also used to include cabinet-making, which is the art of constructing furniture, and even the trades of the wheelwright, carriage-maker, and cooper. since joinery involves the constant use of joints, a reference list of them, with illustrations, definitions, uses, and directions for making typical ones may be of convenience to workers in wood. heading joints _no. 1. a lapped and strapped joint_, fig. 264, p. 177, is made by laying the end of one timber over another and fastening them both together with bent straps on the ends of which are screws by which they may be tightened. it is a very strong joint and is used where the beams need lengthening as in false work or in long ladders and flag poles. _no. 2. a fished joint_, fig. 264, is made by butting the squared ends of two timbers together and placing short pieces of wood or iron, called fish-plates, over the faces of the timbers and bolting or spiking the whole firmly together. it is used for joining timbers in the direction of their length, as in boat construction. _no. 3._ in a _fished joint_, fig. 264, keys are often inserted between the fish-plate and beam at right angles to the bolts in order to lessen the strain that comes upon the bolts when the joint is subjected to tension. in wide pieces and for extra strength, as in bridge work, the bolts may be staggered. _nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7._ _a scarf or spliced joint_, fig. 264, is made by joining together with flush surfaces the ends of two timbers in such a way as to enable them to resist compression, as in no. 4; tension, as in no. 5; both, as in no. 6, where the scarf is tabled; or cross strain as in no. 7. no. 4 is used in house sills and in splicing out short posts, nos. 5 and 6 in open frame work. _no. 7_ with or without the fish-plate, is used in boats and canoes, and is sometimes called a boat-builder's joint, to distinguish it from no. 4, a carpenter's joint. a joint to resist cross strain is stronger when scarfed in the direction of the strain than across it. no. 7 is the plan, not elevation, of a joint to receive vertical cross strain. butt joints _no. 8. a doweled butt-joint_, fig. 264, is made by inserting, with glue, dowel-pins into holes bored into the two members. the end of one member is butted against the face or edge of the other. it is used in cabinet-making where the presence of nails would be unseemly. [illustration: fig. 246. lay-out by thru dowling.] in a doweled butt-joint the dowels may go clear thru the outside member, and be finished as buttons on the outside, where they show. to lay out this joint mark near the ends of the edges of the abutting member, x, fig. 246, center-lines a b. draw on the other member y, a sharp pencil-line to which when the lines ab on x are fitted, x will be in its proper place. carry the line around to the other side of y and locate on it the proper centers for the dowel-holes e and f. then fasten on the end of x a handscrew in such a way that the jaws will be flush with the end. with another handscrew, clamp this handscrew to y in such a way that the marks on the two pieces match, a to c and b to d, fig. 247. bore at the proper places, e and f, holes directly thru y into x. [illustration: fig. 247. thru boring for a butt joint.] fig. 248 illustrates the gluing together of a four-legged stand in which the joints are made in this way. the cross-lap joints of the stretchers are first glued together, then the other joints are assembled without glue, to see that all the parts fit and finally two opposite sides are glued at a time. pieces of paper are laid inside the gluing blocks to prevent them from sticking to the legs. [illustration: fig. 248. gluing-up a four-legged stand.] in case the dowels are to be hidden the chief difficulty is to locate the holes properly. one method of procedure is as follows: to dowel the end of one member against the face of the other as a stringer into a rail or a rail into a table leg, first lay out the position of the dowels in the end of the first member, x, fig. 249. gage a center-line, a b, across this end lengthwise, locate the centers of the dowel-holes, and square across with a knife point, as cd and ef. gage a line on the other member to correspond with the line ab. on the face so gaged, lay the first member on its side so that one arris lies along this gaged line and prick off the points d and f, to get the centers of the dowel-holes. [illustration: fig. 249. laying out a dowel joint.] if, as is usual, there are a number of similar joints to be made, a device like that shown in fig. 249 will expedite matters. 1 and 2 are points of brads driven thru a piece of soft wood, which has been notched out, and are as far apart as the dowels. a-1 is the distance from the working edge of the rail to the first dowel. the same measure can be used from the end of the leg. when the centers are all marked, bore the holes. insert the dowels into the holes and make a trial assembly. if any rail is twisted from its proper plane, note carefully where the error is, take apart, glue a dowel into the hole, that is wrong, pare it off flush with the surface, and re-bore in such a place that the parts, when assembled will come up true. when everything fits, glue and clamp together. _no. 9. a toe-nailed joint_, fig. 264, is made by driving nails diagonally thru the corners of one member into the other. it is used in fastening the studding to the sill in balloon framing. _no. 10. a draw-bolt joint_, fig. 264, is made by inserting an iron bolt thru a hole in one member and into the other to meet a nut inserted from the side of the second member. it is very strong and is used in bench construction, wooden machinery, etc. _no. 11. a plain butt-joint_, fig. 264, is one in which the members join endwise or edgewise without overlapping. it is used on returns as in ordinary boxes and cases. _no. 12. a glued and blocked joint_, fig. 264, is made by gluing and rubbing a block in the inside corner of two pieces which are butted and glued together. it is used in stair-work and cabinet-work, as in the corners of bureaus. _no. 13. a hopper-joint_, fig. 264, is a butt-joint, but is peculiar in that the edges of the boards are not square with their faces on account of the pitch of the sides. it is used in hoppers, bins, chutes, etc. the difficulty in laying out this joint is to obtain the proper angle for the edges of the pieces. this may be done as follows: after the pieces are planed to the correct thickness, plane the upper and lower edges of the end pieces to the correct bevel as shown by the pitch of the sides. lay out the pitch of the sides of the hopper on the outside of the end pieces. from the ends of these lines, on the upper and lower beveled edges score lines at right angles with the knife and try-square. connect these lines on what will be the inside of the hopper. saw off the surplus wood and plane to the lines thus scored. the side pieces may be finished in the same way, and the parts are then ready to be assembled. halving-joints a halved joint is one in which half the thickness of each member is notched out and the remaining portion of one just fits into the notch in the other, so that the upper and under surfaces of the members are flush. _no. 14. a cross-lap joint_, fig. 264, is a halved joint in which both members project both ways from the joint. this is a very common joint used in both carpentry and joinery, as where stringers cross each other in the same plane. the two pieces are first dressed exactly to the required size, either separately or by the method of making duplicate parts, see chap. ix, p. 204. lay one member, called x, across the other in the position which they are to occupy when finished and mark plainly their upper faces, which will be flush when the piece is finished. locate the middle of the length of the lower piece, called y, on one arris, and from this point lay off on this arris half the width of the upper piece, x. from this point square across y with the knife and try-square. lay x again in its place, exactly along the line just scored. then mark with the knife on y the width of x, which may then be removed and the second line squared across y. from these two lines square across both edges of y to approximately one-half the thickness. now turn x face down, lay y on it, and mark it in the same way as y. set the gage at one-half the thickness of the pieces, and gage between the lines on the edges, taking care to hold the head of the gage against the marked faces. then even if one piece is gaged so as to be cut a little too deep, the other will be gaged so as to be cut proportionately less, and the joint will fit. cut a slight triangular groove on the waste side of the knife-marks, fig. 91, p. 66, saw accurately to the gaged lines, and chisel out the waste as in a dado, see figs. 70 and 71, p. 56. the bottom of the dado thus cut should be flat so as to afford surface for gluing. when well made, a cross-lap joint does not need to be pounded together but will fit tight under pressure of the hands. _no. 15. a middle-lap joint or halved tee_, fig. 265, is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint, but one member projects from the joint in only one direction, it is used to join stretchers to rails as in floor timbers. _no. 16. an end-lap joint_, fig. 265, is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint except that the joint is at the end of both members. it is used at the corners of sills and plates, also sometimes in chair-seats. to make an end-lap joint, place the members in their relative positions, faces up, and mark plainly. mark carefully on each member the inside corner, allowing the end of each member slightly (1/16") to overlap the other. square across at these points with a sharp knife point, on the under side of the upper member, and on the upper side of the lower member. now proceed as in the cross-lap joint, except that the gaged line runs around the end and the cutting must be done exactly to this line. _no. 17._ in an _end-lap joint on rabbeted pieces_, fig. 265, the joint must be adapted to the rabbet. the rabbet should therefore be plowed before the joint is made. the rabbet at the end of the piece x is cut not the entire width of the piece y, but only the width of the lap,--c-f=a-e. this joint is used occasionally in picture-frames. _no. 18. a dovetail halving or lap-dovetail_, fig. 265, is a middle-lap joint with the pin made dovetail in shape, and is thus better able to resist tension. it is used for strong tee joints. _no. 19. a beveled halving_, fig. 265, is made like a middle-lap joint except that the inner end of the upper member is thinner so that the adjoining cheeks are beveled. it is very strong when loaded above. it was formerly used in house framing. modified halving joints _no. 20. a notched joint_, fig. 265, is made by cutting out a portion of one timber. it is used where it is desired to reduce the height occupied by the upper timber. joists are notched on to wall plates. _no. 21. a checked joint or double notch_, fig. 265, is made by cutting out notches from both the timbers so as to engage each other. it is used where a single notch would weaken one member too much. _no. 22. a cogged or corked or caulked joint_, fig. 265, is made by cutting out only parts of the notch on the lower piece, leaving a "cog" uncut. from the upper piece a notch is cut only wide enough to receive the cog. a cogged joint is stronger than a notched because the upper beam is not weakened at its point of support. it is used in heavy framing. _no. 23. a forked tenon joint_, fig. 265, is made by cutting a fork in the end of one member, and notching the other member to fit into the fork, so that neither piece can slip. it is used in knock-down furniture and in connecting a muntin to a rail, where it is desired that the muntin should run thru and also that the rail be continuous. _no. 24. a rabbet or rebate or ledge joint_, fig. 266, is made by cutting out a portion of the side or end of a board or timber x to receive the end or side of another, y. it may then be nailed from either the side or end or from both. the neatest way in small boxes is from the end, or better still it may be only glued. _no. 25. a dado or grooved joint_, fig. 266, is made by cutting in one member a groove into which the end or edge of the other member fits. properly speaking a groove runs with the grain, a dado across it, so that the bottom of a drawer is inserted in a groove while the back of the drawer is inserted in a dado. where the whole of the end of one member is let into the other, such a dado is also called a housed dado. treads of stairs are housed into string boards. to lay out a dado joint: after carefully dressing up both pieces to be joined, locate accurately with a knife point, on the member to be dadoed, called x, one side of the dado, and square across the piece with a try-square and knife. then locate the other side of the dado by placing, if possible, the proper part of the other member, called y, close to the line drawn. if this method of superposition is not possible, locate by measurement. mark, with a knife point, on x, the thickness thus obtained. square both these lines as far across the edges of x as y is to be inserted. gage to the required depth on both edges with the marking-gage. to cut the joint: first make with the knife a triangular groove on the waste side of each line, as indicated in fig. 91, p. 66, and starting in the grooves thus made, saw with the back-saw to the gaged lines on both edges. the waste may now be taken out either with a chisel or with a router, fig. 122, p. 83. the second member, y, should just fit into a dado thus made, but if the joint is too tight, the cheeks of the dado may be pared with a chisel. in delicate work it is often wise not to saw at all, but to use only the knife and chisel. _no. 26. a dado and rabbet_, fig. 266, is made by cutting a dado in one member, x, and a rabbet on the other, y, in such a way that the projecting parts of both members will fit tight in the returns of the other member. it is used in boxes and gives plenty of surface for gluing. _no. 27. a dado, tongue and rabbet_, fig. 266, is a compound joint, made by cutting a rabbet on one member, y, and then a dado in this rabbet, into which fits a tongue of the other member, x. it is used in machine-made drawers. _no. 28. a dovetail dado or gain_, fig. 266, is made by cutting one or both of the sides of the infitting member, y, on an angle so that it has to be slid into place and cannot be pulled out sidewise. it is used in book-cases and similar work, in which the shelves are fixed. to make this joint, first lay out the dovetail on the member to be inserted, called y, thus: across one end square a line (a b, no. 28), at the depth to which this member is to be dadoed in. set the bevel-square at the proper angle for a dovetail, fig. 250. score this angle on the edges of the member, as at c d. cut a groove with a knife on the waste side of a b. saw to the depth a c, and chisel out the interior angle a c d. then lay out the other member, x, thus: mark with the knife the proper place for the flat side of y, square this line across the face and on the edges as for a simple dado. lay out the thickness of y on the face of x by superposition or otherwise and square the face and edges, not with a knife but with a sharp pencil point. gage the required depth on the edges. now with the bevel-square as already set, lay out the angle a c d on the edges of x, and across the face at c score a line with knife and try-square. cut out grooves in the waste for the saw as in a simple dado, and saw to the proper depth and at the proper angle. chisel or rout out the waste and when complete, fit the pieces together. [illustration: fig. 250. laying out a dovetail joint.] _no. 29. a gain joint_, fig. 266, is a dado which runs only partly across one member, x. in order to make the edges of both members flush and to conceal the blind end of the gain, the corner of the other member, y, is correspondingly notched out. in book shelves a gain gives a better appearance than a dado. a gain joint is laid out in the same way as the dado, except that the lines are not carried clear across the face of x, and only one edge is squared and gaged to the required depth. knife grooves are made in the waste for starting the saw as in the dado. before sawing, the blind end of the gain is to be chiseled out for a little space so as to give play for the back-saw in cutting down to the required depth. to avoid sawing too deep at the blind end, the sawing and chiseling out of waste may be carried on alternately, a little at a time, till the required depth is reached. it is easy to measure the depth of the cut by means of a small nail projecting the proper amount from a trial stick, fig. 251. the use of the router, fig. 122, p. 83, facilitates the cutting, and insures an even depth. [illustration: fig. 251. depth-gage for dado.] mortise-and-tenon joints the tenon in its simplest form is made by dividing the end of a piece of wood into three parts and cutting out rectangular pieces on both sides of the part left in the middle. the mortise is the rectangular hole cut to receive the tenon and is made slightly deeper than the tenon is long. the sides of the tenon and of the mortise are called "cheeks" and the "shoulders" of the tenon are the parts abutting against the mortised piece. _no. 30. a stub mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 266, is made by cutting only two sides of the tenon beam. it was formerly used for lower ends of studding or other upright pieces to prevent lateral motion. _no. 31. a thru mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 266, is made by cutting the mortise clear thru one member and by cutting the depth of the tenon equal to or more than the thickness of the mortised member. the cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides. it is used in window sashes. a thru mortise-and-tenon joint is made in the same way as a blind mortise-and-tenon (see below), except that the mortise is laid out on the two opposite surfaces, and the boring and cutting are done from both, cutting first from one side and then from the other. _no. 32. a blind mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 266, is similar to the simple mortise-and-tenon described in 30. the tenon does not extend thru the mortised member and the cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides. to make a blind mortise-and-tenon, first make the tenon thus: locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders of the tenon and square entirely around the piece. on the working edge near the end mark the thickness of the tenon. set the marking-gage at the proper distance from the working face to one cheek of the tenon and gage the end and the two edges between the end and the knife-lines. reset the gage to mark the thickness of the tenon and gage that in the same way from the working face. then mark and gage the width of the tenon in the same way. whenever there are several tenons of the same size to be cut, they should all be laid out together, that is the marking-gage set once to mark all face cheeks and once to mark all back cheeks. if a mortise-gage is available, use that. always mark from the working face or working edge. cut out a triangular groove on the waste side of the knife lines (at the shoulders) as in cutting a dado, fig. 91, p. 66. in cutting the tenon, first rip-saw just outside the gaged lines, then crosscut at the shoulder lines. do all the rip-sawing before the crosscutting. if the pieces are small the back-saw may be used for all cuts. it is well to chamfer the arrises at the end of the tenon to insure its starting easily into the mortise. locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife marks on the finished piece. then locate the sides of the mortise from the thickness of the tenon, already determined, and gage between the cross lines. as in the case of like tenons, if there are a number of mortises all alike, set the gage only twice for them all. in _cutting the mortice_, first fasten the piece so that it will rest solid on the bench. this may be done either in a tail vise or by a handscrew, or by clamping the bench-hook firmly in the vise in such a way that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece. then tap the bench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be held tightly down on the bench. see fig. 76, p. 58. it is common to loosen up the wood by first boring a series of adjoining holes whose centers follow the center-line of the mortise and whose diameter is slightly less than the width of the mortise. take care to bore perpendicularly to the surface, see fig. 137, p. 86, and no deeper than necessary. dig out the portions of wood between the auger holes and chisel off thin slices, back to the gage-lines and to the knife-lines, taking care all the time to keep the sides of the mortise perpendicular to the face. this may be tested by placing the chisel against the side of the mortise and standing alongside it a try-square with its head resting on the surface. finally test the tenon in the mortise noting carefully where it pinches, if anywhere, and trim carefully. the tighter it fits without danger of splitting the mortised member, the stronger will be the joint. many prefer to dig mortises without first boring holes. for this purpose a mortise-chisel, fig. 68, p. 54, is desirable. the method is to begin at the middle of the mortise, placing the chisel--which should be as wide as the mortise--at right angles to the grain of the wood. chisel out a v shaped opening about as deep as the mortise, and then from this hole work back to each end, occasionally prying out the chips. work with the flat side of the chisel toward the middle except the last cut or two at the ends of the mortise. _no. 33._ in a _mortise-and-tenon joint on rabbeted pieces_, fig. 266, the tenon is as much shorter on one side than the other as the rabbet is wide. in fig. 33, ab=cd. _no. 34. a wedged mortise-and-tenon joint_, fig. 266, is a thru joint in which after the tenon is driven home, wedges are driven in between the tenon and the sides of the mortise. the wedges are dipped in glue or white lead before being inserted. the sides of the mortise may be slightly dovetailed. it is used to keep a tenon tightly fixed as in wheel spokes. _no. 35. a wedged mortise-and-tenon joint_, fig. 266, may also be made by driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of along its sides as in no. 34. it is used in ornamental joints as well as in carpentry. _no. 36. a fox-tail tenon_, fig. 266, is a blind mortise-and-tenon in which the mortise is made slightly wider at the bottom than the width of the tenon. wedges are driven into saw kerfs in the tenon before inserting into the mortise; then when it is driven home the wedges spread out the tenon and make it fill out the mortise. it is used in strong doors and also where the mortised member is already in place so that a wedged mortise-and-tenon is impossible. _no. 37. a dovetail mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 266, is a thru mortise-and-tenon beveled on one side so as to form half a dovetail. the corresponding side of the mortise is also beveled and made wide enough so that when the tenon is pressed well up against its beveled side a wedge may be driven into the space left on the straight side. it is used to tenon a beam into a post especially where the post is fixed against a wall. it is also used in machinery frames which are made of wood. _no. 38. a pinned mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 267, is one in which a pin is driven thru holes bored thru the mortised beam and thru the tenon to keep them from drawing apart. it is used in heavy framing as in bridges, in wagon-making, in window-sash, etc. _no. 39. a keyed mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 267, is one in which the tenon protrudes thru the mortise far enough to receive a removable key and thus be drawn up tight to the mortised member. it is used in work-benches and in ornamental joints like knock-down bookcases and in other mission furniture. the keyed mortise-and-tenon is made as in a thru mortise-and-tenon, except that before cutting the tenons the holes for wedges should be laid out thus: measuring from the shoulder of the tenon, locate by superposition or measurement the outside of the mortised member. deduct from this 1/16" and square a fine pencil-line across the face and opposite side. this line will be the inside of the hole for the wedge, and the 1/16" is deducted to make sure that the key wedges against the mortised member. on the upper surface of the tenon, lay off toward the end the width of the wedge at this point, a b, fig. 252, and square across. on the under surface, lay off the width of the wedge at this point, c d, and square across. [illustration: fig. 252. keyed mortise-and-tenon joint.] gage the sides of the wedge hole on both upper and lower surfaces of the tenon. after cutting the mortise and tenon, bore and chisel out the hole for the wedge, taking care to cut the side toward the end on a bevel to fit the wedge. _no. 40. a tusk tenon or shoulder tenon_, fig. 267, is one in which the tenon proper is quite thin but is reinforced by a thicker shoulder called a "tusk." the upper shoulder is beveled. the object of this form is to weaken the mortised member as little as possible but at the same time to increase the strength of the tenon. it is used in joining tail beams to headers in floor framing. _no. 41. a double mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 267, consists of two tenons side by side in one piece fitting into two corresponding mortises. it is used in joinery, as in door-frames, but not in carpentry. _no. 42. a haunched mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 267, is made by cutting away part of the tenon so that that part of it will be much shorter than the rest. the haunch gives the tenon great lateral strength and saves cutting so large a mortise hole. it is used in panel construction, as where the rails are joined to the stiles of doors. first plow the groove in all the members. this should be of the same width as the thickness of the tenons, which is ordinarily one-third of the thickness of the frame. the groove is approximately as deep as it is wide. lay out and cut the tenon the width of the entire piece, minus, of course, the depth of the groove. the mortise should not come too near the end, or the portion of wood outside it will shear out. hence the tenon is narrowed on the outside enough to insure strength in the mortised piece. the rule is that the tenon should be one-half the width of the rail, minus the groove. but enough of the tenon is left full width to fill up the groove at the outer end of the mortised piece. this is called the _haunch_. the width of the mortise is equal to the width of the groove, its length to the width of the tenon. before assembling the panel frame, put soap or tallow on the corners of the panel to prevent its being glued to the frame. _no. 43. table or taper haunching_, fig. 267. sometimes, as in table construction, for the sake of stiffening the rail, or in places where it is desirable that the haunch does not show, the haunch is beveled from the tenon to the edge of the rail. _no. 44. a bare-faced tenon_, fig. 267, is one in which a cheek is cut from only one side. it is used where the rail is thinner than the stile and it is desirable to keep the mortise near the middle of the stile. _no. 45. a housed mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 267, is one in which the whole of the end of one member is let in for a short distance or "housed" into the other. it is common in grill work and in railings. _no. 46. a slip-joint or end or open mortise-and-tenon_, fig. 267, is what would remain if a mortised member were sawn off along one side of the tenoned member. window screens and other light frames such as those for slates and for printing photographs have this joint. this joint multiplied is used for small machine-made boxes, and is then called _corner locking_. dovetail joints "dovetail" refers to the shape of the projections of one member, when looked at broadside. these projections are called dovetails, or merely tails. the projections on the other member are called tenons or pins, and the spaces between both tails and tenons are called mortises or sockets. _no. 47. a thru single dovetail_, fig. 267, is similar to a slip-joint except that instead of a tenon there is a dovetail. it is used in window-sashes. _no. 48. a thru-multiple dovetail_, fig. 267, consists of a series of alternate tails and tenons which fit one another closely. it is used in tool-chests and in other strong as well as fine boxes. to make a thru multiple dovetail joint, first square lines with a sharp pencil around the ends of both members to locate the inner ends of the dovetails and the pins, d e on x, fig. 250, and l m on y. the distance of this line from the ends of each member may, if desired, be slightly (1/32") greater than the thickness of the other member. divide this line, d e, on the member to be dovetailed, x, into as many equal spaces as there are to be tails (dovetails). from the division points of these spaces, a b c, to the right and left lay off one-half of the greatest width of the mortises to be cut out, and also the same distance from d and from e, as at f f f f and g g g g. the strongest arrangement of dovetails is to make them equal in width to the spaces between them, as in no. 48, p. 267. for the sake of appearance they may be as much as four times as wide as the spaces, but ordinarily should not be wider than 1-3/4". set the bevel-square so that it will fit the angle a b c, fig. 250, p. 159, in a right angle triangle, the long side of which is 3" and the short side 5/8". this is approximately an angle of 80â° or a little more than one to five. from the points f f f f and g g g g lay off this angle to the end of the piece. carry these lines across the end at right angles to the surface, h i, fig. 250, and repeat the dovetail angles on the other surface. mark plainly the parts to be cut out (the mortises), as on x in fig. 250. score with a knife point the inner ends of the mortises, d to f, g to f, etc., and across the edge at d and at e. with a dovetail-saw, fig. 93, p. 66, cut on the mortise side of each line down to the cross line, d-e, and also along the cross line from d to f and e to g. chisel out the mortises taking care to keep the line d-e straight and square. the ends (not the sides) of the mortises may be slightly undercut to insure a tight fit. fasten the other member, y, upright in the vise so that the end to be tenoned will be flush with the top of the bench, and with the working face toward the bench. place on it the working face of x, (the member already dovetailed,) taking care that the inner ends of the mortises are in line with the working face of y, and that the edges of the two members are in the same plane, as x on y in fig. 250. scribe with a knife point along the sides of the tails on the end of y (f'-j' and g'-h'). remove y from the vise and square down these lines to the cross line l-m (j'-n and h'-o). score with the knife point the inner ends of the mortises of y (n-o). saw with a dovetail-saw on the mortise sides of these lines, chisel out the mortises and fit the parts together. when glued together, the joints should be dressed off. where there are several parts to be made alike, it is necessary to lay out the dovetails on only one x member. this may be used as a templet for laying out the others and they can then be sawn separately. or all the x members may be clamped carefully together, with one x already laid out, rights and lefts in pairs, and edges and ends flush, the depth mark gaged all around, and then all sawn at once. the dovetail joint is also made by first laying out and cutting the members having the pins, and then superposing this on the piece to be dovetailed, and scribing around the pins. _no. 49. a lap or half blind dovetail_, fig. 267, is a dovetail joint in which the tails on one member do not extend entirely thru the thickness of the other member. it is used in joining the sides to the fronts of drawers and other fittings where only one side is seen. if the joint is to be used for a drawer front, the groove for the drawer bottom should be cut or at least laid out before laying out the joint. see also drawers, p. 190, and fig. 287, p. 191. on the end of the drawer front, gage the depth of the joint. gage the same distance on both broad surfaces of the drawer sides, marking from the front ends. lay out and cut the dovetails as in a thru dovetail joint, taking especial care to have the groove for the bottom completely within the lower tail. take care also to make the sides, one right and one left, not both alike, so that the groove will come inside. lay out the drawer front by superposing the dovetailed side, x, on the end of the front, y, as in a thru dovetail. saw and chisel out the mortises and fit together. _no. 50. a stopped lap dovetail_, fig. 267, is one in which neither the tails nor the pins extend thru the other members. hence the joint is concealed. the lap may be rounded. it is used in fine boxes, trays, etc. _no. 51. the blind miter or secret dovetail_, fig. 267, is a joint in which only part, say one-half, of both boards is dovetailed, the outer portion being mitered. the edges of the boards are also mitered right thru for a short distance so that when finished the dovetails are invisible. it is used in highly finished boxes. beveled joints a beveled joint is made by beveling the members so that the plane of the joint bisects the angle at which the members meet. this is called the "miter" and may be 45 degrees or any other angle. it is a neat but weak joint unless reinforced by a spline, nails, or in some other way. [illustration: fig. 253. gluing together a picture-frame (see also fig. 254.)] _no. 52. a plain miter_, fig. 268, is a joint where the beveled edges or ends abut and are simply glued or nailed together. it is commonly used in picture-frames, inside trim, columns, boxes, and taborets, four or more sided. [illustration: fig. 254. picture-frame-clamp.] for gluing mitered frames, the most convenient way is with the aid of the picture-frame-vise, fig. 172, p. 101. nails are driven or splines inserted as soon as each joint is glued. where this vise is not available, an ordinary metalworking vise may be used, as follows: fasten one member, x, face side up, firmly in the vise. bore holes in the other member, y, at the proper places for the nails. insert nails in the holes, apply the glue to both mitered surfaces, place the glued surfaces together, letting y project about 1/8" beyond x. a convenient way to hold y in place is in the left hand, palm up, while the left forearm rests upon x. drive one of the nails home, and continue driving until the parts exactly fit. then drive home the other nail. now fasten together in the same way the other two members of the picture-frame, and then, one at a time, the third and fourth joint. this is the method used in picture-frame factories, and when once learned is very simple. [illustration: fig. 255. picture-frame-clamp. (see also fig. 254.)] for gluing together at once all the members of a mitered frame, the device shown in fig. 253 is convenient and is easily made. out of two pieces of wood somewhat longer than the two end pieces of the frame, gains are cut of the exact length of the ends, as shown in the illustration. by applying two clamps lengthwise on the frame, all four joints may be glued together at once. if the frame does not come up square, it may be squared by means of a temporary brace, a, in fig. 253. the device shown in figs. 254 and 255, is also an easily made and efficient tool. at least the small pieces, which receive the corners of the frame, should be made of hard wood such as maple. it is self-adjusting but care must be taken not to buckle the parts of a narrow frame by over pressure. it is well to soap or oil the corner pieces to prevent their being glued to the frame. [illustration: fig. 256. gluing up a column joint. (pinch-dogs at top of joints.)] in gluing together long mitered joints, in six or eight sided taborets or columns, in which the members meet edgewise, one method is to wrap a few turns of bale wire around the parts and drive in wedges under the wire to obtain pressure, fig. 256. another method is to wrap a stout rope, such as is used for window weights, around all the pieces, properly set up, then to tighten it by twisting it with a stick thru a loop, fig. 257. a still more effective way is by means of the noxall column clamp, a powerful device, used chiefly for gluing up such pieces as the pillar of a centrally supported table, fig. 259. care must be taken with all these devices to protect the corners, unless they are to be rounded off afterward. a good way to protect them is with pieces fastened together in the shape shown in fig. 258, b, and fig. 257, the interior angle being equal to the exterior angle of the piece to be glued. in the case of a taboret with slender legs, care must be taken to insert blocks between the separate legs as well, to brace them apart and to keep them from bending under the pressure. these methods have the advantage that they are speedy, since all the pieces go together at once; but unless the pieces fit exactly the joints will not close. another method is to glue and clamp the pieces of the taboret together two by two, using blocks as shown in fig. 258, _a_. care should be taken to put the pressure of the handscrews as far out as possible so as to be sure that the outside of the joint closes. this method has the advantage that, as only one joint is glued at a time, the work can be done more deliberately. moreover, if when three pairs of a six-sided taboret are together, the other three joints do not fit exactly, they can then be refitted. another method is to glue pieces of soft wood on the exterior of each pieces as shown in fig. 258, _c_. these blocks should be of such shape that the opposite sides of each pair are parallel. when the glue is dry, they are used as corners on which to clamp the handscrews. this method has the disadvantage that the blocks may break loose at a critical moment. [illustration: fig. 257. one method of gluing up a six-sided taboret.] in addition to any of these methods of tightening the joints, to make sure that the ends of the joints close tight, pinch-dogs, fig. 178, p. 103, may be driven into the end grain, and corrugated fasteners, fig. 228, p. 125, also driven into the ends, make the joint quite secure. _no. 53. a doweled miter_, fig. 268, is one in which one or more dowels are inserted and glued into holes bored into the beveled edges. it may be used instead of nails, as in large picture frames. _no. 54. a spline or tongue miter_, fig. 268, is one which has a spline or tongue inserted at right angles to the joint. since it furnishes more gluing surface, it is stronger than a plain miter. _no. 55. a slip-feather or slip-key miter_, fig. 268, is one which is strengthened by a slip of hardwood glued into a saw kerf cut across the mitered angle. it is used in picture-frames and in boxes. _no. 56. a slip-dovetail miter_, fig. 268, is one in which a trapezoidal shaped key is inserted in a dovetail socket cut straight across the miter. when dressed off, it gives the appearance of a dovetail on each face. it is used for the same purpose as a spline miter. _no. 57. a double dovetail keyed miter_, fig. 268, is one in which a double dovetail key made of hard wood is inlaid across the joint. this is a favorite joint with oriental joiners. [illustration: fig. 258. devices for gluing beveled edges.] _no. 58. a ledge and miter or lipped miter joint_, fig. 268, is made by rabbeting and mitering the boards to be joined so that the outer portion of the two boards meet in a miter. it is strong and good looking and may be glued or nailed. it is used for fine boxes. _no. 59. a stopped miter_, fig. 268, is useful for joining pieces of different widths, when both sides can be seen. [illustration: fig. 259. column-clamp.] _no. 60. a double-tongue miter_, fig. 268, is made by cutting on the adjoining edges tongues which engage in each other. it is used in high class joinery, on members that join lengthwise of the grain. _no. 61. a stretcher joint_, fig. 268, is a slip joint in which one or both sides is mitered. it is used in frames for stretching canvass for paintings by driving wedges from the inside. two forms are shown in 61a and 61b. _no. 62. a strut joint_, fig. 268, is a form of miter joint used in making trusses. _no. 63 and 64. a thrust joint or tie joint or toe joint_, fig. 268, is one in which two beams meet at an oblique angle, one receiving the thrust of the other. the toe may be either square as in 63, or oblique as in 64. the pieces are bolted or strapped together with iron. it is used for the batter braces of bridges. _no. 65. a plain brace joint_, fig. 269, is one in which the brace is simply mitered and nailed into place. it is used for bracket supports. no. _66. a housed brace joint_, fig. 269, is a joint in which the brace is housed into the rectangular members except that the outer end of the mortise is cut at right angles and the inner end diagonally to receive the brace which is cut to correspond. it is much stronger than 65. _no. 67. an oblique mortise-and-tenon or bevel-shoulder joint_, fig. 269, is one in which the shoulders of the tenoned beam are cut obliquely and its end is cut off at right angles. the cheeks of the mortise are correspondingly sunk. by these means the tenon prevents lateral motion while the whole width of the beam presses against the abutment. thus a much larger bearing surface is obtained. the whole is bolted or strapped together. it is used in heavy truss work. _no. 68. a bridle joint_, fig. 269, is an oblique joint in which a bridle or "tongue" is left in an oblique notch cut out of one beam. over this tongue is fitted a grooved socket cut obliquely in the other beam. it is used in truss construction. _no. 69. a bird's mouth joint_, fig. 269, is an angular notch cut in a timber to allow it to fit snugly over the member on which it rests. it is used in rafters where they fit over the plate. _no. 70. a plain or rubbed or squeezed or glue joint_, fig. 269, is one in which the edges of two boards are glued and rubbed together tight. it is used in table-tops, drawing-boards, etc. to make this joint, first the boards are all laid down flat, side by side, and arranged in the proper order. three considerations determine what this order is to be: (1), if the grain is of prime importance, as in quartered oak, then the boards are arranged so as to give the best appearance of the grain. (2), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that the warping of each board shall counteract that of the adjacent ones. for this purpose the boards are so laid that the annual rings of one shall alternate in direction with the annual rings of the next, fig. 280, a, p. 188. (3), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that after being glued together they can all be planed smooth in the same direction. when the above requirements have been met so far as possible, this order should be marked on adjoining edges for later identification. the edges of the boards to be joined should be finished with a jointer. there are two principal methods of gluing edge-to-edge joints, rubbing and squeezing. in a rubbed joint, the surfaces to be joined should be planed so as to meet thruout exactly. after properly planing one edge of each board, keep one board in the vise, jointed edge up, and place its to-be neighbor in position upon it. then use these four tests for an exact fit. (1) sight down the end to see that the faces lie in the same plane. (2) examine the crack from both sides. be sure that both ends touch. test this by pulling down hard on one end of the upper board and noticing if the other end is still in contact. if the other end opens, swing the upper board horizontally on the lower board to see where the high place is and then correct it. (3) see if the upper board stands firmly on the lower board by feeling gently to see if it rocks, or by rapping lightly the lower board. (4) slide the top board slowly on the lower one to see if it adheres or "sucks." [illustration: fig. 260. applying glue for an edge-to-edge joint.] after the pieces have been warmed, which should be done if possible, the glue is spread on them, fig. 260, and they are then rubbed slowly back and forth in the direction of the grain, pressure being applied by the hand and care being taken not to open the joint in the least. as the glue sets, the rubbing becomes more difficult. it should be stopped when the boards are in their proper relative positions. in rubbing together the edges of two boards, handscrews may be fastened to one in such a way that their jaws serve as guides for the other board to slide between, fig. 261. care must be taken to make the jaws of the handscrew diverge enough not to pinch the upper board. [illustration: fig. 261. rubbing a glued joint.] another method is to clamp a spare board alongside and projecting above the lower board. this spare board acts as a guide against which the upper board can be pushed as it is rubbed back and forth. the rubbed joint is especially suitable for short boards. in joining long boards, a squeezed joint is common. in this case, the edges are planed so as to be very slightly concave from end to end. the object of this is to counteract the subsequent shrinkage which is likely to take place at the ends of the boards before it does at the middle. the pressure of the clamps may be depended upon to close up the middle, and, especially if dowels are inserted, as in no. 75, the joint will be strong enough to resist the elasticity of the boards. when the fit is good, warm the wood if possible, prepare the clamps, put a thin film of glue over both edges which are to be together, apply the clamps rapidly, keeping the faces flush, and set away to dry for at least six hours. then another piece may be added in the same manner. if the boards are thin and wide, and therefore likely to buckle, they may first be handscrewed to cross-strips to prevent their buckling. the cross-strips are, of course, slightly shorter than the combined width of the boards so that the full pressure of the clamps may come on the glued joint. _no. 71. a rebated, rabbeted or fillistered joint_, fig. 269. rebating is the cutting of a rectangular slip out of the side of a piece of wood. the re-entering angle left upon the wood is called the rebate or rabbet. a rebated joint, then, is one in which corresponding rebates are taken off edges so that the joined boards may overlap. it is used in flooring and siding. a board is rebated and filleted when two adjoining rebates are filled with a fillet. [illustration: fig. 262. edge-to-edge joint, doweled.] _no. 72. a matched or tongue-and-groove joint_, fig. 269, is made by making a projection or "tongue" in the center of the edge of one board, and a corresponding groove in the center of the other so that they will match together. when used for flooring, the lower side of the grooved board is slightly rebated so that the upper edges will surely touch. this sort of flooring can be blind-nailed. _no. 73. a beaded joint_, fig. 269, is similar to a matched joint except that a bead is worked on one edge to disguise the joint for decorative purposes. _no. 74. a spline-joint_, fig. 269, is made by plowing corresponding grooves in the edges to be joined and inserting a spline or slip-feather. it is used in plank flooring. _no. 75. a doweled joint_, fig. 269, is made by jointing the two edges carefully, boring holes opposite each other and inserting dowel pins when the two edges are glued together. it is used in table tops, etc. where the boards are thick enough to allow it, a squeezed joint is greatly strengthened by the insertion of dowels. the essential point in inserting dowels is to have the holes for them directly opposite one another and at right angles to the surface. the following is a convenient method where boards are to be joined edge to edge, fig. 262. place the two boards back to back in the vise with the edges and ends flush. determine approximately where the dowels are to be inserted. with the gage, mark short lines at the points of insertion in the center of each edge, gaging from the outside faces. across these lines score accurately with a try-square and knife. then bore the holes with a dowel-bit at the intersection of the lines, fig. 263. if this is carefully done, the holes will be directly opposite one another, and equidistant from the faces of both boards. all the holes should be of equal depth, say 1", in order that the dowel-pins, which should also be cut of equal lengths, may be interchangeable. after boring, the holes may be slightly countersunk in order to insure a tight joint and the easy slipping of the pins into place. the latter result may also be obtained by slightly pointing the pins with a dowel-pointer, fig. 123, p. 83. it is also a wise precaution to cut a small groove along the length of the pin to allow superfluous glue to escape from the hole. the dowel should be dipped in glue and inserted when the glue is applied to the joint. [illustration: fig. 263. boring for dowels in an edge-to-edge joint.] the common joints references:[*] rivington, vol. i, pp. 57-77, 135-137, 238-242; vol. ii, pp. 291-295. adams, pp. 1-30. sickels, pp. 86-124. goss, pp. 128-152. ellis, pp. 135-151. barter, pp. 211-275. selden, pp. 56-130. _building trades pocketbook_, pp. 217-221, 237. griffith, pp. 86-104, 164-170. [footnote *: for general bibliography, see p. 4] [illustration: fig. 264. 1 lapped and strapped 2 fished 3 fished and keyed 4 spliced for compression 5 spliced for tension 6 spliced and tabled 7 spliced for cross strain 8 dowelled butt 9 toe-nailed 10 draw-bolt 11 plain butt 12 glued and blocked 13 hopper 14 cross lap] [illustration: fig. 265. 15 middle lap 16 end lap 17 end lap with rabbet 18 dovetail halving 19 beveled halving 20 notched 21 checked 22 cogged 23 forked] [illustration: fig. 266. 24 rabbet 25 dado 26 dado and rabbet 27 dado tongue and rabbet 28 dovetail dado 29 gain 30 stub mortise and tenon 31 thru mortise and tenon 32 blind mortise and tenon 33 mortise and tenon with rabbet 34 wedged mortise and tenon 35 wedged mortise and tenon 36 fox tail tenon 37 dovetail mortise and tenon] [illustration: fig. 267. 38 pinned mortise and tenon 39 keyed mortise and tenon 40 tusk tenon 41 double mortise and tenon 42 haunched mortise and tenon 43 table haunching 44 bare faced tenon 45 housed mortise and tenon 46 slip 47 thru single dovetail 48 thru multiple dovetail 49 lap dovetail 50 stopped lap dovetail 51 blind dovetail] [illustration: fig. 268. 52 miter 53 doweled miter 54 spline miter 55 slip feather miter 56 slip dovetail miter 57 double dovetail keyed 58 ledge and miter 59 stopped miter 60 double tongue miter 61 stretcher 62 strut 63 square thrust 64 oblique thrust] [illustration: fig. 269. 65 brace 66 housed brace 67 oblique mortise and tenon 68 bridle 69 bird's mouth 70 glue 71 rabbeted 72 matched 73 beaded 74 spline 75 doweled] chapter viii. types of wooden structures. the articles suitable to be made in wood with hand tools may for convenience be divided into four general classes: (1) unjoined pieces; (2) board structures; (3) panel structures; (4) framed structures. a few illustrations of each class are given below. (1) simple or unjoined pieces of these there are a number that are advantageous for the learning of tool processes; at the same time they give opportunity for expression in design, and when finished are of use. examples are: key-boards, chiseling-boards, bread-boards, sleeve-boards, ironing-boards, coatand skirt-hangers, and gouged trays. some of these are so simple as to include hardly any process but planing, directions for which are given above, p. 72. [illustration: fig. 270. pen-tray.] where there is more than one process involved, the order of procedure is of importance. in general, a safe rule to follow in each case is to plane up the piece true and square, or, in technical language, to "true" it up. at least as many of its surfaces should be trued as are necessary for the "lay out." where the piece is to be rectangular all the surfaces should be true; where some of the surfaces are to be curved it is unnecessary and a waste of time to square them first. for example, in making a gouged tray with curved outline, fig. 270, the working face, the working edge, and the thickness should all be true before the plan is laid out. then, after the outline is drawn, the trough may be gouged, the outline cut with turning-saw, chisel, and spokeshave, and the edges molded with the gouge or chisel. if there is incised decoration it should be cut before the molding is cut, so that while being incised, the piece will lie flat without tipping. these simple pieces, as well as others, are often embellished by _chamfering_. a chamfer is a surface produced by cutting away an arris. it differs from a bevel in that a bevel inclines all the way to the next arris, while a chamfer makes a new arris, fig. 271. a thru chamfer extends the whole length or width of a piece, while a stop chamfer extends only part way. for the laying out of a chamfer see p. 115. [illustration: fig. 271. difference between chamfer and bevel.] thru chamfering is best done with a plane, fig. 272. for this purpose the piece may be held in the bench-vise and the plane tipped to the proper angle, or the piece may be held in a handscrew which in turn is held in the vise as in fig. 175, p. 102. the chamfers with the grain should be planed before those across the grain. [illustration: fig. 272. thru chamfering.] in chamfering a four-square stick into an eight-square, the piece may be gripped in the vise diagonally, fig. 273, or it may be held in a trough made of two strips of wood from each of which an arris has been chamfered and then the two nailed together, fig. 274. a dowel or nail may be inserted in the trough for a stop. stop chamfers are pared best with a chisel, fig. 275, held according to convenience either flat side or bevel side up. see under chisel, p. 53. [illustration: fig. 273. piece held in vise to chamfer.] [illustration: fig. 274. trough for planing chamfers.] [illustration: fig. 275. stop chamfering.] (2) board structures. these include such pieces as wall brackets, sets of shelves, book-racks, plate-racks, drawing-boards, foot-stools, taborets, and boxes. the advantage of this form of construction is that it is comparatively easy to make; the disadvantage is that if the boards are wide, they are sure to shrink and swell. it is wise in all such work to true and smooth up all the pieces at once, and if the wood is not thoroly seasoned, to keep the boards under pressure till they are assembled. in the case of several boards to be jointed into one piece, they should be glued together before the surfaces are smoothed. suggestions regarding a few typical pieces follow: _wall brackets._ (1) there are three essential parts, the shelf, the support or supports, and the back: the shelf to hold the articles, the support to hold up the shelf, and the back to hold all together, fig. 276, _a_. the grain of the wood in the shelf should run left and right, not forward and back, because thus it rests on the support in such a way as not to break easily, and it also acts as a stiffener for the back. in case the back extends above the shelf, as in fig. 276, _a_, the shelf can be secured firmly to the back, since there is side grain in which to drive nails or screws. as to the direction of the grain of the support and the back, this should run in the direction of the largest dimension of each. where the back is long horizontally, for security in hanging, it is better to have two supports.[10] [footnote 10: see the school arts book for nov., 1906, "design in the woodworking class," by anna and william noyes.] [illustration: fig. 276. wall brackets, double-hung: _a_. single support. _b_. double support.] _wall book-shelves_, fig. 277, _plate-racks_, etc., are simply compound brackets. the shelf is the essential piece, the sides take the place of the supports, and the back is often reduced to strips merely wide enough to give rigidity. the shelves may be either gained into the supports, fig. 266, no. 28 or no. 29, p. 179, or a keyed mortise-and-tenon may be used, fig. 277. in the latter case the back strip may have a short barefaced blind tenon which is mortised into the upright, fig. 278. it also fits into a rabbet on the upper back side of the shelf. made in this way the shelves can be knocked down easily. [illustration: fig. 277. wall book-case.] [illustration: fig. 278. construction of a knock-down book-shelf seen from the back.] _foot stool or cricket_, fig. 279. the grain of the supports should run up and down, because pieces with the grain horizontal would be likely to break under pressure. braces or a rail give additional support. the top should not be larger than the base of the legs; otherwise a person standing carelessly on the stool is in danger of being upset. [illustration: fig. 279. cricket.] _a drawing-board_ is made up of narrow boards, with glued joints, with the boards so laid that the annual rings will alternate in direction, fig. 280, _a_. it must be made so that it can shrink and swell and yet remain flat. for the purpose of giving lateral stiffness cleats are added. they may simply be screwed on the underside, the screw holes being large enough to allow for shrinkage, or they may be dadoed in with a dovetail dado, fig. 280, _b_, or they may be grooved to admit a tongue on the end of a board, fig. 280, _c_. in this case screws passing thru large holes in the cleats hold them in place. [illustration: fig. 280. drawing-board construction: _a._ with cleats screwed on beneath; _b._ with cleats dovetail-dadoed in; _c._ with cleats matched on ends.] _taborets._ the term taboret originally meant a little tabor or drum, and was therefore used to designate a small stool, the seat of which consisted of a piece of stretched leather. the term now includes small, tablelike structures for holding flowerpots, vases, etc. it might more properly be called a "table-ette." when made up with boards having their long edges mitered, it has from four to eight sides. a six-sided one is shown in fig. 281. in making, it is best to fit the joints exactly first, while the board is stiff, and then to cut out the pattern of the legs. directions for gluing are given on p. 169. [illustration: fig. 281. taboret.] _scrap-boxes_, fig. 282, _and flower-pot boxes_ may be made with the same construction. [illustration: fig. 282. scrap-box.] _rectangular boxes._ there are various methods of joining their sides. the butt joint, fig. 264, no. 11, p. 177, is plain, simple, and good for coarse work. this joint may be reinforced as in packing boxes, fig. 283. [illustration: fig. 283. reinforced butt joint in box.] mitered joints, fig. 268, no. 52, p. 181, are neat but weak, unless reinforced by a spline, fig. 268, no. 54. the rabbet or ledge joint, fig. 266, no. 24, p. 179, is both strong and neat. it can be glued and also nailed if desired. the rabbet and dado joint, fig. 266, no. 26, can be glued without nails and is good for small boxes. the housed dado, fig. 266, no. 25, is good for water-tight boxes. the mitered ledge, fig. 268, no. 58, makes a very neat, strong joint which can be nailed or glued, but is more difficult to fit than a simpler joint. the dovetail joint, fig. 267, no. 48, is very strong and honest, but the joint is prominent from the outside and it takes much time and labor to make. it is glued. the blind dovetail, fig. 267, no. 51, is very neat and strong, and the joint is entirely concealed when done, but is very difficult to make. _the bottoms of boxes._ the plain or full bottom, fig. 284, a, is likely to shrink (see dotted line), and it is held in place only by the friction of the nails. the extended bottom, fig. 284, b, overcomes the objection to shrinkage and adds a decorative feature. the bottom may be set in, fig. 284, c. this is stronger than the plain bottom, but the nail holes show. the bottom may be rabbeted in, fig. 284, d. this is better than the set-in bottom so far as the showing of the nail holes goes, for the nails may be driven in from below, and a little shrinkage is not conspicuous. it is practicable, if a rabbet or mitered joint is used in the sides, but if the side pieces are butted or dadoed, the rabbet for the bottom shows. this may be cleverly concealed by an insert, but that is patchwork, and not first-rate construction. reinforced bottom, fig. 284, e. a plain or full bottom is sometimes covered by a base or cover strip to hide the joint and secure the bottom, as in tool chests. this strip may be mitered at the corners. [illustration: fig. 284. methods of attaching box bottoms.] _the lids of boxes._ the simplest form is a full flat cover, fig. 285, a, which may be nailed or screwed to the box, as in packing cases. the cover may slide into a groove, fig. 285, b, along the sides and into one end, the other end being lowered to admit it. the cover may have cleats on its underside, fig. 285, c, which fit just inside the box and keep the top in place. the cleats also prevent the top from warping. this is a common japanese construction, even in fine boxes. the japanese tie the top on with a tape or ribbon. the lid may be boxed, fig. 285, d, that is, portions of the sides may be affixed to the top. these extra pieces are a help to stiffen the top and to keep it from warping. a boxed top may have the top board flush with the sides, fig. 285, e. the disadvantage of this is that the top may shrink and part from the sides and give a bad appearance. the overlapping top, fig. 285, f, obviates this trouble of shrinkage and adds a decorative element. in this case the top may be glued on or screwed from below thru the side strips. the top may be mitered into the sides, fig. 285, g. the shrinkage trouble still obtains here. otherwise the appearance is excellent. the top may be paneled into the sides, fig. 285, h. this has a good appearance if the sides are mitered and ledged but not if the sides are butted or dadoed, because then the groove for the top shows. [illustration: fig. 285. forms of box construction.] any of these lids may be made removable or hinged, except the sliding top. for methods of hinging see p. 132. in gluing boxes together, it is a good plan to glue the ends and sides together first and to let these joints dry before gluing on the bottom and, in the case of a boxed top, fig. 285, d, the top. care must be taken to see that the sides do not bow under the pressure. to prevent this, one or more false, temporary partitions as a, b, in fig. 286, of exactly the length to keep the sides straight, may be inserted. in gluing together boxes with rabbeted joints, fig. 285, h, pressure should be applied in both directions. in gluing on the bottom of a box that is also to be nailed, the nails should be driven into the bottom first, so that the points just come thru. these points sticking into the sides will prevent the bottom from slipping when pressure is applied. it is often undesirable to have nail heads show, as in a top. in such a case, and also to prevent the top from slipping under pressure, a couple of small brads may be driven part way into the upper edges of the sides, the heads bitten off with the nippers, and points filed on the projecting portion. [illustration: fig. 286. glueing together a box.] _drawers._ in the best form, the sides are dovetailed to the front for strength, fig. 287, for whenever the drawer is opened the front tends to pull away from the sides. this dovetail is half blind, so that the joint will not appear when the drawer is shut. in order that the drawer may always run freely and yet the front fit the opening as close as possible, it is common practice to cut a shallow rabbet on the ends of the front, so that the body of the drawer is a little narrower than the front is long, fig. 287. or the front may be attached to the sides with a dado tongue and rabbet joint, fig. 266, no. 27, p. 179. [illustration: fig. 287. dovetailed drawer construction.] the bottom is grooved into the sides with its grain parallel to the front and fastened only to the front so that it has plenty of play for shrinkage. the back is dadoed into the sides, with either a straight dado, fig. 266, no. 25, p. 179, or dovetail dado, fig. 266, no. 28, and rests on the bottom. the extension of the bottom beyond the back allows ample room for shrinkage. the best machine-made drawers are now made with the bottom paneled or dadoed in all around so that papers cannot slip out. the back, as well as the front, is dovetailed. _directions for making a table drawer._ dress the front and sides to size. fit the front of the drawer to its place in the table or cabinet, leaving a little play all around it. plow the groove in the front and sides for the drawer bottom. for ordinary drawers, a groove 1/4" wide is proper. if the ends of the front are to be rabbeted (see above), do this next. the sides are best joined to the front with the half-blind dovetail joint. (for directions see p. 166). after fitting these, lay out and cut the dadoes for the back of the drawer. prepare the bottom of the drawer thus: the grain should run right and left, never front and back. if the drawer is so long as to require it, glue-joint the bottom, and fit it snugly to place. there need be no play right and left, and the bottom should extend as far back as the sides. if necessary, bevel the under side to fit the grooves. assemble all the parts to see that they fit, take them apart, glue the sides to the front and back, slip the bottom into place, apply the clamps, and see to it that all joints are square, using a diagonal brace if necessary, fig. 294. fasten the bottom to the front by means of a thin block glued into the interior angle between the under side of the bottom and the back side of the front. when dry, clean up the drawer and fit it to its place. (3) panel structures these include doors and cabinets of all sorts. the principle of panel or cabinet construction is that there shall be a frame composed of narrow members whose grain follows the principal dimensions. in the best construction this frame is mortised and tenoned together and within this frame there is set a thin board or panel which is free to shrink or swell but is prevented from warping by the stiffer frame. the object is to cover an extended surface in such a way that the general dimensions and good appearance will not be affected by whatever shrinkage there is. since the frame itself is made up of narrow pieces, there is but little shrinkage in them. that shrinkage is all that affects the size of the whole structure, because wood does not shrink longitudinally to any appreciable extent. the shrinking or swelling of the panel does not affect the general size. the cross construction of the frame also prevents warping, since, in the best construction every joint is mortised and tenoned. the panel may simply be fastened on the back of the frame, but a better construction is to insert it in a groove made in the inside of the frame in which the panel is to lie and have free play. the panel may be made of one board or of matched boards, may be plain or have raised or carved surfaces, or be of glass; and the joints between frame and panel may be embellished with moldings mitered in, but the principle is the same in all cases. the frame of a door, fig. 288, illustrates the panel construction. the upright, outside pieces are called the "stiles," the horizontal pieces the "rails." there are also the "top-rail," the "bottom-rail," the "lock-rail" (where the door-knob and lock are inserted), and sometimes the "frieze-rail" between the lock rail and the top rail. the "muntin" is the upright between the two stiles. [illustration: fig. 288. door, illustrating panel construction: s. stile; t. r. top rail; l. r. lock rail; b. r. bottom rail; m. muntin; p. panel; a. double mortise-and-tenon; f. fillet; a. b. c. forms of panels.] the joint commonly used is the haunched or relished mortise-and-tenon, fig. 267, no. 42, p. 180; (see p. 163 for directions for making). the tenon is sometimes doubled, fig. 288, and a fillet (f) may be inserted to cover the ends of the tenons, or the joint may be a blind mortise-and-tenon, fig. 266, no. 32, or in cheap construction, dowels may be used. the best doors are now made with cores of pine covered on the visible sides with heavy veneer. large surfaces are covered by increasing the number of parts rather than their size, as in wainscoting. picture-frames also belong in this class of structures, the glass taking the place of the panel. they are made with mortise-and-tenon joints, fig. 266, no. 33, slip joints, fig. 267, no. 46, dowelled butt joints, fig. 264, no. 8, end lap joints, fig. 265, no. 17, and, far more commonly, mitered joints, fig. 268, no. 52. mitered joints are the easiest to make, for the joints can be cut in a miter-box, fig. 181, p. 104, and glued in a picture-frame-vise, fig. 172, p. 101. this joint needs reinforcement by nails, fig. 268, no. 52, by dowels, no. 53, or by splines, no. 55. if the sides are of different widths, the fitting of the joint is more difficult. mitered joints are the only kind suitable for molded frames. the rabbets are cut out with a rabbeting-plane before mitering and assembling. the principle disadvantage of a mitered joint is that, if the wood shrinks at all, it opens at the inside corners, as in fig. 289, because wood shrinks sidewise but not lengthwise. [illustration: fig. 289. the way a mitered joint opens on account of shrinkage.] in window sashes, the dovetail joint, fig. 267, no. 47, is the common one at the upper end of the lower sash and the lower end of the upper sash, and the mortise-and-tenon joint modified is used at the lower end of the lower and upper end of the upper sash. the glass takes the place of the panel. in blind sashes, the pinned mortise-and-tenon joint, fig. 267, no. 38, is commonly used. when panels are joined together to enclose a space, then we have what is properly called cabinet construction. illustrations are cabinets, bureaus, desks, lockers, chests, etc. in all these cases, the constructed panels may be treated as separate boards and joined together with dowel pins or splines or dadoed together without any other framework, tho the corners are often reinforced by cleats or blocks glued into them. sometimes, however, as in chests, fig. 290, posts are used instead of stiles, and rails are mortised or doweled into them and the panels set into grooves in both posts and rails. in this case the bottom is raised from the floor, and may be dadoed into the bottom rails, or dowelled into them or even supported by strips attached along their lower inside edges. the chest really is a union of both paneled and framed structures. [illustration: fig. 290. chest construction.] (4) framed structures the principle of the framed structure is similar to that of the panel construction in that the object is to allow for shrinkage without harm to construction and also to economize materials. common examples are tables, chairs, work-benches, and frame houses. _the making of a table._ the standard height of a table is 30". there should be 25" clearance under the rails. this leaves approximately 4" for the width of the rails. assuming that the table is to be of a simple straight line type with one drawer, the following method of procedure is suggested: cut the boards for the top to the approximate length and stick, (see p. 47) and clamp them, so as to season them as well as possible before jointing. dress to size the legs and rails. stand the legs in their proper positions relative to each other, and mark them f r (front right), f l (front left), b r (back right), and b l (back left). plow out the grooves on the inside of the rails for the fastenings of the top, fig. 297, d, if they are to be used. lay out and cut the tenons and mortises for the end rails and back rail. the proper form of the tenon is one with a wide shoulder above it so that the top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out. the rails should be set near the outside of the leg so that the tenon may be as long as possible and the portion of the leg inside it as strong as possible. a haunched mortise-and-tenon joint, fig. 267, no. 43 is sometimes used, giving additional lateral stiffness to the rail. the proper proportions are shown in fig. 291. when cut, these parts should be temporarily assembled to see if they fit. [illustration: fig. 291. a. cross-section thru back left leg and adjoining rails of table. (plan). b. elevation, showing wide shoulder on tenon of rail.] inasmuch as a drawer takes the place of a front rail, the front legs must be tied together in some other way. for this purpose two stringers or drawer rails may be used, their front edges being as far from the face of the legs as are the rails from the side and back. the upper drawer rail may be dovetailed at both ends into the tops of the legs, as shown in fig. 292. if this takes more room than can well be spared from the depth of the drawer, it may be omitted, but it adds greatly to the stiffness of the table and is an excellent means of fastening on the top by the use of screws passing thru it. [illustration: fig. 292. table construction: upper drawer rail of table dovetailed into left front leg.] the drawer rail, also called the fore edge, is long enough to partly overlap the side rails, into the lower edges of which it is gained so as to be flush with them, and may be fastened to them with screws, fig. 293. the construction may be further strengthened by also doweling the end of this stretcher into the legs. if there are two drawers, the partition between them may be doweled or gained into these upper and lower stretchers. [illustration: fig. 293. the fixing of a drawer rail, seen from below.] if the legs are to be tapered or otherwise shaped, that should be done next. then glue and assemble the end rails with their proper legs, taking care to see not only that the joints come up square, but that the legs are in the same plane. finally assemble the whole, inserting, if necessary, a temporary diagonal brace to insure squareness, fig. 294. when dry, clean up the joints. for the making of a table drawer, see above, p. 191. [illustration: fig. 294. brace to insure right angles in assembling a framed structure.] to fit the drawer to its place, runners and guides, fig. 295, must first be fastened in. the runners are in line with the drawer rail, and are glued and nailed or screwed to the side rails between the back of the lower stringer and the back posts. on top of them and in line with the inner face of the legs are the guides running between the front and back posts. or the runner and guide may be made of one piece properly rabbeted out. [illustration: fig. 295. drawer mechanism.] if there are two drawers, a double runner lies between, and is gained into the middles of the back rail and the stringer, and on it is a guide for both drawers, equal in width to the partition between the drawers. the drawers should run easily in their proper places. in order to insure this, the drawer should be slightly narrower than the opening which receives it. a little french chalk, rubbed on the sides and runners, makes the running smoother. sometimes the opening for a drawer is cut out of the front rail, as in fig. 296. in this case the drawer runners are supported between the front and back rails, into which they may be gained. [illustration: fig. 296. opening for drawer cut out of front rail of table.] for the making of the table top see edge-to-edge joint, p. 172. dress up the top to size, taking special pains with the upper surface. if the grain is crossed, use the veneer-scraper, fig. 151, p. 92, then sand, first with no. 1, then with no. 00 sandpaper, finish the edges carefully, and attach to the frame. for fastening the top to the table rails, several methods are used. the top may be screwed to the rails by the screws passing thru the rails themselves either straight up, fig. 297, a, or diagonally from the inside, b, or thru blocks or angle irons, c, which are screwed to the inside of the rails, or thru buttons, or panel irons, d, which are free to move in a groove cut near the top of the rail. the last method is the best because it allows for the inevitable shrinkage and swelling of the top. [illustration: fig. 297. methods of attaching table top to rails.] _chairs_ may be so simplified in form as to be possible for the amateur to construct. the two front legs and the rail and stretcher between them offer little difficulty because the angles are square. the two back legs, may, for the purpose of simplification, be kept parallel to each other and at right angles to the seat rails between them, as in fig. 298, a, and not at an angle as in b. the joining of the back will then offer little difficulty. the principal difficulties lie in the facts that for comfort and appearance the back of the chair should incline backward both above and below the seat, and that the back of the seat should be narrower than the front. by keeping at right angles to the floor the part of the back legs which receives the seat rail, the side seat rails will meet the back legs at a right angle in a side view, fig. 298. the back legs should be slightly shorter than the front legs, as shown in d. [illustration: fig. 298. chair construction.] the second difficulty involves the making of inclined mortise-and-tenon joints, a, where the side rails fit into the legs. the making of these can be facilitated by laying out a plan of the full size and taking the desired angles directly from that. it is common to reinforce these joints with corner blocks glued and screwed in place as shown in a. if there are additional rails below the seat rails, the easiest way to fit them in place is first to fit and clamp together the chair with the seat rails only, taking pains to have all angles perfectly true, and then to take the exact measurements for the lower rails directly from the chair. the same method may be used for laying out a stringer between the lower rails. if it is desired to bow the rails of the back, which are above the seat rail, this can be done by boiling them in water for 30 minutes and then clamping them over a form of the proper shape, with a piece of stiff sheet iron on the outside, as in fig. 299. they should be thoroly dried in a warm place. then the tenons may be laid out on the ends parallel to a straight-edge laid along the concave side. the chair bottom may be made of solid wood, either flat or modeled into a "saddle seat;" it may be covered with cane or rush, or it may be upholstered. [illustration: fig. 299. bending boards into shape after boiling them.] to upholster a chair seat, a frame should first be made of the shape shown in fig. 298, c. the strips are about 2" wide and 1/2" thick with their ends half-lapped. the seat rails are rabbeted 1/2" deep and 1/2" wide to receive this frame, which should be 1/8" smaller all around than the place to receive it. the returns at the corners fit around the legs at 1/8" distance from them. this 1/8" provides space for the coverings. after the frame is fitted, it is covered with 3" webbing tacked firmly to the upper side. the webbing which goes back and forth is interwoven with that which goes from right to left. over this is stretched and tacked (also to the upper side) a piece of unbleached muslin. a second piece of muslin is tacked to the back edge and part way along the side edges, leaving for the time the corners unfinished. in the pocket thus formed horsehair or other stuffing is pushed, care being taken to distribute it evenly and not too thick. when the pocket is filled, the muslin is tacked farther along the sides and more hair put in, until the front is reached, when the muslin is tacked to the front edge. the corners are now drawn in tight, a careful snip with the scissors parting them diagonally so as to lie in well. the partings may be turned down and tacked on the under side of the frame. finally the leather or other covering is stretched over the whole as evenly as possible. the corners should be left to the last, then clipped diagonally to the exact inside corner and the partings drawn down and tacked, as was the muslin. the superfluous leather may then be trimmed off, and the seat should fit in its place. or the seat frame may be omitted, and the coverings tacked directly to the chair rails. the balloon-frame house is a typical form of framed construction, fig. 300. the essential parts of a balloon-frame are: 1. sill, 4"ã�8", which rests on the foundation. 2. beams, 4"ã�8", which rest on the cellar posts, 6"ã�6". (not shown in illustration.) 3. floor joists, 2"ã�8", which rest on the sill and beams. 4. corner posts, 4"ã�6", with 2"ã�4" studs nailed to them. 5. studding, 2"ã�4", which stand 16" between centers. 6. wall ribbon, or girt, 1"ã�8", which supports the upper story joists. 7. plates, two 2"ã�4" nailed together, resting on studs. 8. rafters, 2"ã�6", which support the roof. 9. tie-beams, 2"ã�6", which prevent the roof from spreading the walls. (not shown in illustration.) 10. ridge-pole, 2"ã�8", against which the rafters butt. 11. bridging, 2"ã�2", which stiffens the floor joists. 12. sheathing, (1" thick), put on diagonally to brace the building. the rest is covering. 13. flooring, (see also fig. 301.) [illustration: fig. 300. house construction.] in flooring, fig. 301, the boards are made narrow so as to reduce the size of openings at the joints when they shrink, and also to reduce the tendency to warp. they may be laid side by side as in the cheapest floors, or matched to close the joint. for difference between slashand comb-grain flooring, see fig. 55, p. 43. [illustration: fig. 301. siding, ceiling, flooring.] 14. building paper. 15. siding or clapboards, (see fig. 301.) may either overlap without a joint or be rabbeted to fit. the best siding is rabbeted. 16. water-table. 17. corner-board. 18. furring. 19. shingles. 20. lathing. 21. ceiling, fig. 301, consists of matched boards having a "bead" to disguise the joint and give a decorative effect. types of wooden structures references:[*] simple joined structures. benson, pp. 32-37. goss, pp. 91-96. noyes, _school arts book_, 6: 89, 179. wheeler, pp. 86, 219-227, 376. sickels, p. 120. griffith, pp. 84-104. panel and cabinet construction. goss, pp. 117-118, 148-151. compton, pp. 146-151. sickels, p. 134. wheeler, pp. 366-372. framed structures. crawshaw. wheeler, pp. 203-206, 238-297. sickels, p. 124. _building trades pocketbook_, pp. 221, 230. coverings. sickels, pp. 128-131. goss, pp. 141-144. [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. 4.] chapter ix. principles of joinery.[11] [footnote 11: professor rankine's five principles: 1. to cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to weaken the pieces of timber they connect as little as possible. 2. to place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit. 3. to proportion the area of each surface to the pressure which it has to bear so that the timber may be safe against injury under the heaviest load which occurs in practice, and to form and fit every pair of such surfaces accurately in order to distribute the stress uniformly. 4. to proportion the fastenings so that they may be of equal strength with the pieces which they connect. 5. to place the fastenings in each piece of timber so that there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving way of the joint by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way thru the timber.] 1. _avoid multiplication of errors by making all measurements (as far as possible) from a common starting point, and laying off all angles from the same line or surface._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: before proceeding with other processes, a working face and working edge and as many other surfaces as will finally appear in the finished piece, should be trued up. at least the working face and working edge are essential to the proper "lay-out" of the piece, whenever measurements are made from an edge. in laying out a series of measurements, it is important, when possible, that the rule be laid down once for all, and the additions be made on that, rather than that the rule should be moved along for each new member of the series. in scoring around a board with knife and try-square, the head of the try-square should be held against the working face in scoring both edges, and against the working edge in scoring both faces, and not passed from one surface to another in succession. in the laying out of a halved joint, fig. 265, nos. 15-19, p. 178, the gaging is all done from what will be one of the flush surfaces of the joined pieces. then, if the gaged line should be slightly more or less than half the thickness of the pieces the closeness of the joint would not be affected. 2. _when possible, in laying out a joint, use the method of superposition._ fig. 302. by this is meant the method by which the lay-out of one member is obtained directly from the other by laying (superposing) the latter on the former and marking or scribing the needed dimensions directly, instead of by measurement. it has the advantages of simplicity, speed, and greater probability of fit. [illustration: fig. 302. marking by superposition.] familiar illustrations are in the making of halved joints, fig. 265, nos. 15-19, p. 178, dovetail joints, fig. 267, nos. 42-45, p. 180, and scarfed or spliced joints, fig. 264, nos. 4-7, p. 177. 3. _work systematically._ in case the same process is to be repeated on a number of parts, complete this process in all before taking up another process. this is the principle of the division of labor applied to the individual workman. in laying out duplicate or multiple parts, the proper cross measurements should be carefully laid out on one piece and then transferred with a try-square to the other parts laid accurately beside it. so when a number of like pieces are to be gaged, all the parts requiring the same setting should be gaged before the gage is reset for another gaging. this is a great saving of time and insures accuracy. in making a number of like parts, if they are not too large much of the work can often be done in one piece before it is cut up. for example, to make a number of slats from a given piece of wood, the piece may first be brought to such dimensions that the length will be correct for the finished pieces and the thickness of the piece be equal to the width of the slats, fig. 303. the face may then be gaged with a series of lines so that every other space will be equal to the required thickness of each slat, and the alternate spaces be just sufficient for the saw kerf and dressing. the slats may then be ripped apart and dressed to size. [illustration: fig. 303. making a number of like pieces from a given piece.] or a long strip may be planed to thickness and width and then be sawn up and finished to the proper lengths. for example, in a mitered picture-frame it may be convenient to plane up two pieces, each one long enough to make one long side and one short side. in fitting up framed structures each part when fitted should be distinctly marked, so that there may be no confusion in assembling. 4. _where practicable secure the same conditions of grain in different elements of joined structures._ illustrations of this are as follows: the grain of the sides of a box should run continuously around the box, or, in the case of a tall, slim box, the grain of all the sides should run up and down. in either case, the grain in the different sides is parallel. in a rubbed joint, fig. 269, no. 70, p. 182, to be planed down afterward, in case the grain is not straight, much trouble in planing may be saved if the different pieces are laid so that they can all be planed smooth in the same direction. this may not be possible where the boards are joined so as to match the grain, as in quartered oak, or where the annual rings of slash boards are made to alternate in direction so as to lessen warping, fig. 280, p. 188. 5. _where possible, allow for shrinkage without prejudice to construction._ the most obvious illustration of this principle is panel construction. in a panel, the frame, which is comparatively narrow, follows the principal dimensions, and hence does not seriously shrink or swell itself. but the panel, which is grooved into the frame can shrink or swell without harm to the general structure. in a gained joint, as in a case of shelves, fig. 266, no. 29, p. 179, the gain in the uprights does not extend quite to the front of the shelves, and there is a corresponding slight shoulder at the front end of the shelf, so that if the shelf and support shrink unevenly, no gap will be apparent. a drawing-board, fig. 280, p. 188, is so made that it can shrink or swell without losing its flatness. shingles when properly laid, can shrink or swell without the roof leaking. 6. _where feasible, undercut joined surfaces so as to give clearance on the inside and insure a tight appearance. but glued surfaces should be made to meet flat._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: the inner end of the socket in a dovetail joint, fig. 267, no. 48, p. 180, may be undercut slightly so as to insure the pin's falling close into place. the shoulder of any tenon may be undercut so as to allow the edges of the tenoned piece to close up tight against the mortised piece. in an end-lap halved joint, fig. 265, no. 17, p. 178, the edges should meet all around; if they are to be glued together, they should _not_ be undercut or they will not glue well. in matched flooring, the underside of the boards is slightly narrower than the upper side so that the joint may close on the upper side without fail, fig. 301, p. 199. the ends of flooring boards are also slightly beveled so as to make a tight fit on the upper side. 7. _select the simplest form of joint and use the smallest number of abutments (bearing surfaces) possible, because the more complicated the joint or the greater the number of bearing surfaces, the less likelihood there is of a sound and inexpensive construction._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: usually a single mortise-and-tenon joint is better than a double one because of simplicity, strength and ease of making. where much surface is required for gluing, a double one may be better. in a dovetail dado, fig. 266, no. 28, p. 179, it is usually sufficient to make the dovetail on one side only. many very elaborately spliced joints have been devised, which have no practical advantage over the simple ones, fig. 264, nos. 4-7, p. 177. a butt joint, fig. 264, no. 11, is stronger than a mitered joint, fig. 268, no. 52, in a box, for the latter is almost sure to shrink apart. where appearance is important, a ledge and miter joint has the advantage of both, fig. 268, no. 58. 8. _keep a due proportion of strength between the fastenings (joints) and the pieces fastened: i. e., the construction should neither be frail on the one hand, because the pieces of wood are weakened by too much cutting, nor clumsy, on the other hand, because then the fastenings would be inordinately strong. in other words, the different parts should be equally strong._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: in a fished joint, fig. 264, no. 2, the plate should be attached so as to reinforce the splice at the weakest point. in a scarf joint, fig. 264, nos. 5 and 7, the angle should be oblique enough to give the greatest leverage. in a tusk tenon, fig. 267, no. 40, the tenon is made but one-sixth the thickness of the timber, whereas the tusk is made much larger. where a mortise is to be cut in a timber bearing weight, it should be cut in the neutral axis, where the cutting of fibres will weaken it least. in the mortise-and-tenon of a table-rail, fig. 267, no. 43, there should be a wide shoulder above the tenon of the rail so that the top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out. the mortise should be as near the outside of the leg as possible so that the inner corner of the leg may remain strong. the tenon should be strong enough to share the strain with the shoulders. a dado joint, fig. 266, no. 25, should not be so deep as to weaken the supporting board. a tenon should not be so large as to weaken the mortised piece. pins or other fastenings, fig. 267, nos. 38 and 39, may weaken rather than strengthen a joint if they are so placed or are so large as to shear or crush their way thru the timber. 9. _place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: the angle in a strut joint, fig. 266, no. 62, should be equally divided between the two beams. the thrust joint, fig. 268, no. 63, in a bridge truss, is exactly at right angles to the pressure. it is on account of this principle that a spliced joint for compression, fig. 264, no. 4, is different from a spliced joint for tension, no. 5; and that a housed braced joint, fig. 269, no. 66, is better than a plain braced joint, no. 65. a joint to resist vertical cross strain is stronger when scarfed vertically than horizontally. the principles of joinery references:[*] goss, p. 132. adams, p. 12. rivington, vol. i, p. 57. [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. 4.] chapter x. wood finishing. stains. the function of stains is to change the color, and to enchance the grain and texture of the wood. stains may be divided into four general classes, which are not, however, entirely distinct. (1) oil stains, (2) water stains, (a) made from anilines, (b) made from dyes other than anilines, (3) spirit stains, (4) stains due to chemical changes. (1) _oil stains._ advantages: they are easily prepared, are easy to apply evenly, and they do not raise the grain. disadvantages: they cover the grain somewhat, are apt to give a muddy effect, they do not penetrate very deeply into the wood, and it is impossible to stain hard wood dark with them and at the same time keep the grain and texture of the wood clear. a convenient form in which to handle these pigments is devoe's "coach colors," ground in japan. to prevent evaporation from cans once opened, it is well to keep them partly filled with water and the water covered with a little oil. for use, the pigments are thinned with turpentine or benzine, in the proportion of one pound of color to one-half gallon of turpentine or benzine. benzine is much cheaper than turpentine, but evaporates more quickly. the addition of a little boiled oil gives a body to the stain, so that when the wood is well rubbed down a soft lustre can be had without any further finish. the stain should be applied with a brush to the wood, which may then be rubbed clean with cotton waste. oil stains penetrate hard woods better when the wood has first been fumed in ammonia. (see below, p. 211). or, the addition of a little ammonia to the stain just before applying aids it in penetrating the wood. the pigments most used for oil stains are: burnt and raw umber, burnt and raw sienna, vandyke brown, drop black, and medium chrome yellow. these colors may be varied by mixing. for example, for a green stain, take two parts of drop black and one part of medium chrome yellow, and dissolve in turpentine or benzine. the addition of a little vermilion gives a grayer green. the green may be made bluer by the addition of prussian blue, but the blue already contained in the black gives a soft, pleasant green. for antique oak, add a trifle of burnt umber and black to raw sienna thinned to the right consistency. for a reddish brown, thin burnt umber to the right consistency. this may be grayed by the addition of a little green. a walnut stain may be had by adding a little venetian red to asphaltum, thinned with turpentine or benzine. _aniline oil stains._ advantages: the colors are clear and easily obtainable. disadvantages: the colors are likely to be crude and too bright, and unless great care is taken the tones are metallic and not soft enough to suit wood. it is necessary to purchase colors soluble in oil. these can be had of william zinnser and company, 197 william street, new york. four colors are necessary to get the desired shades, bismarck brown, dark yellow, dark blue, and black. bismarck brown comes in powdered form at $2.40 per lb., dark yellow comes in powdered form at $2.40 per lb., dark blue comes in lumps at $3.20 per lb., black comes in lumps at $2.40 per lb. these may be dissolved in three ounces of turpentine to one ounce of boiled oil, to one teaspoonful of color, a process that will take place much faster if the mixture is heated. great care must be taken, however, not to set fire to the turpentine. when cool, thin with turpentine to the proper consistency, apply to the wood with a brush and rub clean with cotton waste. (2) _water stains._ advantages: they are cheap and clear and do not obscure the grain as oil stains are likely to do, and they penetrate deeply into the wood, especially when applied hot. they may be made of any coloring matter that is soluble in water, and are particularly good for hard woods and for use in large quantities. it is possible to stain wood much darker with them than with oil stains. moreover, the brushes used with them are easily taken care of. disadvantages: they are difficult to prepare and they raise the grain of the wood. the former disadvantage may be overcome by buying them all prepared. the difficulty of the raising of the grain is to be obviated either by washing the wood in water and, when dry, rubbing down with sandpaper before applying the stain, or rubbing down after staining and re-staining when necessary. a. water stains made from anilines. aniline stains are likely to fade, but the addition of a little vinegar is said to hinder fading. for mahogany, dissolve 1 oz. bismarck brown in 3 quarts of boiling water. use when cool. b. water stains made from dyes other than anilines. the number of these is legion; some of the simpler are given. reddish brown. dissolve extract of logwood of the size of a walnut in 1/2 cup (4 oz.) of hot water. apply hot to wood repeatedly until desired color is obtained. black. dissolve extract of logwood of the size of a walnut in 1/2 cup (4 oz.) of boiling water. add a teaspoonful of alum. apply repeatedly until the wood is dark brown. prepare acetate of iron according to directions for making dark brown, on next page. apply this to wood already browned with logwood. if the grain is raised, sandpaper lightly, or rub with steel wool and then with boiled oil. (3) _spirit stains._ these are expensive and hence little used. a few illustrations are given.[12] [footnote 12: for detailed directions for treatment of different woods, see hodgson, pp. 112-153.] black. aniline black, cut in alcohol, gives a bluish effect but if the wood thus stained is rubbed with raw linseed oil, it becomes black. another black. dissolve extract of logwood in wood alcohol. develop the color by going over the work with tincture of muriate of iron. golden oak. dissolve asphaltum in naphtha until it is as thin as water and makes a yellowish stain; or to equal parts of asphaltum, varnish, and gold size japan, add enough turpentine to thin to proper consistency. mahogany. dissolve bismarck brown in alcohol. aniline stains may be cut in alcohol and mixed with equal parts of white shellac and banana oil (amyl acetate) and all applied in one coat. (4) _stains due to chemical changes_. certain substances like ammonia, potassium bichromate, and acetate of iron, give chemical reactions on certain woods and make very effective and inexpensive stains. moreover the artistic effect of some of them is unexcelled. when applied in solution they are likely to raise the grain. the effect of ammonia, either the liquid or fumes, is much the same as the effect produced by aging or weathering. ammonia also cuts the pith rays of oak and makes it possible for other stains to take hold. for this reason it is much used as a preliminary treatment for oak finishes. the color effect is to lessen the yellow and increase the gray. the method of application is simply to expose the wood for a day or more to the fumes of strong ammonia (28%) in a tightly closed box. if the surface of the wood is moistened with water just before exposure, it turns darker than if exposed dry. the stain penetrates so deeply that it may be sandpapered after the exposure without harm. after fuming and sandpapering the surface should be oiled to prevent finger marks. dark brown for chestnut, or oak, or mahogany. this is obtained with a solution of acetate of iron, made as follows: digest one part by measure of iron dust in 8 parts of glacial acetic acid. after the chemical action is well started, add several times as much water to keep the mixture liquid. when the chemical action has ceased, the stain is ready for use. if a lighter shade is desired it may be still further diluted. to darken mahogany. make a saturate solution of bichromate of potash. dilute a portion of it with water 1/2, or 1/3, or 1/4, or in any proportion according to the darkness required. one part of the solution to two or three parts of water gives a good color. apply the solution to mahogany with a brush. this solution alone is likely to be too brown. the reddish tinge of the wood may be saved by mixing as follows: 100% solution of bichromate of potash 1 part breinig's mahogany water stain 1 part water 2 parts apply with a brush and wipe off the surplus. bichromate of potash on oak gives a rich brown. bichromate of potash on ash gives a rich red. bichromate of potash on black walnut gives a dark brown. a decoction of logwood treated with tannin gives yellow red, with sugar of lead gives gray brown, with ferric nitrate gives black. a decoction of fustic extract treated with dilute nitric acid gives brown, etc.[13] [footnote 13: for other effects obtained by chemical changes, see table on pp. 185-189 in _brannt's painter, gilder and varnisher_, and also _woodcraft_ 9: 71, june, '08.] _commercial stains._ some of the more noteworthy commercial stains, suitable for school use, are those of: the bridgeport wood finishing company, 55 fulton st., new york. among their water stains some of the best are: flemish oak, weathered oak, walnut, silver gray, forest green, and mahogany, especially if the latter is modified with bichromate of potash. other effects may be obtained by mixing these, as forest green, which is too bright alone, mixed with walnut or some other reddish color gives a grayish green. of the penetrating oil stains the golden oak and mahogany are very good. the sherwin williams company, of cleveland, newark, chicago, etc., produce a fine line of spirit stains. the adams and elting company, chicago, have a stain called adelite, in which banana oil appears to be the solvent. it is very easy of application, only one coat being needed. it is applied with the brush. berry brothers, of detroit, mich., the famous varnish makers, furnish a great variety of colors in their water stains and also a combined stain and finish under the trade name of lacklustre. devoe and reynolds, 101 fulton street, new york, make a variety of oil stains which can be applied either in one coat with a brush or rubbed in with cotton waste. the chicago varnish company, make a specialty of artistic, chemical stains, but unfortunately they are not yet (1910) available in small quantities. s. c. johnson and son, racine, wis., furnish a variety of spirit stains called "wood dyes." the craftsman workshops, eastwood, n. y., furnish oil stains to be applied with a brush or waste. these are deservedly famous for they give especially soft, agreeable effects on fumed oak. in general, it should be remembered that oil stains are better for soft woods, water stains for hard woods, and the spirit stains are good for both. but without a sense of color, no number of recipes will avail. filling the object of filling is to give a perfectly level and non-absorbent basis for varnish covering or other finish. this can be done with shellac carefully rubbed down with fine oiled sandpaper, but this method requires much toil and patience, and has therefore been given up by furniture finishers. the best fillers, (such as "wheeler's wood filler"),[14] are made of silex in needle-shaped particles mixed with raw linseed oil, japan and turpentine. when applied to wood it should be thinned with turpentine or benzine, and applied with a brush along the grain. as it dries, the color becomes grayish and it should then be rubbed off across the grain with fine shavings or cotton waste. it is best to have fillers of several colors on hand, such as light, black, mahogany, and "golden oak" to be used according to the stain applied. the filler should be applied after staining the wood and should be allowed to dry thoroly, say forty-eight hours, before it is covered with shellac or varnish. its use is more necessary on open grained woods, like oak, chestnut, and mahogany, than on close grained woods, like whitewood, maple, and pine, but it is best to use it on all woods that are to be highly polished. [footnote 14: made by the bridgeport wood finishing co., 155 fulton st., n. y.] cans should be kept tightly covered when not in use. since oil darkens wood, if wood is to be kept light, a filler without oil, as whiting and turpentine, should be used. polishes there are three principal forms of wood polishes, each of which has its virtues and defects. they are: (a) oil, (b) wax, (c) the varnishes. (a) _oil._ the great advantage of oil polishing is its permanence. it will stand both wetting and warmth and gives a dull, glossy finish. in some woods, as sweet gum and mahogany, it brings up the figure. process. apply either raw or boiled linseed oil diluted with five parts of benzine or turpentine. the advantages of dilution are that the mixture penetrates the wood better, leaves a thinner film on the surface and is more economical. then rub, rub, rub, day after day. little and often with unlimited friction, is the best rule. this makes a nice finish for well-fumed chestnut, turning the color to a rich brown. (b) _wax._ wax is an old english polish, commonly used before french polish and varnish were introduced, especially for hard woods like oak. its advantages are that it is cheap, easily prepared, easily applied, and easily repaired. its disadvantages are that it will not stand wetting, is easily marred, requires constant care, is not so hard and dry as varnish, turns slightly sticky with warmth, and is likely to turn white in crevices. to prepare it. to one part of melted beeswax add one part of turpentine. mix and cool. it can be bought prepared, as, bridgeport wood finishing company's "old dutch finish," butcher's wax, johnson's wax, and others. process. rub the wax evenly over the surface with a stiff brush or the fingers. let it dry for some hours, and then rub with a cloth: flannel or a piece of felt is best. put on several coats, leaving the work over night between coats. rub often with a warm cloth. (c) _varnishes._ the function of varnishes is to cover wood with a hard, transparent coating that is non-porous and impervious to moisture. there is a great range among them, from thin, easily worn, dull finishes to durable, strong, and highly polished coatings called "rubbing varnishes." the polished surface can be secured only by much labor thru the application of successive thin coats of good varnish, carefully rubbed down. varnish may be applied to wood, stained, painted, or in its natural condition as well as to metal, leather, paper, and various other substances. a good varnish should be adhesive, that is, it should cling firmly to the surface to which it is applied; it should be elastic, so as not to crack on account of the expansion and contraction of the material to which it is applied; it should dry in a reasonable time; it should be limpid so as to flow easily in application; it should be transparent and brilliant when polished; and it should be durable. the necessary conditions for all good varnishing are a perfectly smooth, even, filled surface of dry wood, a temperature of about 70â° and no dust in the air. in general, there are two classes of varnish, based on the character of the solvent, (1) spirit varnishes and (2) oil varnishes. (1) spirit varnishes are sometimes made with copal resins dissolved in some spirit, as one of the alcohols, benzine, acetone, etc. they dry with great rapidity owing to the volatilization of the solvent spirit, leaving a coat of pure resin of great hardness and brilliance, but one which is likely to crack and scale when exposed. they are not much used. shellac is the most common and the most useful of the spirit varnishes. its basis is resin lac, a compound resinous substance exuded from an east india scale insect (_carteria lacca_) found mostly in the province of assam. the term "lac" is the same as "lakh" which means 100,000 and is indicative of the countless hosts of insects which are the source from which this gum is obtained. the larval insects insert their proboscides into the bark of young shoots of certain lac-bearing trees, varieties of ficus, draw out the sap for nutriment, and at once exude a resinous secretion which entirely covers their bodies and the twigs, often to the thickness of one-half inch. the females never escape and after impregnation their ovaries become filled with a red fluid which forms a valuable dye known as lac dye. the encrusted twigs are gathered by the natives in the spring and again in the autumn, before the young are hatched, and in this condition the product is known as "stick lac." after being crushed and separated from the twigs and washed free from the coloring matter the product is known as "seed lac." it is then melted and strained and spread out in thin layers in a form called "shell lac." this is what is known as orange shellac in the market. it may be bleached by boiling in caustic potash, and passing chlorine thru it until the resin is precipitated. it is further whitened by being pulled. this is what is known in the market as "white shellac." it comes in lumps. orange shellac is the stronger and is less likely to deteriorate, but white is easier to apply because it sets less rapidly. another advantage of the white is its colorlessness. shellac is soluble in both grain alcohol (ethyl alcohol) and wood alcohol (methyl alcohol), but grain alcohol is preferable. great care must be taken not to mix even a drop of water in it or it will curdle. to make perfect the process of ordinary filling, shellac may be used as a filler either by itself or preparatory to other processes. since it dries quickly it can be rubbed down in six or eight hours either with no. 00 sandpaper oiled, or better, with no. 00 steel wool. this process when repeated several times gives a good "egg-shell" finish. it may be applied alone over stained wood or the shellac itself may be colored with aniline dyes cut in alcohol. this, for example, is an easy way to get a black finish. a good waterproof wood polish is made thus: 1 pint alcohol, 2 oz. gum benzoin, 1/4 oz. gum sandarac, 1/4 oz. gum anime. put in a bottle, and put the bottle in a hot water bath until all solids are dissolved. strain and add 1/4 gill clear poppy oil. shake well and apply with cotton cloth. a soft, dull, glossy finish may be obtained by applying two coats of a mixture of one part each of white shellac and banana oil (amyl acetate). when dry, sandpaper lightly and wax. _french polishing._ the finest of shellac finishes is french polish. it is a thin, clear, permanent finish, but the process takes time and patience. it is not much used in practical work, because of the time expense, but is often employed in school shops, because only a few materials are necessary, it dries quickly, and gives a beautiful finish. the polished surface is obtained by adding successive thin coats according to the following process: (1) preparation. the surface of the wood must be perfectly smooth and even, sandpapered in the direction of the grain, stained, if desired, filled, rubbed smooth and quite dry. (2) apply two or three thin coats of shellac. after each coat when dry, rub with no. 00 oiled sandpaper or no. 00 steel wool. wipe thoroly. (3) make three pads, about the size of a walnut, of clean, white, cotton waste, enclosed in some fine old or washed cloth with no sizing or lint,--one pad for shellac, one for oil, and one for alcohol. fill one pad with shellac of the consistency of milk, enough in the pad so that when squeezed hard it will ooze out. the common mistake is to put too much shellac into the pad. rub with circular motion, as indicated in fig. 304, never letting the pad stop on the surface. (4) sprinkle a very little finely powdered pumicestone and put a little oil on the surface of the wood here and there with the tip of a finger. rub with second pad until surface is dull. wipe clean. repeat (3) and (4) several times. some use raw linseed oil to prevent sticking. others use three or four cloth coverings on the shellac pad, removing the outer one as it dries. a simpler way is to keep the shellac in pad, 1, thin by moistening with a little alcohol. (5) spiriting off (follows process 4.) dampen pad, 3, with very little alcohol and wipe quickly in the direction of the grain. this should remove the circular marks. too much alcohol in this third pad will "burn" a dull spot. the rubbers are said to improve with use, and may be preserved in closely stoppered jars to prevent evaporation. the different kinds of pads should be kept separate. or the cotton waste may be thrown away, and the cloths washed in strong borax water. in the process just described, shellac alone, dissolved in alcohol, is used. the shellac may be used with other ingredients: for example, 1 pint grain alcohol, 1/4 oz. gum copal, 1/4 oz. gum arabic, 1 oz. shellac. strain through muslin. [illustration: fig. 304. direction of the pad in french polishing.] another recipe for finishing. use 4 drams grain alcohol, 2 drams orange shellac, 5 drams tincture of benzoin, 1 teaspoonful of olive oil. dissolve and strain. apply with pad in direction of grain. _oil or copal varnishes._ the old cremona varnish once used for violins is supposed to have had amber (greek, electron) as its base. it was a fossilized coniferous resin found on the shore of the baltic sea. the art of making it is said to be lost, probably because of the difficulty and danger of melting it, for this can be done only in oil on account of the danger of ignition. hence its use has been abandoned. perhaps the most beautiful of all varnishes is lacquer, much used in china and japan. it is made from the juice of the lacquer tree, (_rhus vernicifera_) which is tapped during the summer months. the juice is strained and evaporated and then mixed with various substances, such as oil, fine clay, body pigment, and metallic dust, according to the ware for which it is intended. the manufacturing secrets are carefully guarded. the application of it is very difficult, the sap of young trees being used for first coats, and of old trees for the finishing coats. it must be dried in a damp, close atmosphere. for the best work ten or twelve coats are elaborately rubbed down and polished. even the presence of it is very poisonous to some people and all workers in it are more or less affected. the solvent or vehicle of the modern copal varnishes consists principally of linseed oil with some turpentine. their base is copal, a fossil, resinous substance of vegetable origin. the gums of which they are made have been chemically altered by long exposure in the earth. other gums, as mastic, dammar, sandarac, and even resin are sometimes mixed with copal to cheapen the product or to cause more rapid drying. copal is a generic name given originally to all fossil resins. copals, as they are called, come from new zealand, mozambique, zanzibar, west africa, brazil, and the philippines. the best of the copals is said to be the kauri gum, originally exuded from the kauri pine tree of new zealand. the tree is still existent and produces a soft, spongy sap, but the resin used in varnish is dug up from a few feet under ground in regions where there are now no trees. a commercially important copal and one noted for its hardness is the zanzibar or east african copal. it is found imbedded in the earth at a depth not greater than four feet over a wide belt of the mainland coast of zanzibar, on tracts where not a single tree now grows. it occurs in lumps from the size of small pebbles to pieces weighing four or five pounds. the supply is said to be practically inexhaustible. as to the manufacture of the copal varnishes: first of all, a high grade oil is boiled at a high temperature, with different materials to oxidize it; for instance, red lead or oxide of manganese. the heat throws off the oxygen from the red lead or manganese. the oxygen is absorbed by the linseed oil, which is then put away to settle and age. when a batch of varnish is made, the gums are melted in a large kettle and then the requisite amount of oil is added and these carefully boiled together. this is removed from the fire and cooled down to a point, where turpentine can be added without volatilizing. these are thoroly mixed and then filtered under pressure and tanked and aged. the different grades of varnish depend upon the treatment of the oil, the proportion of oil and turpentine, the qualities of the gums, the aging, etc. some by rubbing give a very high polish, some give a dull waxy finish, some are for out-of-door use, as spar varnish and carriage varnish, some are for floors, some for furniture, some are high priced, some are cheap. process of varnishing. the preliminary processes are the same as those for applying shellac, i. e., the surface of the wood must be perfectly even and smooth, and the staining, filling, and drying complete. quick drying varnishes, like shellac, are applied, with but little on the brush. the heavy, high lustre varnishes, on the other hand, are applied with the brush full so that the varnish may even drip off the work. then proceed as follows: wipe off from the work the extra varnish with the brush and clean the brush on the edge of the cup. repeat till the varnish is flowed over the work evenly. be particularly careful, in that respect, of edges and corners. set to dry in a dustless place. when dry and hard repeat the process from three to six times. each coat must dry thoroly before the next coat is applied. varnish polishing consists in rubbing off the varnish, not in rubbing it on, as in french polishing. to polish varnish, rub with a felt pad, powdered pumice-stone and water. rub till the surface is smooth, unpitted and even, being careful not to rub thru the edges. wipe clean with a wet sponge and chamois skin. this gives a dull or "egg-shell" finish. for polishing varnish, a simple method is to rub with a rotary motion, using a mixture of 1/2 sweet oil or cottonseed oil, and 1/2 alcohol. a more laborious process is as follows: after rubbing to a dull finish, rub ground rotten stone and water with chamois skin in a circular motion. let the rotten stone dry on the surface. then wipe off with the naked hand, rubbing in a circular direction and wiping the hand every time after passing over the work. this looks simple, but is really a fine art. these processes have practically replaced french polishing in the trade. painting paints are used for the same purpose as other finishes, with the additional one of giving an opaque colored covering. the materials used are: 1. a body whose function is to give covering power. this is usually white lead, but it is often adulterated with zinc oxide; 2. pigments; 3. linseed oils, raw and boiled, which are used to give consistency, adhesiveness and also elasticity to the coat when dry. for outdoor work boiled oil is used and for indoor work, raw oil; 4. turpentine, which is used to thin out the paint and to make it dry more quickly. the common method of painting is: 1. set any nails with nailset; 2. sandpaper; 3. shellac the knots; 4. prime with a thin coat of paint, mostly white lead, (that is, little color,) boiled oil, and turpentine (the proportion of drying oil is greater than in ordinary paint); 5. putty up cracks, nail holes, etc.; 6. sandpaper if a small nice job; 7. then paint two or three coats with paint thick enough so it will not run, with long, even strokes with the grain. the order of painting a door is, panels, muntins, rails, and last, stiles. for inside work use half as much turpentine as oil. this gives a dull finish. for outside work, where lustre is wanted, little or no turpentine is used. this is the old way, and is still used for all common work. but for fine painting, as carriage work, a filler is now used first, because a priming to be durable should unite with the wood, grasping the fibers and filling the pores, so that after coats cannot sink in. the object is to cement the surface. priming is often called "rough stuff." the old way did not do this, with the result that the oil separated from the lead and kept soaking into the wood. the principal makers of paints now recommend a filler before any white lead is added. tools and materials for wood finishing brushes. it is well to have several varieties to help keep them distinct. for varnish and shellac, the best are those with the bristles set in hard rubber. for ordinary purposes, brushes one inch wide are satisfactory. for stains, cheap, tin-bound brushes are good enough, and are easily replaced. cups. half-pint enameled steel cups are cheap, satisfactory, and easily kept clean. for the care of cups and brushes, see chapter vi, the equipment and care of the shop. steel wool. this consists of shavings, turned from thin steel discs set together in a lathe. it comes in various grades, no. 00 to no. 3. the finest, no. 00, is coarse enough for ordinary purposes. sandpaper. use no. 00 smeared with boiled oil. pulverized pumice stone and pulverized rotten stone, both very fine, are used to rub down inequalities and to give a dull finish to shellac or varnish. use with oil on shellac and with oil or water on copal varnish. horsehair and soft wood shavings are often used to rub down varnish. french felt, medium hard, is used for rubbing down copal varnish with pumice stone. cotton waste is the cheapest available material for wiping. cheese cloth is better for some purposes, but more expensive. soft cloth without lint is necessary for french polishing. "berkeley muslin," "old glory," and "lilly white" are trade names. a fine quality is necessary. the starch should be washed out and the cloth dried before using, and then torn into little pieces, say 4" square. fillers consist of silex or of ground earths mixed with oil, japan, and turpentine. their object is to give a perfectly level and non-absorbent basis for varnish covering. oils. raw linseed oil is very fat and dries slowly. it is used for interior work. boiled oil is linseed oil boiled with litharge (pbo) and white vitriol, which removes much of the fatty ingredient and gives it drying quality. turpentine is a volatile oil from the sap of long-leaf pine. it is mixed with oil in painting to give further drying qualities. benzine is a cheap substitute for turpentine. it is a highly inflammable product of coal tar and evaporates quickly. drier is an oil in which resin has been dissolved. it is mixed with varnishes and paint to make them dry quickly. it is also sometimes used as a varnish itself. japan is a varnish-like liquid made of shellac or other resin, linseed oil, metallic oxides, and turpentine. it is used as a medium in which to grind colors and as a drier. wood finishing references:[*] (1) stains. hodgson, ii, pp. 25-59, 155-164. van deusen, _man. tr. mag._, 6: 93. maire, pp. 46-64. (2) fillers. hodgson, ii, pp. 7-25. maire, 65-72. (3) oil finish. hodgson, ii, pp. 99-103. maire, p. 117. (4) wax. hodgson, ii, pp. 93-99. maire, pp. 112-116. (5) varnish. shellac. maire, pp. 73-80, 101-111. _journal, soc. arts_, 49: 192. _ency. brit._, vol. xiv, "lac." hodgson, ii, pp. 66-93. _inter. encyc._, vol. x, "lac." oil varnish. hodgson, ii, pp. 59-66. clark, pp. 1-69. maire, pp. 81-100. _encyc. brit._, vol. xxiv, "varnish." (6) paints. brannt, p. 134-152. _building trades pocketbook_, pp. 357-360. for detailed directions for the treatment of different woods, see hodgson, ii, pp. 112-153, maire, pp. 124-141. [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. 4.] index. acorn of hinge, 131. adjustment of plane, 70, 72. adze, 88. agacite grinder, 61, 120, 121, 137. alcohol: grain (ethyl), 216. wood (methyl), 216. alligator, 28. ammonia, 209, 211. angle of bevel, 58, 59. aniline stains: alcohol, 211. oil, 210. water, 211. antique oak, 210. anvil, 141. arrangement of shop, 142-144. arris, 57, 184. asphaltum, 210. auger-bit, 53, 84, 85, 137, 140. auger-bit-gage, 116. ax, 10, 51, 87. back-saw, 65, 136, 138. balloon frame, 201. banana oil, 213, 216. band-saw, 31. banking grounds, 16. beam-compass, 114. beams, 201. bench, 97-99, 136, 138, 141, 143. glue and stain, 142, 149. bench-hook, 78, 102, 104, 137, 139. bending wood, 199. benzine, 209, 210, 214, 222. bevel of cutting tools, 52, 55, 120. bevel, sliding t, 113, 137, 140. bezel, see bevel. bill-hook, 10. binding of saw, 63, 65. bit, plane, 70, 77. bits, 84-87, 137, 140. bit, twist, 84, 85. bit-point drill, 84, 85. bit-stock, see brace. black, 209, 211. blank-hinge, 131. blazes on trees, 7, 8. blinds, 194. block, corner, 155 no. 12, 177, 199. block-plane, see plane, block. blue, prussian, 210. board, 48. board construction, 184-192. board-dipper, 35, 36. board foot, 48, 109. board measure, 48, 109, 110. board structures, 184-192. bolt of lock, 133. bolts, 127. book shelves, 185. boom, log, 20, 21. boring, directions for, 85. boring tools, 83-87. box, 187-191. bottoms, 188. lids, 188, 189. of lock, 133. brace, 103, 105, 137, 140. brace, ratchet, 103, 105, 137. brace-measure, 107. bracket, 185. brad-awl, 83, 84, 138, 140. brads, 124. breaking out the roll-ways, 16. bridging, 201. brown, bismarck, 210, 211. dark, 212. reddish, 210, 211. vandyke, 209. brush, 138, 141, 149, 209, 210, 221. brush, see also duster. brush-keeper, 150. buckling of saw, 62, 65, 67. buffer, 121, 147. burn of shellac, 217. butt-hinge, 131. cabinet construction, 192-195. cabinet for nails and screws, 142, 145, 147. calipers, 114. camp, logging, 8, 9. cant, 35, foot-note. cant-flipper, 35, 36. cant-hook, 10, 13. cape-chisel, 141. care of the shop, 142-150. carriage-bolts, 127. _carteria lacca_, 215. carving tools, 60, 140. case-hardening, 46. c-clamps. see carriage-makers' clamps. ceiling, 201. center-bit, 84, 86. chain, 10, 13, 15, 16. chair, 198-201. chalk, french, 197. chamfer, 82, 115, 161, 184. chatter, 71, 92. cheek of joint, 160. cheese-cloth, 221. chest, 193, 195. chest-hinge, 131. chisel, 52-59, 136, 137, 139, 140, 183. see also chiseling end-wood, paring, sidewise chiseling. chisel, cape, 141. carving, 54. cold, 141. corner, 55. firmer, 54, 136, 139. framing, 55. mortise, 54, 55, 161. paring, 54. round-nosed 55, 141. skew, 55. turning, 54. chisel-gage, 69. chiseling, end-wood, 56, 57, 183. sidewise, 56. perpendicular, 56. choking of plane, 76. chopping tools, 87, 88. clamp, 101, 138, 141, 169. carriage-makers, 102, 138, 141. column, 169. plane, 70, 77. clapboards, 201. claw hammer, 96. cleaning tools, 121. cleats, 186, 188. comb-grain, 41, 42. compass, 113, 114, 137, 139. blackboard, 117, 141. compass-saw, 66, 139. consumer, 33, 41. copal, 218. coping-saw, 139. copper, soldering, 141. corner-blocks, 155, no. 12, 177, 199. corner-board, 201. cornering tool, 83. corner-iron, 127, 128. corner locking, 164. corrugated fasteners, 125, 170. cost of equipment, 136-142. countersink, 84, 87, 126, 138, 140, 141. cricket, 186. crosscut-saw, 10, 64-66, 137, 139. cross-grained wood, planing, 75. crowbar, 10. crown of plane-cutter, 71. cruising, 8. cup, 138, 141, 221. curling-iron, 70. cutter, plane, 70, 76, 77, 138. cutting-gage, 116, 140. cutting tools, 51-83. dado, 56, 80. see also joint, dado. dado-plane, 80. dam, splash, 20, 21. decay, 32, 45. decking logs, 13. demonstration seats, 143. derrick, locomotive boom, 25. destructive lumbering, causes of, 7. die, 141. die-holder, 141. dividers, 113, 114, 137, 140. dogs, log, 34. donkey engine, 24. door, 192, 193. dovetail-saw, 66, 137, 139. doweling, 127, 130, 152, 154, 175. dowel-plate, 139, 140. dowel-pointer, 83, 139, 175. dowel-rods, 127, 175. draw-bolt, 154. draw-knife, 61, 139. drawer, 166, 190-192. guide, 196. rail, 196. runner, 196. drawing-board, 186, 188, 205. dray-road, 9, 13. drier, 222. drill. see hand drill. twist, 84, 85, 138, 141. drive, the log, 16-18. duplicate parts, 155, 204. duster, bench, 121, 137, 139. dynamite, 21. edge action, 52. edged tools, 51 ff. edger, 35, 36, 37. eight-square scale, 108. egg-shell finish, 94, 216. equipment, chap. vi, 136-150. escutcheon of lock, 133. expansive-bit, 84, 87, 137, 140. falling beds, 24. fastenings, chap. v, 123-135. felling trees, 10, 11, 23. ferrule, 54. file, 90, 91, 137, 140, 142, 147. file-card, 91, 137, 140. filing a saw, 67. filletster, 80, 137, 139. filler, 213, 221. finishing, wood, chap. x, 209-223. firmer-chisel, see under chisel. firmer-gouge, see under gouge. fish glue, 129. fitter, 9. flooring, 30, 42, 174, 201, 206. flume, 21, 22. foerstner auger-bit, 84, 87. foot-stool, 186. fore-edge, 196. fore-plane, see under plane. framed structures, 195-201. framing-chisel, see under chisel. frog, plane, 70, 75. fuming with ammonia, 212, 214. furring, 201. gages, 114-116. chisel, 69. cutting, 116, 140. marking, 114-116, 136, 139, 203. mortise, 116, 140, 161. pencil, 115. screw, 116, 117, 126. slitting, 116. twist-drill, 117. wire, 116, 117. gelatin, 128. gimlet-bit, 84, 85, 137, 140. glass-cutter, 138, 141. glaziers points, 125. glue, 128-131. fish, 129. liquid, 129. preparation of, 129. tests of, 129. glue-pot, 129, 138, 141, 148. gluing, directions for, 130, 153, 167-170, 173, 189, 190. golden oak, 211. gouge, 59, 60, 137, 140, 183. grading of lumber, 36. grain of wood, 60, 75, 172, 185, 186, 192, 205, 209, 210. green, 209. grinder or hog, 41. grinder, empire tool, 61, 120, 121, 137, 140. grinding of tools. see sharpening. grindstone, 117-120, 137, 140. groove for drawer, 191. groove for panel, 164. groove, triangular, 66, 156, 158, 159, 161. hack-saw, 137, 141. hammer, 58, 94, 95, 96, 136, 139. ball-peen, 142. bell-faced, 95. riveting, 141. hand-drill, 104, 106, 138, 141. handscrew, 101, 102, 138, 141, 170, 173. handscrew, iron, 102. see also clamp, carriage-makers. hatchet, 88. hauling logs, 13, 15, 22, 23. hinges, 131-133. hinges, sizes of, 131. hinging, directions for, 132. hog, 41. holding tools, 97-105. honeycombing, 46. horse, 64, 65, 100. horsehair, 200. house construction, 200, 201. ice-road, 13, 14. impregnation of timber, 47. iron acetate, 211, 212. iron, soldering. see copper. jack-ladder, 32. jack-plane. see plane. jam, log, 18, 19, 21. japan, 209, 222. japanese, 69, 97, 189. joinery, 151. joint, beaded, 175, no. 73, 182. bevel-shoulder, 172, no. 67, 182. bird's mouth, 172, no. 69, 182. boat-builders, 152, no. 7, 177. brace, 171, no. 65, 182. brace, housed, 172, no. 66, 182, 207. bridle, 172, no. 68, 182. butt, 155, no. 11, 177, 187, 206. butt, doweled, 152, no. 8, 153, 177, 194. caulked, 157, no. 22, 178. checked, 157, no. 21, 178. cogged, 157, no. 22, 178. corked, 157, no. 22, 178. column, 169, no. 52, 181. cross-lap, 155, no. 14, 177. dado, 157, no. 25, 179, 191. dado and rabbet, 158, no. 26, 179, 187. dado, dovetail, 158, no. 28, 179, 191, 206. dado, housed, 157, no. 25, 179, 187, 207. dado, tongue, and rabbet, 158, no. 27, 179, 191. dovetail, blind miter, 167, no. 51, 180, 187. half-blind, 166, no. 49, 180. lap, 166, no. 49, 180. secret, 167, no. 51, 180, 187. stopped lap, 166, no. 50, 180. thru multiple, 165, no. 48, 180, 187, 206. thru single, 165, no. 47, 180, 194. doweled, 175, no. 75, 182. draw-bolt, 154, no. 10, 177. edge-to-edge, 172-174. end-lap, 156, no. 16, 178, 194, 206. fillistered, 174, no. 71, 182. fished, 151, no. 2, 177, 207. forked tenon, 157, no. 23, 178. gain, 159, no. 29, 179, 205. dovetail, 158, no. 28, 179. glue, 172, no. 70, 182. glued-and-blocked, 155, no. 12, 177. grooved, 157, no. 25, 179. halved tee, 156, no. 15, 178. halving, dovetail, 157, no. 18, 178. halving, beveled, 157, no. 19, 178. halving, 155-157. see also joint, cross-lap, end-lap, middle lap. haunching, table, 164, no. 43, 180. taper, 164, no. 43, 180. hopper, 155, no. 13, 177. lap-dovetail, 157, no. 18, 178. lapped and strapped, 151, no. 1, 177. ledge, 157, no. 24, 179, 187. ledge and miter, 171, no. 58, 181, 187, 206. matched, 174, no. 72, 182. middle-lap, 156, no. 15, 178. miter, 167, no. 52, 181, 187, 194, 206. double dovetail keyed, 171, no. 57, 181. double tongue, 171, no. 60, 181. doweled, 170, no. 53, 181. lipped, 171, no. 58, 181. slip dovetail, 171, no. 56, 181. slip-feather, 170, no. 55, 181. slip-key, 170, no. 55, 181. spline, 170, no. 54, 181, 187. stopped, 171, no. 59, 181. tongue, 170, no. 54, 181. mortise-and-tenon, 58, 127, 160-164, 172, 194. bare-faced, 164, no. 44, 180, 185. blind, 160, no. 32, 179, 193. double, 163, no. 41, 180. dovetail, 162, no. 37, 179. end, 164, no. 46, 180. foxtail, 162, no. 36, 179. haunched, 163, no. 42, 180, 193, 196, 207. housed, 164, no. 45, 180. keyed, 163, no. 39, 180, 185. oblique, 172, no. 67, 182. open, 164, no. 46, 180. pinned, 162, no. 38, 180, 194, 207. shoulder, 163, no. 40, 180. stub, 160, no. 30, 179. thru, 160, no. 31, 179. tusk, 163, no. 40, 180, 207. wedged, 128, 162, nos. 34 and 35, 179. notched, 157, no. 20, 178. notch, double, 157, no. 21, 178. rabbet, 157, no. 24, 179, 174; no. 71, 182, 187. rebated, see joint, rabbet. rubbed, 172, no. 70, 173, 182, 205. scarf, 151, nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7, 177, 204, 207. slip, 164, no. 46, 180, 194. spliced, 151, nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 177, 204, 206, 207. spline, 175, no. 74, 182. squeezed, 172, no. 70, 174, 182. stretcher, 171, no. 61, 181. strut, 171, no. 62, 181, 207. thrust, 171, nos. 63 and 64, 181, 207. tie, 171, nos. 63 and 64, 181. toe, 171, nos. 63 and 64, 181. toe-nailed, 154, no. 9, 177. tongue-and-groove, 174, no. 72, 182. jointer-plane, 72. jointing a saw, 68. joints, chap. vii, 151-182. beveled, 167-172. butt, 152-155. dovetail, 164-167, 204. halving, 155-160, 203, 204. heading, 151-152. mortise-and-tenon, 58, 127, 160-164, 172. joists, 201. kerf, 10, 30, 62, 65. key-pin of lock, 133. kiln, lumber, 44, 46. knife, 61, 136, 139. knife, sloyd, 61. knob, plane, 70. knock-down furniture, 163. knuckle of hinge, 131. lac, insect, 215. seed, 216. shell, 216. stick, 216. lacquer, 218. ladle, 141. landlooking, 7. lath-machines, 39, 41. laths, 39, 49, 201. lay-out, 152, 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 160, 163, 165, 183, 191, 195, 203, 204. leather, 59, 200. leaves of hinge, 132. level, spirit, 116. lever-cap, 70, 77. lid of box, 188. lighting of shop, 142. live rollers, 35. loading logs, 15. lock, mortise, 134. rim, 133, 134. lockers, 138, 142, 146, 147. locks, 133, 134. locomotive, geared, 26. snow, 28. boom-derrick, 25. log-boom, 20, 21. log-carriage, 34, 35, 36. log-flipper, 34. logging, chap. i, 7-29. log-kicker, 34. log-slip, 34. log-stop, 34. logwood, 211, 212. loss of tools, 144-146. lumber, 48. lumber yard, 36, 38. lumberman's board rule, 111. lumber mill, 32, 33. m (1000 feet), 48, 49. machine-screws, 127. mahogany, 211. mallet, 58, 96, 139. marking-gage, 114-116, 136, 139, 203. marking tools, 113-117. matching-plane, 80, 139. maul, 10. measurements, 203. measuring-tools, 105-117. measuring wood, 13, 48, 49, 105-116. mill-pond, 21, 32. miter-box, 102, 137, 139, 194. miter-clamp, 138, 141. miter-square, 113, 137, 140. molding-plane, 80. monkey-wrench, 103, 138, 141. mortise, 58, 160. mortise-and-tenon. see joint, mortise-and-tenon. mortise-chisel, 54, 55, 161. mortise-gage, 116, 140, 161. multiple parts, 204. muntin, 192, 193. muslin, 200, 221. nails, 123, 124. flat-head, 124. size of, 124. wire, 123. wrought, 123. nailset, 97, 138, 141. nigger, steam, 34, 35. nippers, 103, 105, 138, 141. octagonal scale, 108. oil, 65, 130, 221. banana, 213, 216. boiled, 209, 210, 222. oiler, 137, 140. oilstone, 58, 121, 137, 140. ordering of lumber, 49. paint, 220-221. panel construction, 164, 192-195, 205. panel-iron, 127, 128. paper, building, 201. paring, 55, 57. paring-chisel, 54. peavey, 18. peen of hammer, 95. picture-frame, 167-169, 194, 205. clamp, 167, 168. vise, 100, 101, 167, 194. pigments, 209. pillow, 77. pincers, 103, 105. pinch-dog, 102, 103, 141, 170. pintle of hinge, 131. plane, parts of, 70. bed rock, 71, 75, 137, 139. block, 77, 137, 139. circular, 80. fore, 72, 137, 139. jack, 71, 136, 138. jointer, 72. matching, 80, 139. molding, 80. oriental, 69. rabbet, 79, 137, 139, 194. router, 83, 139, 160. scraper, 79, 139. scratch, 79, 130. scrub, 78. smooth, 72, 75, 137, 139. tongue-and-groove, 80. universal, 81, 82. plane-iron, 70, 77. planes, 69-82. planing, directions for, 74-76, 78. order of, 72. plate-rack, 185. plates, metal, 127. plate, wall, 201. pliers, 103, 105, 138, 141. plow, snow, 13. plug-cutter, 84, 86, 126, 140. points in saw-teeth, 63. polish, french, 217-218. oil, 214. varnish, 220. wax, 214. polishes, 214-220. position of benches, 142. posts, corner, 201. potash, 150. potassium bichromate, 130, 211, 212. pounding tools, 94-97. preservation of lumber, 47. see also seasoning. principles of joinery, chap. ix, 203-208. pumice stone, 217. quarter-sawing, 42, 43. rabbet-plane, 79, 137, 139, 194. raft, giant, 27, 29. rafter-table, 110. rafters, 201. rail, 186, 193. rail, drawer, 196. railways, logging, 22, 26. rasp, 91. ratchet-brace, 103, 105, 137. reamer, 84, 87. rebate. see rabbet. red, venetian, 210. ribbon, wall, 201. ridge-pole, 201. rift-sawing, 41. rip-saw, 63, 137, 139. rivet-set, 141. road, ice, 13, 14. logging, 9, 13, 14. monkeys, 13, 15. tote, 8. rollers, dead, 36. rollers, live, 35. roll-ways, 16. rossing of bark, 24. router-plane, 83, 139, 160. rule, 105, 106, 137, 139, 203. running foot, 49. rust, 125. on tools, 147. sacking the rear, 16. saddle seat, 60, 199. sandpaper, 93, 221. saw, 62-68. selvage of lock, 133. saw, back, 65, 136, 138. band, 30, 31, 32. butting, 36. circular, 30. compass, 66, 139. compression, 62. coping, 139. crosscut, 10, 64, 137, 139. cut-off, 36, 39. dovetail, 66, 137, 139. gang, 30. hack, 137, 141. logging, 10, 23. pulling, 10, 62, 67. pushing, 62. rip, 63, 137, 139. tension, 62, 67. turning, 67, 137, 139. saw-carriage, 34, 35, 36. sawdust, 39. saw-filing and setting, 67. saw-horse, 64, 65, 100. sawing, directions for, 64, 65. saw-jointer, 68. sawmill, 32, 33. sawmilling, chap. ii, 30-44. saw-set, 68. saw-vise, 67, 68. sawing into lengths, 11, 12, 24. scaling logs, 13. scrap-box, 187. scraper, 76, 91, 137, 139. scraper, veneer, 91, 92, 137, 139. scraper-plane, 79, 139. scraper steel, 92, 137, 139. scraping tools, 90-94. scrap pile, 41, 42. scratch-awl, 116, 140. scratch-plane, 79, 130. screen-hinge, 131. screw-box, 139. screwdriver, 104, 106, 138, 140. bit, 105, 106, 138, 140. screw-gage, 116, 117, 126. screws, 125-127. rule for using, 126. sizes of, 126. scribing, 112. scrub-plane, 78. seasoning, chap. iii, 45-48. air, 45. hot-air, 46. kiln, 46. oil, 47. water, 47. set of saw, 63, 67. shank, 54. sharpening of tools, the, 54, 58, 59, 60, 67, 76, 85, 86, 92-93, 117-121. sharpening-tools, 117-121. sheathing, 201. shellac, 149, 215-218. orange, 216. white, 216. shelves, 185, 205. shingles, 49, 201, 205. shingle-machine, 39, 41. shoe-pegs, 128. shoulder of joint, 160. shrinkage, 186, 188, 189, 191, 192, 194, 205. siding, 201. sienna, 209. sighting, 71, 75. silex, 214. sill, 201. sizing, 130. skidder, steam, 25. skidway, 9, 13, 24. slab, 34, 35, 39. slab-slasher, 39, 40. slash-grain, 41, 42. slash-sawing, 41. sleigh haul, 13, 15. sliding cut, 53, 56, 75, 78. sliding t bevel, 113. slipstone, 60, 121, 137, 140. slip-tongue carts, 22. smooth-plane, 72, 137, 139. snips, 141. snow-locomotive, 28. soap, as a lubricant, 126. to prevent gluing, 130. sole of plane, 70. sorting-jack, 21. sorting-shed, 38. spiriting off, 217. splash-dam, 20, 21. splitting tools, 51. spokeshave, 82, 137, 139, 183. stains, 209-213. chemical, 211-213. oil, 150, 209, 210. spirit, 211. water, 210, 211. steel square, 107-111, 137, 140. steel wool, 94, 211, 217, 221. sticking, 45, 48. stile, 193. storing of lumber, 48. stove, gas, 138, 141, 148. stove-bolts, 127. straight cut, 53. strength of joints, 206. strike of lock, 133. stringer, 196. stropping, 59. studding, 201. superposition, method of, 156, 158, 159, 163, 166, 204. survey of forest land, 7. swamper, 12. sweep of brace, 103. table-hinge, 131. table construction, 130, 164, 195. see also table top. table top, 172, 175, 197. taboret, 169, 170, 186. tacks, 124. tacks, double-pointed, 102, 124. tang, 54. tank, 14. taper of cutting tools, 52. tee-hinge, 131. teeth of saw, 63. tenon, 160, 206. see also mortise and tenon. joint, mortise and tenon. tenon-saw, 65. toe of plane, 70, 71. throat of plane, 70. tie-beams, 201. timber, 48. tonguing-and-grooving-plane, 80. tool-grinder, 61, 120, 121, 137, 140. tool-holder for grinding, 118-120. tool-rack, 143, 144. tools, chap. iv, pp. 51-122. tools, logging, 10. traction engine, 28. tools, loss of, 144-146. tractor, 28. trammel-points, 114, 140. transfer, lumber, 36, 37. transportation of logs, 13, 15, 16 ff, 23. travoy, 9. tray, 60, 183. triangle, blackboard, 141. trimmer, 36, 38. trimming logs, 12. tripoli, 121, 147. trolley for logs, 25. try-square, 112, 136, 139, 140, 203. tumbler of lock, 133. turning-saw, 67, 137, 139, 183. turpentine, 209, 210, 214, 222. tusk. see joint, mortise-and-tenon, tusk. twist-bit, 84, 85. twist-drill, 84, 85, 138. twist-drill-gage, 117. umber, 209. undercut, 206. universal plane, 81. unjoined pieces, 183, 184. upholstering, 199-201. valuation survey, 7. van, logging camp, 9. varnish, 149, 215-220. copal, 218-220. cremona, 218. spirit, 215-218. varnishing, process of, 219. vaseline, 147. veining tools, 140. veneer-scraper, 91, 92, 137, 139. vermilion, 210. vise, 99, 138. iron, 138, 141. walnut, 210. waney boards, 36. warping, 48. washer-cutter, 87, 140. waste, cotton, 209, 221. waste, sawmill, 39. waterproof glue, 130. water-stains, 210. water-table, 201. wax, 214. webbing, 200. wedge, plane, 69, 70. wedge, 10, 51, 52, 128, 162. action 51, 52. whetting tools, 58. wind in board, 74. winding sticks, 74, 113. window-sash, 194. wire edge, 59. wire-gage, 116, 117. wooden structures, types of, chap. viii, 183-202. working edge, 72, 115. working face, 72, 115. wrench, 103. see also monkey-wrench. yarding logs, 24, 26, 27. yard-stick, 138, 141. yellow, chrome, 209. * * * * * transcriber's note: there is no fig. 19; and fig. 47 has no caption. some of the illustrations were on numbered pages which contained no text. illustrations have been moved to more relevant places, and extraneous page numbers removed. (sundry commas added to bibliograpy, as needed for consistency.) errata, and [sic] page 13: 'thoroly' [sic] period spelling for 'thououghly'. page 16: 'if a horse fall ...' [sic] 'if a horse (should) fall ...' page 47: 'eargerly' corrected to 'eagerly'. (they are eagerly sought after...). page 47: 'chlorid' corrected to 'chloride'. (zinc chloride). page 58: 'splinttering' corrected to 'splintering'. page 63: 'especally' corrected to 'especially'. page 90: 'varities' corrected to 'varieties'. page 160: 'shouders' corrected to 'shoulders'. (locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders...). page 162: replaced two gaps in text with 'wedges' and 'no. 34'. (_no. 35. a wedged_ ... by driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of along its sides as in no. 34.) page 189: 'fig. 285, e' corrected to 'fig. 285, c' (the cover may have cleats on its underside, fig. 285, c, which fit just inside the box and keep the top in place.) page 219: 'funiture' corrected to 'furniture'. (...some are for floors, some for furniture,...) transcriber's notes: italic text is marked _thus_; bold text is shown =thus=. apparent typographical errors have been corrected and hyphenation standardised. unusual punctuation and original spelling have been retained. fig. numbers do not follow in strict numerical order. [illustration: front cover.] the boy craftsman handicraft books by a. neely hall _8vo. cloth. illustrated with hundreds of photographs and working drawings by the author and norman p. hall_ the boy craftsman handicraft for handy boys (_revised edition_) the handy boy (_revised edition_) home-made toys for girls and boys handicraft for handy girls carpentry and mechanics for boys home-made games and game equipment (_revised edition_) outdoor boy craftsmen big book of boys' hobbies lothrop, lee & shepard company boston new york [illustration: a boy's workshop.] the boy craftsman practical and profitable ideas for a boy's leisure hours by a. neely hall with more than four hundred illustrations by the author and norman p. hall [illustration: page decoration.] boston lothrop, lee & shepard co. copyright, 1905, by lothrop, lee & shepard company. published, august, 1905. _all rights reserved._ the boy craftsman. norwood press j. s. cushing & co.--berwick & smith co. norwood, mass., u.s.a. work hard--play hard. --theodore roosevelt. note to the reader the boy of to-day is ever on the lookout for new ideas which can be adopted for his work and recreation, schemes which are practical and which are thoroughly up-to-date. they must be helpful in suggesting ways of earning money, as well as entertaining, for what boy of the present day does not feel the need of such suggestions to aid him in raising the funds necessary to carry on his work? in none of the books published on boy's handicraft has the question entered into consideration as to how he is to obtain the means with which to buy such materials and apparatus as the work requires. a boy should not expect to draw upon his father's purse for everything his fancy desires. it is important that he learn to earn his spending money, for in doing so he becomes independent and more careful as to how he invests it. having had the experience of working, the average boy learns to so appreciate the value of hard-earned money that it is pretty certain he will spend it only for something with which he can earn more or which will prove useful to him in his work and play. "the boy craftsman" has been undertaken with a view of helping boys with their problems of earning money, as well as furnishing recreative and entertaining work, and to this end the first portion has been devoted to suggestions for the carrying on of a number of small business enterprises, and the second and third parts to outdoor and indoor pastimes for all seasons of the year. in "profitable pastimes" a boy will find work that will make easy the matter of earning money with which to buy such materials as he needs to carry out the suggestions offered in the book, while the practical knowledge acquired and the handiness developed in pursuing the several lines of work is certain to be helpful to him in later years. the tools and apparatus used are such as a boy of average ability can procure with a little hustling, and can be purchased singly, or two or three at a time, as his money permits. the materials at hand can be used in thousands of different ways, and in preparing the chapters this has been taken into consideration, these odds and ends being utilized whenever it has been possible to do so. carpenter work is something with which every boy must familiarize himself to a certain extent in order to do anything in the line of construction, so the fitting up of a workshop and the proper handling of tools have been described in the first two chapters, in view of making it a simple matter to perform the work embodied in the rest of the book. technical terms and phrases have been eliminated from the text as far as possible, and where it has been deemed necessary to include them, to describe certain operations for which a boy should know the proper terms or expressions, they have generally been explained in the first chapter in which they occur. to simplify the matter of referring to the definitions of these, they have been arranged alphabetically in chapter xxix. some of the material contained in this book was originally written by the author in the form of magazine articles for _the american boy_ and _the boys' world_, and thanks are due the publishers, the sprague publishing company and the david c. cook publishing company, for permission to reprint it. this material has been revised and enlarged upon, and is presented with new and additional illustrations. the author is always glad to hear from his young readers, and to be of assistance to them in answering any questions they wish to ask regarding their work. a. n. h. chicago, illinois, may 31, 1905. contents [illustration: boy 'fixing' clock with a hammer.] part i _profitable pastimes_ chapter i page a boy's workshop 3 value of a knowledge of carpenter work--location of shop--a solid work-bench--the vise--bench-stops--carpenter's horses--a bench-hook--a mitre-box--a sand-paper block--a strop--a plumb- purchasing tools--tool-cabinets--racks for tools--a carpenter's carrying-box--a nail-box--receptacles for supplies--workshop clothes--care of oily rags and waste. chapter ii the proper handling of tools 20 care of tools--the cross-cut saw and rip-saw--sawing--the back-saw, compass-saw, and gig-saw--kerfs--the jack-plane, fore-plane, and smoothing-plane--planing--testing work--the firmer-chisel--paring--the framing-chisel-chamfering and bevelling --the gouge--the draw-knife--boring--an automatic-drill- hatchet and hammer--driving nails--withdrawing nails--toe-nailing --blind-nailing--clinching--the nail-set--nails--screw-driver for bit-stock--screws--the countersink. sharpening tools 37 grinding chisels, gouges, draw-knives, knives and hatchets--the washita oil-stone--whetting--stropping--sharpening saws. laying out work 42 use of the try-square--gauging with rule and pencil--a marking-gauge --a mitred try-square--the bevel--to divide a board. chapter iii the boy about the house 47 opportunities for work--outfit for jobbing--the hinge-lock- clothes-line reel--a broom and dust-pan rack--the fly-killer--an ash-sifter--a bread-board--a plate-rack chapter iv suggestions for a boy's room 57 simple and inexpensive furnishings--what the room should contain--a cosey-corner--pennants--small posters--picture-frames--a writing-desk--another style of desk--an ink-stand and pen-tray--a couch--a window-seat--a curio-cabinet--book-shelves--a blacking-case--a towel-rack. chapter v how to make a doll-house 71 store doll-houses--profit from making doll-houses--the materials required--the base--the floors--partitions and walls--stairways --balustrades--front and rear steps--the gambrel roof--the gable-ends--the doors and windows--outside trimmings--casters- the chimneys--a mantel and fire-place--andirons--the interior woodwork--painting the house. chapter vi another doll-house and a stable 91 packing-cases and other material--the floor plans--the partitions and walls--the elevator-shaft--the windows--the roof--the chimney--an elevator--the gable-ends--the stairway--a balustrade --other details. how to make the stable 100 dimensions of stable--the first story--the roof--the gable-ends- the stall partitions and feed-troughs--windows--ladder to hay-loft --feed-hoist--the drop-front--a stable door--painting. chapter vii furnishing the doll-house 105 the walls and ceiling--hardwood floors--carpets and rugs- window-shades and curtains--portieres--pictures--a cosey-corner- buying furnishings. chapter viii doll-furniture 109 metal furniture--miniature mission furniture--material--drawing the patterns--the chairs--the settee--tables--a side-board--a mirror--the grandfather's clock--kitchen furniture--the beds- the dresser--a wash-stand--finishing. other cigar-box furniture 122 a folding-bed--the dresser--a wardrobe. chapter ix a boy's printing-shop 126 location of printing-shop--equipment--selection of type- type-cases--a rack for type-cases--a composing-stick--a composing-rule--justifying--a home-made galley--"pieing"--proofs --the imposing-stone--the chase--furniture--locking-up a form- distribution--the tympan--overlaying--underlaying--gauge-pins- inking the press--care of rollers--neatness--receptacles for materials--care of waste paper and oily rags. chapter x amateur journalism 142 a collection of amateur papers--amateur press associations--some methods of printing papers--examples of amateur papers--the character of a paper--naming--the frequency of publication--the size of page--a stereotyped heading--the choice of type--a cover --binding--advertisements--the advertisers' dummy--second-class matter. chapter xi a boy's dark-room 153 profit in photography--the necessary equipment--the bedroom as a dark-room--the bath-room as a dark-room--another scheme for a dark-room--a work-table--running water--a water-tank--a sink- a washing-box--a drying-rack--another scheme for a drying-rack--a cabinet--a ruby-light--a home-made lantern--a plate-lifter- classifying and preserving negatives--manila envelopes--a negative-case. chapter xii a winter enterprise 169 an opportunity for making money--a snow plough--a scraper--a snow shovel. part ii _outdoor pastimes_ chapter xiii a back-yard club-house 175 how some boys built a club-house--a mysterious letter--drawing the plan of a club-house--the material--fishing studs--staking out the building--the studs--boarding up the sides--the roof--the floor --a window-sash--a batten door--wooden latch--calking up cracks. chapter xiv how to build a log-cabin 186 the pioneer cabin--the cabin of to-day--selection of a site- design and size--the material--staking out the cabin--the lock-joint--the sills--construction of roof--ridge boards--a log chimney and fire-place--calking--a mud floor--the windows--the cabin door--wooden hinges--wooden latch--the latch-string--a mantel-shelf--provision cupboard--rustic seats--bunks--a camp-table--a few pointers about camping--utensils--other necessities--provisions. chapter xv how to build a canvas canoe 201 canoeing as a sport--popularity of canvas canoes--materials--the bow and stern pieces--the keelson--the mould--putting the framework together--the gunwales--the ribbands--the deck beams- the ridge pieces--the deck braces--the cockpit--the canvas covering--the deck--painting--the cockpit coaming--the keel- the bilge-keels--outside gunwales--a seat--how to mend punctures --a single paddle. chapter xvi home-made traps 218 trapping as a pastime--the city boy and his country cousin--the figure-four trap--a box trap--the dead fall--the sieve trap--the coop trap--a rabbit snare--a twitch-up--the professional trapper --wolves and coyotes--story of a trapped indian. chapter xvii toy guns, targets, and bows and arrows 229 ancient war engines--new idea for a cross-bow--shingle arrows--a toy pistol--cardboard bullets--a shot-gun--an elastic sling--a boy's barrel-hoop target--a simpler target--how points are scored- the bow and arrow--length of bow--the bow-string--the arrow-shafts --preparing arrow-heads--feathering--a quiver--proper position for shooting with bow--the indian's bow--how his arrows were made and feathered--the preparation of his arrow-heads. chapter xviii an outdoor gymnasium 243 location for gymnasium--a horizontal bar--tumbling mat--parallel bars--the punching-bag platform--a pair of jump standards--a vaulting pole--a spring-board--hurdles--a running track--method of starting for short sprints--mark for broad jumping--an athletic club--athletic meets. chapter xix a back-yard circus 255 the ancient roman circus--the circus of to-day--how several boys gave a circus--preparing the yard for a circus--making the ring- good circus seats--a tent--decorating the tent--a ticket office- a turnstile--the side show--cages for side show--animated animals --the elephant--the giraffe--the two-legged wild horse--the wild man of borneo--a monkey's make-up--the ring master--the clown's suit--the attendants--ideas for a performance--a slapper- looping the hoop on a giraffe--a chariot--parades--the advertising signs. chapter xx suggestions for fourth of july 272 the first fourth of july celebration--pyrotechnics costly and dangerous to make--the making of harmless and inexpensive fireworks--a fire-cracker cannon--to fire the cannon--a fire-cracker mortar--mimic battles with paper soldiers--another toy cannon--to fire the cannon--firing fireworks from kites--firing a pack of fire-crackers from a kite--shooting nigger-chasers--japanese lanterns hung from kite-strings--a shooting-torch--a final set-piece. chapter xxi halloween 281 ancient superstitions and origin of halloween--a magazine bean-blower--a new style of tick-tack--a clockwork tick-tack- the goblin-man--the disappearing rope. chapter xxii a back-yard toboggan-slide 291 one advantage of a small slide--location--length--the platform- framework--railing around platform--a ladder--making a swift slide--a home-made sled--the runners--reënforcing the runners. part iii _indoor pastimes_ chapter xxiii a miniature theatre 303 an interesting entertainment--a picture-frame proscenium--the stage framework--the gridiron--the stage floor--the drop-curtain- lighting the theatre--the footlights--floodlights--colored lights --spotlights--admission tickets and programmes. chapter xxiv scenery, properties, and mechanical effects 311 materials for scenery--an ocean scene--additional waves--frames for drops--a mid-ocean scene--a seashore scene--a field scene- the trees--a blockhouse scene--pine boughs for trees and shrubbery --moss for mounds and hills--rustic bridges--a pond or lake--a street scene--an interior--a war drama--paper soldiers--scheme for marching soldiers--separate standards--a jointed figure--stage properties--tents--an indian teepee--battleships--trains and wagons--mechanical effects--thunder--rain--wind--lightning- the roar of cannon. chapter xxv making a toy railway 331 the trolley-line--supports for trolley-line--power for operating railway--tracks--the cars--a gondola car--a street car--other cars--operation of railway--a station. chapter xxvi clockwork automobiles 343 procuring a set of clockworks--an automobile touring-car--the frame--preparation of clockworks--the belt--testing the machine- the cardboard sides--wheels--mud-guards--lamps--the steering-wheel --a horn--the brake--the chauffeur--painting the machine--an automobile delivery wagon--the cardboard sides--the wheels--other portions--painting the wagon--a clockwork railway. chapter xxvii work to do with a knife 356 how boots were marked in a penitentiary--a home-made fountain pen- the magic pin-wheel--to operate the pin-wheel--a wooden chain and rattle--the chain--the rattle--finishing the chain and rattle. chapter xxviii cork toys 363 materials required--cork animals--a pig--a horse--the elephant --the giraffe--a porcupine--other animals--the korka-bird--a duck--canoes--small sail-boats--cork furniture--a chair--the sofa--a small tabouret--a toy log-cabin. chapter xxix definitions of terms and phrases 371 index 385 list of half-tone illustrations (in addition to more than four hundred text illustrations.) part i a boy's workshop _frontispiece_ opposite page treatment of a boy's room 58 fig. 64.--a colonial doll-house 78 fig. 96.--another style of doll-house} 90 fig. 97.--interior view of doll-house} an amateur's outfit 128 a group of amateur papers 142 fig. 168.--a handy dark-room} 154 fig. 172.--a washing-box and drying-rack} part ii in camp for the summer 175 a boys' log-cabin 188 two simple cabins 198 caught at last 226 the back-yard circus 268 part iii a miniature theatre 303 fig. 330.--a field scene } 316 fig. 338.--a blockhouse scene} fig. 339.--a street scene 320 fig. 375.--the car completed} 344 fig. 376.--the framework } [illustration: boys at the bank.] [illustration: page decoration.] part i profitable pastimes chapter i a boy's workshop [illustration: boy with box-kite and boy at work-bench.] carpenter work should be encouraged in a boy from the time he first becomes interested in it, for besides being something with which to keep him busy, the experience gained by its practice will be useful to him all his life, no matter what branch of industry he may follow later on. when a boy has learned the proper care and use of tools, and is able to turn out neatly executed work, he will find the occupation a profitable one, there being an unlimited number of things he can make in his shop. doll-houses for girl relatives, toys for brothers and cousins, and articles for the household, such as are described in following chapters, are a few of the many things he can construct. many of these are salable articles, besides being suitable for birthday and christmas gifts, and should bring a neat sum of money to the young carpenter. a knowledge of carpenter work also develops in a boy a handiness for devising and putting together articles and apparatus for his own use. a boy should really have a shop where he can keep his tools and unfinished work with no danger of them being disturbed, and where he need not be afraid of littering the floor with shavings or of making too much noise. =the workshop= may be fitted up by the boy himself, and a suitable place can probably be found in the basement, barn, or woodshed. here a corner large enough to contain a work-bench, carpenter's horses, and tool-cabinets, besides plenty of room to work in, should be partitioned off, and a window that will admit a good supply of light made in one side of the room, if one has not already been provided. [illustration: fig. 1.--end view of work-bench.] =a solid work-bench=, six feet long, thirty inches wide, and thirty-two inches high, should be constructed beneath the window. it is a good idea to build this on to the wall if possible, as it is easier to make a solid bench by doing so, and the firmer it is, the better. first cut a two-by-four four feet long, and spike it to the wall below the window, twenty-eight inches above the floor. then saw two pieces of two-by-four, twenty-eight inches long, for the legs, and two pieces, thirty inches long, for crosspieces. spike the crosspieces on to the legs and on to the piece nailed to the wall, as shown in fig. 1. cut three ten-inch planks, six feet long, and spike them to the crosspieces so that they project twelve inches over the ends, but are flush with the framework in front. then cut a ten-inch board, six feet long, for an apron, and, after cutting the ends as shown in fig. 4, nail it across the front of the bench. [illustration: fig. 2.--iron bench-screw.] [illustration: fig. 3.--wooden bench-screw.] for fifty cents a fifteen-inch iron or wooden bench-screw, similar to those in figs. 2 and 3, can be purchased at a hardware store, and the rest of =the vise= is simple to make. figures 1, 4, and 5 show the details for this. take a board thirty inches long by six inches wide for the jaw, and bore a hole a little larger than the screw, six inches from one end. bore another hole the same size through the apron and table-leg, six inches below the bench-top (see _a_ in figs. 4 and 5). the portion of the iron screw marked _b_ in fig. 2 should be set into the hole bored in the bench-leg and screwed at _e_ (fig. 1), while the portion _d_ is to be screwed to the jaw. if a wooden screw is used, the portion _c_ in the drawing (fig. 3) is nailed to the inside of the bench-leg. [illustration: fig. 4. fig. 5. details of bench-vise.] in order to guide the bottom of the jaw, an arrangement similar to _f_ in fig. 5 should be made. make a mortise two inches long by one inch wide near the bottom of the bench-leg and cut a strip of wood fifteen inches long to fit loosely in it. then shut the vise and mark upon the inside of the jaw the place where the mortise comes in the leg. nail one end of the fifteen-inch strip to the jaw at this point, being careful to get it in such a position that the other end will slide into the mortise. bore several holes in the strip and cut a peg to fit in them. the jaw can now be kept parallel with the side of the bench by adjusting the peg, which is very necessary in order to have the vise grip a piece of work squarely. when you have a long board to work upon, it cannot be held steady by the vise alone. one end should be placed in the vise and the other rested upon a peg stuck in a hole bored in the side of the bench. for boards of different lengths, several holes should be bored, as shown in the illustration of the finished bench (see frontispiece), and a movable peg cut to fit in them. =a bench-stop= of some sort fastened to the top of the bench will be found useful to push work against while planing it, when it is not convenient to use the vise. figures 6, 7, and 8 show the forms of stops most commonly used by carpenters. of these the metal stop shown in fig. 6 is the most satisfactory, as it can be adjusted to different heights. it costs but little and is easily put in place. a mortise is made in the top of the bench to receive the lower portion of the stop, and the plate _a_ is set flush with the bench-top and held in place with screws driven into the holes in the corners. the centre of this plate (_b_) is detached from the rest and mounted upon a small post, which can be adjusted to the desired height by giving the screw at _c_ a few turns with the screw-driver. the teeth in the edge of _b_ help to hold the work in position. [illustration: fig. 6. fig. 7. fig. 8. some forms of bench-stops.] one of the simplest forms of stops is shown in fig. 7. it consists of two screws placed in the top of the bench, which can be raised or lowered with the screw-driver to the height you desire. the stop shown in fig. 8 is made out of a block of wood with a "bird's mouth" cut in one side. it should be nailed to one end of the bench in such a position that the end of the work can be placed in the "bird's mouth." while most of your work will be done on the bench, and a good portion of sawing done with the wood in the vise, large pieces, especially long boards, are generally sawn while placed across horses. =two carpenter's horses= will be required. a good scheme for these is shown in fig. 9. the top is made out of a piece of two-by-four with bevelled mortises cut in two sides of each end as in fig. 10. these mortises are made to receive the legs, and the angle of the bevel will of course determine the angle at which the legs will spread. cut the legs out of four-inch boards, and bevel the lower ends to make them set solidly upon the floor. nail the legs firmly in place and brace them with two boards cut and fitted in place, as in the illustration. when the pieces have been nailed together, plane off the tops of the legs to make them flush with the top of the horse, and trim the lower ends if they require it until the horse is solid. [illustration: fig. 9.] [illustration: fig. 10.] boring, paring, and nailing on the bench will soon make the surface uneven, unless something is placed beneath the work during such operations. you should therefore make and use =a bench-hook=, such as shown in fig. 11. a good size is ten by twelve inches, but it may be made larger or smaller if desired. nail a strip along one edge of the under face and another strip along the opposite edge of the upper face. the latter strip should have three kerfs cut in it as shown in the drawing, one at right angles and the other two at forty-five degrees. these may be laid off with a try-square, as shown in figs. 38 and 39 (chapter ii), or with the bevel, as shown in fig. 42. be careful to keep the saw on the line and in a perfectly perpendicular position in making these kerfs. the upper strip on the bench-hook serves the purpose of a stop, and the kerfs make it possible to use the bench-hook for mitring with the back-saw. further description of the uses of this handy article will be found in the following chapter. [illustration: fig. 11.--a bench-hook.] [illustration: fig. 12.--a mitre-box.] you will need =a mitre-box= for cutting mitres in large work, and this may be made as shown in fig. 12. cut two pieces of seven-eighths inch maple, or other hard wood, twenty inches long by six inches wide, and one piece twenty inches long by four inches wide. nail the six-inch pieces to the edges of the four-inch piece as shown in the drawing, after which you are ready to cut the mitres. these should be laid out similar to those on the bench-hook, by means of the mitred try-square or the bevel. with the blade of the try-square or bevel extending across the top edges of the side-pieces, mark off forty-five degree lines at _a_ and _b_, and a ninety degree line at _c_, after which square the lines down both inner and outer face of the side-pieces. when the lines have been accurately drawn, it is a simple matter to make the kerfs, if you have had any practice in sawing and can keep to a line. no matter how skilful a carpenter is with his tools, he generally depends upon his mitre-box in making mitres, for not only accuracy is obtained by its use, but time is also saved. in using one be careful not to let the saw cut into the sides of the kerfs, or the box will soon be rendered useless for making accurate mitres. [illustration: fig. 13.--sand-paper block.] before putting the finish upon a piece of work, the wood should be thoroughly sand-papered. in many cases certain portions cannot be reached by the hand, and so =a sand-paper block= similar to fig. 13 should be made. cut a block of wood five inches long, two and one-half inches wide, and seven-eighths of an inch thick. then place it in the vise, and bevel one end and round the other as shown in the drawing. an inch and one-half from each end cut "rabbets" one inch wide across the block, and make two blocks to fit them. when this has been done, cut a strip of sand-paper two and one-half inches wide and stretch it around the block, holding it in place by driving the small blocks into the rabbets. you will find this sand-paper block very handy, as some portion of it can be got into almost every corner you will ever have occasion to sand-paper. the paper may be quickly replaced with a fresh piece when worn out. =a strop= for putting keen edges on tools may be made out of a block of wood, with a piece of shoe-leather, or section of an old razor-strop, glued to one side of it. =a plumb=, similar to fig. 14, is a handy article to have for outdoor work, such as erecting posts in perpendicular positions. you will have need of it in putting up such buildings as the back-yard club-house, the log-cabin, and the erection of apparatus for the outdoor gymnasium, the construction of which will be found in following chapters. it consists of a stick, the sides of which have been planed up true and parallel, with a notch in one end and a cord with a weight attached fastened to the other end. the notch should be cut in the exact centre of the end of the stick, and the nail placed in the other end directly in line with the centre of the notch. an iron nut, or some such weight, should be attached to the lower end of the cord. by placing this stick at the side of an object, you can determine whether or not it is plumb by the position of the string, which should hang in the centre of the notch when the object is plumb. the length of the stick may be made to suit the size of the work it is to be used upon. four or five feet is a good length for ordinary outside work. [illustration: fig. 14.] =in purchasing tools= for your workshop it is not advisable to buy them in chests, for they are almost always made of cheap material, and poor tools are of no use to the boy who intends to do good work. it is a much better plan to buy a few tools at a time, getting a good quality of steel, and to gradually increase your outfit as your money permits. then if you really want a chest you can make it yourself. a hatchet, hammer, saw, plane, chisel, jack-knife, bit and bit-stock, screw-driver, and square are the principal tools you will require, and need be all you have to start out with. others may be got as you have need of them, and may be selected from the following list, which includes probably all the tools a boy would ever have occasion to use. =list of tools from which to make your selections= 1 14-inch jack-plane. 1 18-inch fore-plane. 1 9-inch smoothing-plane. 1 22-inch rip-saw. 1 20-inch cross-cut saw. 1 12-inch back-saw. 1 12-inch compass-saw. 1 gig-or bracket-saw. 1 ratchet brace. 5 auger-bits, 1/4-inch, 3/8-inch, 1/2-inch, 3/4-inch, and 1-inch. 1 expansive-bit. several gimlet bits. 1 screw-driver bit. 1 countersink. 1 brad-awl. 2 hand gimlets. 1 automatic-drill. 4 chisels, 1/4-inch, 1/2-inch, 3/4-inch, and 1-inch. 2 gouges, 3/8-inch and 3/4-inch. 1 draw-knife. 1 jack-knife. 1 hatchet. 1 hammer. 1 tack hammer. 1 mallet. 2 nail-sets (large and small). 1 hand screw-driver. 1 wood rasp. 1 metal file. 1 pair cutting nippers. 1 pair pincers. 1 grind-stone. 1 oil-stone and oil-can. 1 strop. 1 2-foot folding rule. 1 large steel square. 1 7-inch try-square. 1 bevel. 1 marking-gauge. 1 compass. the proper care and handling of these tools is fully described and illustrated in the following chapter. these directions should be carefully read before you attempt to use the tools, especially the edge tools. =a cabinet= will be found much better for an outfit of tools than a tool-chest, as it can be more easily got at than a chest, where it is necessary to lift several trays before you can reach a tool which has been put in the bottom. [illustration: fig. 15.--tool-cabinet.] the cabinet shown in fig. 15 is made out of a box about three feet long, two feet wide, and nine inches deep. make a door from the box-cover, fastening the boards together by means of two battens placed at the top and bottom (see illustration). nail a cleat on each side of the cabinet six inches from the bottom, and make a shelf to fit upon them. =racks for bits and chisels= should be made similar to fig. 16, and fastened side by side to the inside of the cabinet. cut a strip of wood about the size of the battens, and make two slots in it, one for the end of the saw to fit in and the other for the blade of the try-square (see fig. 15). this strip is fastened to the cabinet door a few inches above the bottom batten. [illustration: fig. 16.--bit and chisel racks.] hang up the other tools on brass hooks. after completing the cabinet, paint it inside and out, and fasten either a hook or lock to the door. when this cabinet becomes too small for your increase in tools, you can keep those you use the most in it, and make =another cabinet= for the special and less used tools. either screw the cabinets to the wall or support them upon brackets. =racks= may be made for any tools you wish to hang on the wall. a piece of grooved siding nailed above the bench will do nicely for the large square. when you do outside work you will want something in which to carry such tools as will be required to complete the job. [illustration: fig. 17.--a carpenter's carrying-box.] =a carpenter's carrying-box= should be made. such a box is shown in fig. 17. the box should be about twenty-seven inches long to accommodate the saws, and it would be well to make the width eight inches and the height sixteen inches. first prepare the end-pieces, making them six by sixteen inches and rounding the tops with the compass-saw, as shown in the illustration. then cut a board twenty-five inches long by six inches wide for the bottom and nail the end-pieces to the ends of it. make the side-pieces twenty-seven by eight inches, and nail them to the end-pieces and to the edges of the bottom board. the handle consists of a broom-stick fitted into holes bored near the tops of the end-pieces. this box should be used for tools only, and not have nails, screws, and bolts mixed up with them, for these supplies should be kept in a special =nail-box=, with compartments for the different sizes of nails, screws, hooks, screw-eyes, hinges, etc. one of the best kinds of boxes for this purpose is a knife-box such as can be bought for ten or fifteen cents. this is divided in two and has a handle attached (see fig. 18). the two compartments should be sub-divided into smaller boxes, either with pieces of cigar-boxes, or with pieces of tin bent at the ends and fastened to the sides of the box, as shown in the illustration. [illustration: fig. 18.--nail-box.] =supplies= of nails, brads, etc., should be kept in cans and cigar-boxes of different sizes, and it is a good idea to letter these receptacles that you may be able to put your hands upon what you want without having to hunt for it. =shelves= will be handy to keep paint-cans and these boxes on. =workshop clothes=.--old clothes should be worn in the shop, as carpenter work is rather hard upon them, especially the trousers. better than these is a pair of overalls and perhaps a jumper. they are easy to work in and wear better than anything else. =a few hooks= should be placed on the wall for hats and coats, and for your working clothes, if you change them in the shop before and after work. to prevent your tools from being carried off, and your work from being disturbed, it is advisable to have a lock upon the door and keep your shop locked up when you are away. to avoid danger of fire, keep combustible articles, such as oily waste and rags, in covered tin cans, and do not allow shavings and rubbish to accumulate. chapter ii the proper handling of tools [illustration: boy at grind-stone and boy with bit-stock.] before using a tool be sure you understand the proper handling of it, for there is probably nothing more easily injured than an edge tool in a sharpened condition. an inexperienced person is very apt to dull or nick a tool by striking its edge against nails or by using it for purposes other than what it was made for. for this reason a carpenter is very apt to refuse a boy, or any amateur for that matter, the use of his tools, and he is right in doing so. just imagine the amount of work it makes for him to put the tools in shape after they have been returned in all sorts of conditions. a little rubbing on the oil-stone, with an occasional grinding, is all his tools require when he is using them, but to remove nicks made by his young friends wastes too much of his valuable time. a good rule to observe, boys, is never to lend tools to any of your friends, for though they may be as careful in handling them as you are, the chances are they will not be. you had better be a little "grouchy" in this respect, than to have tools which are unfit to do good work with. the following directions, together with the illustrations, should make the handling of your tools perfectly clear, and you will find among these a number of hints as to the care of tools that should be carefully adhered to in order that you may keep them in good condition. =saws.=--a boy can get along with two saws, a cross-cut saw for general use and a compass-saw for finer work, such as circular sawing, and cutting thin wood where a large saw would be too coarse and apt to split the work. but you will often have need of a rip-saw, back-saw, and bracket-saw. they were therefore included in the list of tools on page 14, and you can add them to your outfit as your money permits. =the cross-cut saw= is, of course, intended for cutting across the grain, while the rip-saw is for cutting with the grain, or ripping. the former saw can be used for rip-sawing, but the operation is much slower, and when you have much of it to do, as in ripping a six-foot board, for instance, you will find the work tedious. =the rip-saw= is not fit for cross-cutting, as it leaves the cut fibres in a very rough condition. the difference in these two saws lies in the shape of their teeth. this can be seen by picking them up and examining their cutting edges. you will find the teeth are bent out of line, the first to the right side and the next to the left. this is known as the "set" of the teeth, and the quality of your work will depend largely upon the care with which the teeth have been sharpened and set. at first you may confuse these two saws, but if you will notice that the teeth of the cross-cut saw come to sharp points and are bevelled on the sides, while those of the rip-saw are not sharpened on the sides, and instead of being pointed on the ends are chisel-shaped (see figs. 19 and 20), you will have little trouble in distinguishing them. [illustration: fig. 19.--teeth of cross-cut saw.] [illustration: fig. 20.--teeth of rip saw.] [illustration: fig. 21.--position for sawing. fig. 22.] =sawing.=--small pieces may be sawn while held in the vise, but, as a rule, large work is placed across a couple of horses. it is generally the most convenient way. grasp the saw in the right hand, and take the position shown in fig. 21, with the left knee upon the work to hold it in place, and the left hand at the edge of the board. the thumb should be pressed against the saw-blade to guide it until the cut has been well started, as shown in fig. 22. without the aid of the thumb the saw is liable to slip off the mark and make an ugly cut in the wood. first use a few short strokes until the saw has started to cut. then use a long, steady stroke, putting all of the pressure upon the down stroke. be careful to keep the saw to the line and in a perpendicular position, so that the cut will be square on all sides. if it starts to run away from the line, a slight twist of the blade will return it. when a board has been sawn nearly in two, remove the weight of your knee from it, and hold the board with the left hand to prevent it from splitting off. [illustration: fig. 23.--position for using the back-saw.] fig. 23 shows the correct position for using =the back-saw=, which is intended for more delicate work than the larger saw, such as can be sawn on the bench-hook or in the mitre-box. it makes a finer cut, its teeth being smaller and more closely set. the blades of =the compass-and gig-saws= are small and narrow, the former being used for circular cutting, as the name would imply, while the latter is employed in cutting very thin wood and in making delicate curves. the blades of these saws, especially the latter, are easily broken, and must be handled with care. the teeth are arranged so as to cut with and against the grain. the slot made by removing the fibre of the wood in sawing is known as =a kerf=. the term is used a good deal in carpenter work, so it is well to know its meaning. the carpenter of to-day is generally supplied with all manner of planes,--rabbeting-planes, beading-planes, circular-planes, ploughs, etc.,--besides the more commonly used jack-plane, fore-plane, and smoothing-plane. each of these planes has a special form of work to do, but ordinarily a boy will have occasion to use but the last three named, and many get along with but a jack-and a smoothing-plane. =the jack-plane= is the plane you will first need to remove the rough surface of undressed lumber, and also to reduce quickly the thickness of wood. the cutting edge of the blade is ground so as to gouge the wood, removing thick shavings, but leaving ridges and hollows which must afterward be removed by a fore-plane or smoothing-plane. there is one trouble in using the smoothing-plane for this operation, however, and that lies in the danger of it following the hollows formed by the jack-plane, making a smooth but uneven surface. =the fore-plane=, on the other hand, has a long enough stock to prevent the blade from cutting the lower portions until the high portions have been removed. although a fore-plane can be used alone for smoothing large work, it is more convenient to finish up with =the smoothing-plane=. the stanley iron plane, shown in fig. 24, is a great improvement over the old-style wooden ones, and is the most popular plane used to-day. it is more easily handled, as its iron is quickly put in place and adjusted. the illustration gives the names of the various parts. the cap (_b_) is screwed to the plane-iron (_a_), and both are held in the stock (_f_) by means of the clamp on the end of the wedge (_c_). the thumb-screw (_d_) regulates the degrees of fineness of the plane-iron, while the lever (_e_), which moves from side to side, straightens the position of the iron. the base of the stock is known as the sole, or face. [illustration: fig. 24.--stanley iron plane. _a._ plane-iron. _b._ plane-iron cap. _c._ wedge or clamp. _d._ adjusting screw. _e._ adjusting lever. _f._ stock.] the bailey plane is somewhat similar to the stanley, the upper portion being of iron with screw adjustment, but the base being of wood. its cost is much less than that of the entire iron plane, and you will probably find it as satisfactory if you do not care to spend the additional amount for the stanley plane. =for planing=, take the position shown in fig. 25, with the left foot a little in advance of the right, the right hand grasping the handle of the plane and the left holding the knob on the fore part of the stock. use a long, steady sweep, and bear with equal pressure from the beginning of a stroke to the end, to avoid the hollows that are so easily made by taking shavings of different thicknesses. do not drag the plane-iron over the work in returning it for another stroke, as it will dull its edge. you will often come across wood with a crooked grain, which runs diagonally through the piece, terminating at the surface. there is a right way and a wrong way in planing this, just as there are two ways of stroking a cat's back, one smoothing the surface, while the other roughens it. when you find a piece of wood with this kind of uncertain grain, you will probably have to change the direction of your planing a number of times before finishing the surface, in order to plane with the grain. [illustration: fig. 25.--take this position for planing.] in planing end-wood, you will have trouble in preventing the corners of the piece from splitting off unless it is placed in the vise in front of another block of wood, the planing being done toward the block. or one corner may be chamfered with the chisel, as shown in fig. 29. =testing work.=--it is necessary to test work frequently while planing, in order to locate the high places and avoid taking off too much on the low places. this may be done by squinting one eye and holding the board on a level with the other eye, so that you can look down the length of it as in sighting a gun. the uneven places show up very plainly in this way. work is also tested by means of the try-square. place the handle of the square against the edge of the work with the blade of the square extending across the planed surface, and move it the length of the board. any irregularities in the surface will show themselves as the blade passes over them. in planing up a block of wood, plane up one side and, after proving it to be true, use it for the "tried edge," testing the other sides with the handle of the square pressed against its surface. there are a number of forms of =chisels=, but the only two classes you will probably ever be in need of are the firmer-and framing-chisels. the former are intended for hand use only, while the latter are used for heavier work, such as mortising, where it becomes necessary to use the mallet. =in using a firmer-chisel=, the work should be placed in the vise or be otherwise held in position, that both hands may be kept upon the tool, the right hand grasping the upper end of the handle and doing the pushing, while the left hand holds the lower part of the handle and acts as a guide in working it. =paring= with the chisel consists in trimming a piece of wood to a given line. it is an operation very often resorted to in finishing the end of a piece of work instead of planing, and in trimming up a curved edge such as is shown in fig. 26. here the line _ab_ represents the line of the finished end of a piece of work. the board is first placed in a vise and the wood removed to about one-quarter inch of _ab_ with a compass-saw, following the curve of the line as nearly as possible. then lay the piece upon the bench-hook (fig. 11, chap. i), and pare to the line with the chisel, as shown in fig. 26. [illustration: figs. 26 and 27.--paring.] the chisel is often used to pare down the surface of a piece of work to a given line, as shown in fig. 27. =the framing-chisel= should be held in the left hand, and the blows dealt upon the handle with the mallet in the right hand. in handling the framing-chisel the bevel of the blade should be toward the work, which is just the opposite from that shown in figs. 26 and 27. unless this is done the chisel will not cut down squarely but will cut in under, as it cannot be guided as easily as the firmer-chisel can, with both hands to hold it. =chamfering and bevelling= are somewhat similar operations. they consist in cutting the edges of a piece of wood, as shown in figs. 28 and 29. [illustration: fig. 28.--bevel.] [illustration: fig. 29.--chamfering.] the corner of a block of wood is very often chamfered, when planing end-wood, to prevent the wood from splintering. it can only be done, of course, before the adjoining side has been planed up, that a square corner can be obtained again when the work is finished. =the gouge= is a chisel with a curved section, its use being for cutting grooves and curvatures in a piece of work where the chisel cannot be employed. =a draw-knife= is very handy for quickly reducing the size of material and in rounding sticks. the blade is drawn toward you instead of being pushed as in the case of a plane or chisel. =boring.=--probably the only trouble you will have with the bit and bit-stock will be in holding the brace in a perfectly vertical position so as to bore a straight hole. the centre of the hole should first be located upon the work. then, after selecting the right size of bit and securing it in the clutches of the bit-stock, grasp the handle of the stock with the right hand and place the left hand on the top knob. set the point of the bit against the work and bore steadily until the point appears upon the opposite side. the bit should then be withdrawn and the rest of the hole bored from the other side. this prevents the fibre around the hole from splintering off, as it is likely to do when a hole is bored all the way through from one side. to bore a hole in a piece of work held in the vise, clamp a waste piece of wood in the vise with it, and bore straight through the work into the waste piece. when boring hard wood or using large bits increased pressure is necessary to operate the brace and at the same time steady the bit. this can be obtained by allowing the chest to bear upon the top knob. holes two inches or more in diameter do not require a bit that size, for smaller holes can be bored and these trimmed to the required opening with a chisel or with the keyhole-saw. whatever style of bit-stock you buy, get one with a fair length of arm, as a good leverage cannot be obtained with a short one. =an automatic-drill= is a handy tool to have in the shop, although not a necessity. you have probably seen carpenters use it in drilling holes in hard wood, before driving in finishing nails or screws. it beats the awl and gimlet for speed, and is a tool which can be used in places where neither of these could be operated. the handle of the tool contains a number of sizes of drills. this tool must be used with care, as the drills snap off very easily when the tool is handled roughly or twisted from side to side while boring a hole. =the hatchet= is an indispensable tool, for it can be used for a good deal of your rough work, such as splitting and paring. it requires practice to handle one successfully, however. a misplaced blow will sometimes ruin your work, either by cutting into it or striking grain which runs off into the portion to be finished. with straight grained wood it is not so difficult to pare to a line with the hatchet. the wood should be removed to within less than an eighth of an inch of the line, as the work must be dressed up afterward with the plane. it is well to have =a hammer= with a fairly heavy head for large work, and a lighter one with which to drive small nails. =driving nails.=--the nail should first be held in position with the thumb and first two fingers, and given a few light raps with the hammer to start it. then remove the fingers, and drive the nail home with steady blows, being careful to hit the head squarely so it will not bend. although a bent nail can be driven home with the proper stroke, it is generally easier and quicker to withdraw it and either hammer it out straight or use another. a pair of pincers are handy for =withdrawing nails=, especially nails whose heads are too small to be gripped with a claw hammer; but for removing large nails a stronger leverage is necessary. this can be obtained as shown in fig. 30. the head of the nail is gripped in the claw of the hammer and a block of wood placed beneath the head. the handle of the hammer is then pulled toward you, as shown in the illustration. the block, besides increasing the leverage, prevents the hammer-head from injuring the surface of your work, and makes it possible to withdraw the nail in a fairly straight condition. [illustration: fig. 30.--withdrawing nails.] [illustration: fig. 31.--toe-nailing.] =toe-nailing= consists in driving nails diagonally into a piece of wood. it is used in fastening the ends of uprights, as shown in fig. 31, where the nails cannot be driven in any other way, and also where there is danger of a board springing. you will often find it convenient to use this form of nailing when the nails are too long to be driven straight into the work. =blind-nailing= is a form of toe-nailing used on tongue and grooved boards in which the heads of the nails are concealed below the surface, as shown in fig. 32. [illustration: fig. 32.--blind-nailing.] =clinching.=--when nails come through a piece of wood their ends should be clinched. this is done by having some one hold a hard surface, such as the head or blade of a hatchet, against the under side of the work, or by laying the hatchet down and resting the work upon it, while you drive the nail. the point of the nail will bend over when it strikes the hard surface and sink into the wood. this is the best method to use in fastening boards together with battens, in rough work, as the clinched nails act as rivets, preventing any possibility of the boards pulling apart. do not drive the head of a nail into a finished surface with the hammer, as you are likely to mar the wood in doing so. leave this--the "setting" of the nails--until the piece of work has been put together. then go over it and drive the heads below the surface with =the nail-set=, holding the tool as shown in fig. 33. the holes made by the heads should be filled up with putty before the finish is put upon the wood. before driving nails into hard wood, holes should be made with the brad-awl or drill, to prevent them from splitting the wood, and to make it easier to drive them in without bending. the holes should be a trifle smaller than the nails. always drill a hole before driving a nail into thin wood or near the edge of a piece. a nail can be driven more easily if its point is rubbed over a piece of soap. this is something you should remember to do when nailing hard wood. =nails.=--iron, galvanized-iron, wire, and copper nails are manufactured, but of these the wire nail is the most commonly used for all kinds of work, it being more easily handled, not so liable to snap off, and there being less danger of splitting your work with it than with the iron nails. [illustration: fig. 33.--setting nails.] you will notice the iron nails have two smooth sides and two rough ones. in using these it is necessary to drive them with the smooth sides parallel with the grain, otherwise they are sure to split the work. nails are classified according to their shape and gauge. the only kinds you will probably ever have occasion to use are the common, or nail for all ordinary work; the finishing-nail, with the small head used on finish work; and the brad, or small-sized finishing-nail. you can buy these by calling for the length you require, but it is more businesslike to use the standard terms by which all carpenters know them. the following table gives these terms, together with the length in inches:- 2-penny nails (1 inch long). 3 " " (1-1/4 inches long). 4 " " (1-1/2 " " ). 5 " " (1-3/4 " " ). 6 " " (2 " " ). 7 " " (2-1/4 " " ). 8 " " (2-1/2 " " ). 9 " " (2-3/4 " " ). 10 " " (3 " " ). 12 " " (3-1/4 " " ). 16 " " (3-1/2 " " ). 20 " " (4 " " ). 30 " " (4-1/2 " " ). 40 " " (5 " " ). 50 " " (5-1/2 " " ). 60 " " (6 " " ). all nails longer than three and a half inches (20d to 60d inclusive) are known as spikes. it is desirable to have =a screw-driver= which will set in the clutches of your bit-stock, besides the ordinary kind, for it is more quickly operated, and screws can be driven in hard wood easier on account of the greater amount of leverage you get with it. holes should be drilled in hard wood before driving screws into it. =screws= are made with round and flat heads. the round-headed screw is a finishing screw, and its head is left exposed on the surface of the wood; but the flat-headed screw should be countersunk, that is, sunk below the surface. to do this you must drill a hole before driving in the screw with =the countersink=, which is a drill made to fit in the bit-stock, and bores a hole the shape and depth of the screw-head. sharpening tools be sure you understand the process of sharpening tools before you undertake to use the oil-and grind-stones. all tools are not sharpened alike, and you will need to know the different ways in order to get their cutting edges the right shape to serve their different purposes. =grinding= is the most difficult part of the work, and most boys have trouble with it. one fault lies in using the grind-stone too frequently, grinding the edge of a tool when it requires only a little rubbing upon the oil-stone to put it in shape, and thus wearing down the tool unnecessarily. again, by not keeping the stone sufficiently wet, the heat produced by the friction takes the temper out of the steel, making it soft and useless until retempered. if you have a stone with a crank arrangement, it will be necessary to have some one turn it while you control the tool. the stone should be turned toward the grinder and the tools held upward so the stone grinds against the edge instead of from it. move the tools sideways across the stone so as to wear it down evenly and help prevent the formation of ridges in the stone, which are very easily produced. [illustration: fig. 34.--grinding the chisel.] figure 34 shows the position to take in grinding =chisels=. hold the handle of the tool in the right hand and rest the palm of the left hand upon its blade. then lower the edge upon the stone until the bevel strikes it flatly, and bear down upon the blade with your left hand. continue the grinding until the bright line of the dull edge has disappeared and an invisible edge has been obtained. stop when this point is reached or the edge will become feathery and break off, necessitating regrinding. grind upon the bevelled edge only, and hold the tool in the same relative position, to prevent the bevel from becoming rounded. the angle of the bevel should be about twenty-five degrees. to keep this angle the same, it is desirable to have a rest, consisting of a board nailed to the frame of the stone, upon which to support the handle of the chisel. =gouges and draw-knives= are ground similarly, the former being rocked from side to side, in order to grind the curved bevel uniformly. =plane-irons= are held with both hands, as shown in fig. 35, and ground the same, except that the corners of the smoothing-and fore-plane irons are slightly rounded, while the edge of the jack-plane iron is a little higher at the corners than in the centre, to give it the qualities for removing thick shavings. it is more difficult to keep the line between the bevel and upper part of the iron straight than in grinding chisels, on account of the wider blade. [illustration: fig. 35.--grinding the plane-iron.] =knives and hatchets= are ground upon both sides of the blade. of course, the edge of a tool is left in a very rough condition by the grind-stone, and must be rubbed up on an oil-stone before it is fit to cut with. there are many makes of whetstones, many good ones and many worthless ones. above all things, don't buy a cheap one, for it will be impossible to obtain keen edges upon it. one of the best stones upon the market is =the washita oil-stone=, a kansas stone of medium hardness, free from grit and lumps, and of good quality through and through. [illustration: fig. 36.--whetting a plane-iron. fig. 37.] in rubbing up a plane-iron, grasp the end between the thumb and fingers of the right hand and place the palm of the left hand across the iron to bring the necessary pressure upon it (see fig. 36). instead of holding the blade on the stone at the angle of the bevel, tip it to an angle of about thirty-five degrees, or ten degrees more than that of the bevel. with it held in this position, rub it back and forth upon the stone with a rotary motion, making a second narrow bevel along the edge of the tool (see fig. 37). be careful to keep the blade in the same position, to prevent the bevels from becoming rounded. by exerting a steady upward pressure against the end of the tool with the right hand, and an equal downward pressure in the centre of the blade with the left hand, this is easily accomplished. the rough edge which appears on the back of the blade is removed by rubbing the flat side of the iron over the stone a few times. care must be taken to keep the iron perfectly flat or a bevel will be formed. =a strop=, consisting of a piece of leather fastened to a block of wood as described in the foregoing chapter, should be used after the oil-stone, to put a fine edge upon the tool. the tool is stropped in the same way as a razor is done. =saws= require sharpening but once in a great while if proper care is taken of them. when they do become dull, or need to be set, it is advisable for you to pay an experienced person to do the work rather than attempt it yourself. laying out work a two-foot carpenter's folding rule should generally be used in laying off measurements and a sharp-pointed pencil or brad-awl to locate the points. to connect the points it is necessary to have a straight-edge--a steel framing-square (fig. 42) for large boards and a small try-square (fig. 38) for smaller pieces--and a pencil or knife. [illustration: figs. 38-39.] a pencil may be used in connecting points upon rough work, but for greater accuracy a knife should be used, as it makes a thinner and cleaner-cut line. in making knife lines, the square must be held very firmly, to prevent it from slipping and allowing the knife to run out of its course. to draw lines across a board at right angles to one edge (which should be the straight or "tried edge" of the board) with the steel-square, place one arm of the square parallel with the tried edge and mark along the other arm. to perform the same operation with the try-square, place the handle against the tried edge, as shown in fig. 38. oftentimes it becomes necessary to draw a line parallel to the tried edge. this may be done roughly with the rule and pencil, as shown in fig. 40. grasp the rule in the left hand, with the first finger touching the tried edge of the board, and hold the pencil point against the end of the rule with the right hand. keeping this position, with a steady hold on the rule and pencil, move your hands along the board. the result will be a line parallel to the tried edge. [illustration: fig. 40.--gauging with rule and pencil.] at first you may have trouble in making a straight line, but with practice you will be able to hold the rule and pencil steadily. for particular work, where it is necessary to get a perfectly straight and parallel line, =a marking-gauge= should be used. this is nothing more than the above principles combined in a tool. it consists of a graduated shaft, or rule, with a small needle or spur in one end, which slides through a mortise made in a block of wood known as the head. [illustration: fig. 41.--using the marking-gauge.] to operate the gauge, set the adjustable head at the required division on the shaft, and then grasp the head and shaft with the fingers of the right hand, as shown in fig. 41. place the outer face of the head against the tried edge of your work, and then, pressing the spur into the wood, move the gauge along the board, at the same time keeping the face of the head firmly against the edge of the board. the gauge is much more convenient than the other method of drawing parallel lines, for you can repeat the measurement as often as you wish, having once adjusted the head, without having to lay it off again. =a try-square= with a mitred handle costs but little more than the ordinary make, and is much handier, inasmuch as it can be employed in making mitres, by placing the bevelled end against the side of the work instead of the straight side (see figs. 38 and 39). [illustration: fig. 42.] =the bevel= is in reality a try-square which can be adjusted to any desired angle. to set it at an angle of forty-five degrees, place it on the steel-square, as shown in fig. 42, with the handle against the inner edge of one arm of the square and the blade resting on both arms. move the blade until it strikes equal distances on the arms (this is shown at four inches in the drawing) and tighten the screw while it is in this position. other angles may be drawn out upon a piece of wood and the bevel adjusted to them so these angles can be laid off upon other pieces. you will find the bevel handy for reproducing angles. however, if you are supplied with a mitred try-square you can easily dispense with it for ordinary work. there will be times when you wish =to divide a board= into a number of equal parts, which may be found to be fractions of an inch that cannot be easily laid off with the rule in the ordinary way. it can be accomplished with a pair of compasses, but until you become practised in their use, it will take some little time in setting them, dividing, resetting, and redividing, until the exact divisor is obtained. a much quicker method is that performed with the rule, as shown in fig. 43. suppose you wish to divide a board four and three-quarters inches long into five equal parts. place your rule across the board, as shown in the illustration, one end at one edge and the "five-inch" division at the opposite edge. mark off the five divisions and then square the lines across the board at these points with the try-square. this will give you the required five equal parts. [illustration: fig. 43.--dividing a board equally.] in the same way longer boards may be divided up by using two-and three-inch divisions on the rule instead of one-inch, and smaller pieces by using half-and quarter-inch divisions. chapter iii the boy about the house [illustration: boy with carrying-box, mother in kitchen.] there are generally repairs of some kind to be made about the house--such as mending screens, renewing window-ropes, repairing wooden walks, patching fences, etc.--which a boy can do, besides many ingenious articles for the house which he can make in his workshop. ideas for labor-saving devices which cannot be bought upon the market present themselves now and then, and if there is a boy in the neighborhood to carry them out, the housekeeper will be only too glad to pay him for doing the work. for general jobbing you will require a carpenter's carrying-box (fig. 17, chap. i) in which to carry your tools, and a nail-box (fig. 18) for nails, screws, hinges, and such hardware as you will need upon the job. with these you will have a complete outfit. a few suggestions as to what you can do and what you can make are described and illustrated in this chapter, and should give you plenty of material to work upon when you open up your carpenter-shop. besides these ideas, you will find most of the articles in the following chapter suitable for the house and pieces of furniture for which it will be easy to secure orders. =the hinge-lock=, in fig. 44, is one of the most serviceable window-locks that can be had, for it can be so placed as to allow the window to be opened a few inches for ventilation, and at the same time prevent further opening. the hinge is screwed to the upper sash-frame several inches above the centre sash-bar, according to the distance the window is to be opened (see illustration). it will be seen that when the hinge is opened, as in the drawing, neither sash can be opened past the hinge; but when the hinge is folded flat it will not interfere with the opening of either sash. [illustration: fig. 44.--the hinge window lock.] this lock would probably be more extensively used if people knew how simple and satisfactory it is. as the hinges cost but a few cents a pair, and are put on very quickly, a boy should realize a fair sum of money in a short time supplying these locks. =a clothes-line reel=, such as shown in fig. 45, is an article no housekeeper should be without. its use does away with twisted, tangled, and knotted clothes-lines. as they require but little material, and the cost of that amounts to almost nothing, the manufacture of these time-saving devices, for the neighbors, should prove profitable. [illustration: fig. 45.--a clothes-line reel.] the reel consists of two strips of wood sixteen inches long by three inches wide for the sides, and two pieces of broom-handles sixteen inches long for the horizontal rods (see fig. 45). five inches from each end of the side-pieces, bore a hole the size of the broom-handle. with the pieces thus prepared it is a simple matter to fit them together, as in the illustration, placing the broom-handles in the holes bored for them, and fastening them so the side-pieces are nine inches apart and a handle five inches long projects on either side. it is probably needless to say that the ends of the broom-sticks are held in the hands when operating the reel. [illustration: fig. 46.--broom and dust-pan rack.] =a broom and dust-pan rack= is a handy article for the kitchen or broom-closet, and can be made as shown in fig. 46. a rack to hold a large and small broom, dust-pan, and brush, should measure three feet long, three inches wide, and be made out of a seven-eighths-inch board. bevel the edges and place four brass hooks in the front, as shown in the drawing, from which to hang the broom, dust-pan, etc. brooms should always be dampened and put away, handle down, according to the advice of an old broom-maker, who claims that by so doing the straws are kept from becoming brittle and the broom lasts much longer. the brooms should therefore have screw-eyes placed in the handle, just above the tin binding, to hang upon the hooks, as shown in the illustration. the rack should be screwed to the wall. [illustration: fig. 47.--a fly-killer.] fly-papers and poisons are deadly enemies to the house-fly, but none are as effectual or as quick acting as =the fly-killer=, shown in fig. 47. this simple device consists of a piece of screen-wire, about four by five inches, stuck into a slot made in the end of a stick, and fastened in place with tacks driven through the end of the handle and clinched upon the under side. if possible, cut the wire with a selvage along the front edge, and trim the roughness from the other edges to prevent scratching. the fly-killer is hung up by a screw-eye placed in the end of the handle. [illustration: fig. 48.--an ash-sifter.] with the fly-killer a person can strike at a fly with almost a certainty of killing it. as the screen-wire is not easily seen by the fly, and the mesh allows the air to pass through, there is nothing to alarm him. these little things are quickly made, and when you show your customer how effective they are, you will find no trouble in disposing of them. =an ash-sifter= that is dust-proof and very satisfactory is shown in fig. 48. it is made out of a packing-case about three feet long, eighteen inches wide, and twenty-four inches deep. set the box upon two-by-four stilts in the shed or yard (braced as shown in the illustration), in such a position that the bottom of the box will be on a level with the top of the alley ash-box. then cut an opening through the shed wall and end of the box, as shown at _ab_, for the removal of ashes. two strips are nailed to the sides of the box (seven inches below the top) for tracks for the sifter to run upon, and below this, at _c_, a board slide is placed to dump the ashes, which shake through the sifter, out of the opening in the end of the box into the ash-box. nail one half of the cover to the top of the box and hinge the other half to it. [illustration: fig. 49.--the sifter.] make the sifter eighteen inches square by six inches deep, using six-inch boards for the frame and one-third or one-half inch wire-mesh for the bottom (see fig. 49) fasten four trunk-casters, such as are shown in fig. 50, to the bottom of the frame, and fit a broom-stick in one side for a handle. a slot must be cut in the end of the box for the handle to fit in. [illustration: fig. 50. trunk-caster.] =a bread-board= may be made out of a seven-eighths inch maple board about ten by eighteen inches, with the surface planed perfectly smooth and the edges bevelled or rounded. a hole should be bored near one edge, so it may be hung up in the pantry. the dining-room is not complete without =a plate-rack= for the display of pretty pieces of china. figures 51 and 52 show the details for the construction of a rack of three shelves, and in size three feet long and two feet ten inches high. although the design is very simple in outline, it is such as will make a pleasing piece of furniture when neatly carried out. [illustration: fig. 51.--a plate-rack.] prepare the two side-pieces the shape and size shown in fig. 52, and cut the shelves two feet ten inches long by the widths given in the drawing (fig. 52). one groove should be made in shelf _a_ and two in shelves _b_ and _c_, for the edges of plates to stand in. these grooves are cut with a chisel, and should be made v-shaped as shown. narrow strips of wood may be nailed along the shelves as substitutes for the grooves if you wish, but the work required to plane up the strips will amount to about as much, and they do not present as neat an appearance. [illustration: fig. 52.] having cut out the shelves and side-pieces, you are ready to put the rack together. for this purpose you should use finishing-nails so their heads will not make very large holes in the surface of the wood. fasten the bottom shelf (_c_) between the side-pieces seven inches above the bottom, the middle shelf (_b_) ten inches above that, and the top shelf (_a_) nine inches above the middle shelf. the inner edges of the shelves should be fastened flush with the edges of the sides. in the bottom shelf place a row of brass hooks for cups to hang upon. it is necessary to fasten three strips two inches wide between the sides in the back of the rack (as shown in the drawing) for the tops of the plates to rest against. two holes should be bored in the top strip, by which to hang the rack on nails or hooks fastened in the wall. after completing the carpenter-work, finish the rack with a stain which will harmonize with the color scheme of the room in which it is to hang. chapter iv suggestions for a boy's room [illustration: boy reading, boy writing.] it is far better for a boy to spend his evenings in the house than out upon the street. he need not be without his friends there, for if he has an attractive room, with books to read, games to play, and puzzles to solve, the boys of the neighborhood will soon find it out and be only too glad to have a chance to visit him, knowing they will be sure of finding plenty of things to interest them. the simpler the furnishings of a boy's room are the better. plain and substantial furniture which will stand perhaps a little rougher usage than that in other rooms of the house, and handy places for storing away his traps, are what are needed. the room should be his den where he can keep what he pleases, and arrange the fittings to suit his individual tastes. shelves for his books and magazines, a cabinet for various collections, boxes for miscellaneous articles, and a desk at which he can study and keep his accounts, are a few of the things the room should contain. these pieces can easily be constructed in the workshop, by following the directions given in this chapter. on the opposite page is shown a scheme for a boy's room suggestive of his sports, games, and handicraft, and while everything is simple and inexpensive in the furnishings, it makes a room that will strike the fancy of the average boy. nothing appears more attractive than =a cosey-corner=, such as shown in the illustration, and it is a simple matter to fit one up. a home-made couch, box, or seat of some sort should be constructed to set in the corner, a shelf fastened to one wall a foot or more above it, and several shelves hung on the adjoining wall, as shown in the drawing. purchase several yards of a dark shade of green denim, and enclose the corner with three strips (see illustration). the upper strip is stretched across the corner at the ceiling, and the other two attached to its ends and allowed to hang to the floor. it is a good idea to make also a dado of the same material within the corner from the baseboard to the under side of the shelves. =pennants= representative of the various colleges can be made out of cheese-cloth, and a string of these hung across the corner at the ceiling will produce a pretty effect. the walls of the room may be brightened with =small posters=, which it is an easy matter to obtain nowadays, and small pictures mounted upon colored mats and fastened behind glass by means of passe-partout paper are always attractive. [illustration: treatment of a boy's room.] =picture-frames= can be made out of narrow moulding, the corners of which have been mitred in the mitre-box to make them join neatly. a frame which has proven satisfactory for small posters and pictures not requiring glass is one made out of common laths. the ends of the laths are not mitred as is usually the case in making frames, but are fastened together with what is known as a "butt-joint"; that is, the ends of each piece are set against the ends of the adjoining pieces. the simplest way of fastening them together is by means of small strips of wood nailed across the corners on the back of the frame. although this frame might be expected to have a clumsy appearance, it has not, and when thoroughly sand-papered and finished with a dull green stain is very pretty. [illustration: fig. 53.--a writing-desk.] =the writing-desk= shown in fig. 53 is constructed out of a box, and makes a pretty piece of furniture when completed. procure a box as free from defects as possible, and with fairly wide boards, so there will be but few cracks. the cover should be in not more than two pieces, as it forms the drop-front of the desk, and it would be difficult to fasten more together. the boards must be fastened with "dowels" and cleats on the edges, as shown in fig. 54, as cleats upon the inside of the drop would be in the way. [illustration: fig. 54.] dowelling consists in boring holes along the edge of each board and fitting pegs in them. of course the holes must be bored in exactly the same relative positions in each piece so that the end and sides of the boards will be flush with each other when the pegs have been put in place. to get the holes correctly bored, place the boards together in the vise with two edges flush and uppermost, and square lines six inches apart across the edges, after which locate the centres of the holes on these lines. be careful to bore the holes straight, and make them a little longer than the pegs. cut the pegs out of hard wood and make them large enough to fit tightly in the holes. the pegs as well as the two edges of the boards should be smeared with glue before being put together. then, after driving in the dowels, clamp the pieces together and lay them aside until the glue has thoroughly dried. in order to make a neat joint between the two boards, it is very necessary to have the two edges planed perfectly true and square. while the boards of the drop-front are drying, you can prepare the inside of the box. a boy's desk should be supplied with plenty of pigeon-holes and drawers. they are as necessary as pockets are in his clothes. split-up cigar-boxes may be used for these divisions, and, by making the upper ones of the right size, cigar-boxes may be fitted in them for drawers. the paper should be removed from the boxes as described in chapter viii. fasten small silk-spools to the front of the drawers for knobs. when the dowelled pieces have dried, nail a small moulding around the two end edges and one side edge, mitring the ends so as to fit together as shown at _a_ (fig. 54). the drop-front should be hinged to the box with two hinges placed on the inside, as shown in fig. 53, and brass chains attached to screw-eyes screwed into it and the inside of the box. for the top of the box, purchase a moulding a little larger than that used around the edges of the drop-front and mitre it at the corners, as shown in the illustration. before putting any finish upon the desk, sand-paper the wood, set the nails with a nail-set, and fill all holes and cracks with putty. a couple of coats of white enamel applied to the outside will produce a very pretty effect, and the inside may be finished with linseed oil, which makes a beautiful finish for the cigar-boxes. the desk should be supported on two iron brackets (enamelled to match the desk), screwed to the wall and under side of the desk. in fig. 55 will be found =another style of desk=, which, though not as simple to make, may be preferred to the first design. [illustration: fig. 55.--another style of desk.] cut two boards fifteen inches long by twelve inches wide for the sides, and taper each from twelve inches at one end to eight inches at the other end. cut a board twelve by thirty inches for the bottom and another eight by thirty for the top, and nail them to the end pieces, after which saw the boards for the back and drop-front. dowel and glue the drop-front boards together, nail a moulding around three edges, and hinge the piece to the desk, as in the case of the other design. partition off the inside of the desk as shown in the illustration, and nail a moulding around the top. finish the wood in the manner described for the other desk. =an ink-stand and pen-tray=, suitable for your desk, can be made out of a cigar-box, as shown in fig. 56. slope the edges with your jack-knife and cut several notches in them for pens and pencils to fit in. the wood should then be sand-papered and oiled. [illustration: fig. 56.--ink-stand and pen-tray.] =a couch= for the cosey-corner of your room can be made out of two boxes about three feet long, two feet wide, and eighteen inches deep. [illustration: fig. 57.--a couch.] remove one side of each box and nail the covers on, after which place the two boxes end to end and fasten them together with strips nailed across them at _a_, _b_, and _c_ (fig. 57). an incline about eighteen inches long should be fastened to one end, as shown in the drawing. the inside of the boxes may be partitioned off and used for storing away magazines and pamphlets. [illustration: fig. 58.--a window-seat.] for the covering of the couch procure several yards of cretonne, some cotton batting or an old quilt to pad the top, a box of upholstering-tacks, and several dozen brass-headed tacks. after spreading the padding over the couch, cut a piece of cretonne large enough to cover it and tack it to the edge of the boxes, using the upholstering-tacks for the purpose. make a valance of the same material, gathering the cretonne so as to form a heading at the top, and tack it around the box. then place the brass tacks along the top of the valance about two inches apart. if a couch is too large for your room you can make =a window-seat=, such as is shown in fig. 58. cut the arms the shape shown in the illustration and fasten them to the ends of the box. batten the boards forming the box-cover on the under side. then tack cretonne on to the cover, arms, and outside of the box, placing padding underneath the cretonne to make it soft, and line the inside of the box with some dainty colored goods. when this has been done, hinge the cover to the box with large fancy brass hinges. the appearance of the seat will be greatly improved by placing brass tacks along the edges of the arms and seat, about two inches apart. the inside of the box will make a handy receptacle for clothes and linen. [illustration: fig. 59.--a curio-cabinet.] for those interested in making collections of stamps, coins, stones, insects, etc., =a curio-cabinet=, similar to fig. 59, will make it possible to keep all specimens arranged in order, each set of curios occupying a shelf by itself. such a cabinet should be made of bass or whitewood, as these can generally be obtained in greater widths, are cheaper, and less defective than other material. if you make your cabinet five feet high, two feet wide (inside measurement), and twelve inches deep, purchase twelve-inch boards, as these make it possible to have the sides in one piece and the back in two, a great advantage, as there will then be but one crack, and that up through the centre of the back. after cutting the side-pieces the correct length, finish their edges as in the drawing. then cut nine boards two feet long for the shelves, which are to be placed six inches apart. commencing at the top of each side-piece, lay off the thickness of a shelf, which will be about seven-eighths of an inch, and square the lines across the boards; then lay off the next shelf six inches below, and so on down to the bottom. cut along these lines to a depth of three-eighths of an inch with a saw, and remove the wood between with a chisel. when all the grooves have been cut, slip the shelves into them one by one, and nail them to the side-pieces. after fastening the shelves, cut the two twelve-inch boards for the back and nail them in place. while it is customary to put sash-doors on cabinets, this will be too difficult a job for you to attempt. a very pretty and inexpensive door may be made as in the illustration. make a frame out of two-inch strips to fit the opening, and stretch some green denim over it, tacking it to the inside of the frame. the ends of the strips forming the frame should be mitred and either nailed together or fastened with dowels and glue, as described in the construction of the desk (see fig. 54). hinge the frame to the cabinet. to finish the cabinet, rub it down with sand-paper, set the nails with a nail-set, and putty up all holes, after which stain the wood green, a shade darker than the denim panel in the front. although the shelves may be simply stained, they will be much nicer for holding curios if covered with felt. it might be well to suggest that you number each curio, and make a catalogue of these, together with the names and any data you have concerning them. the catalogue may be hung on a hook upon the inside of the door, where it can always be found. a pretty set of =book-shelves= to hang upon the wall can be made with three boards twenty-four inches long by eight inches wide, four dozen spools all of the same size, and two pieces of rope about four feet long and small enough to fit in the holes of the spools. by saving the empty spools from your mother's work-basket, and having your friends save their spools for you, it will not be very long until you have the required number. spools upon which number thirty-six cotton thread comes are of the best length. bore holes in the four corners of each board. then, beginning with the board which is to form the bottom shelf, pass the ropes down through the holes on one side, across under the shelf, and up through the holes on the opposite side. string six spools on each rope and put the ropes through the holes in the next shelf; then string six more spools on each rope and run the ropes through the next or top shelf. tie the ropes together about a foot above the top shelf, fringing the ends to form tassels. figure 60 shows the shelves completed. [illustration: fig. 60.--spool book-shelves.] =a blacking-case= made similar to fig. 61 is a handy article for a boy to have in his room. as the friction from a rag rubbed over the shoe produces a finer polish than a brush when polishing paste is used, the box is provided with an arrangement by which a rag can be rubbed over the shoe without much effort (see illustration). [illustration: fig. 61.--a blacking-case.] procure a box about the size of a soap or cracker-box, and fasten a board in it for a foot-rest, as shown at _a_ in the drawing. on each side of this place a piece of a broom-handle a little shorter than the inside width of the box, and pivot them at the ends with wire nails driven through the sides of the box, as shown in the illustration. gimlet holes should be made in the sides of the box so the nails will fit loosely in them. procure a strip of canton-flannel twenty-four inches long by six inches wide, and, after sewing two brass rings to each end, pass the cloth under the rollers and over the foot-rest, as shown in the illustration. the lower part of the box will hold your boxes of blacking and the brushes. to have access to this, a board should be removed from the side of the box and hinged as at _b_ and _c_ in the illustration. place a button-catch just above it to keep it shut. fasten together the boards forming the box-cover with battens, and hinge them to the end of the box. the outside of the case will be improved greatly if covered with denim. after applying the paste to the shoe, the foot should be slipped under the cloth which passes over the foot-rest. two fingers of each hand should then be placed in the rings and the cloth pulled back and forth over the rollers until the shoe is polished. [illustration: fig. 62.--a towel-rack.] =a towel-rack=, such as is shown in fig. 62, is made in four pieces,--a board about eighteen inches long for the back, two arms six inches long, and a piece of broom-handle eighteen inches long. after cutting out the arms the shape shown in fig. 63, bore a hole large enough for a broom-handle to fit in each. bevel the edges of the eighteen-inch board, and then nail it to the arms, driving the nails through this piece into the arms. fit the piece of broom-handle into the holes bored for them, and trim off the ends so that about one inch projects beyond the face of each arm. [illustration: fig. 63.] sand-paper the wood, and either paint or varnish it. attach screw-eyes to the top of the back board and hang the rack by these to hooks placed in the wall. chapter v how to make a doll-house [illustration: boy presenting doll-house to his sisters] the average store doll-house is made of thin wood, which is full of defects and likely to warp, besides being put together in such a flimsy manner as to soon fall apart. the majority of these are imported houses, designed and planned in foreign styles, the exteriors being covered with clumsy ornament and gaudily painted, while the interiors are very poorly planned and proportioned. americanized doll-houses are seldom seen in the market, and the few there are will generally be found very expensive. there is probably nothing more interesting for a boy to make than a doll-house. it is like building your own house on a small scale, the details and proportions having to be just as carefully worked out to make a good-appearing house. try the construction of a house for one of your girl relatives and see how much she will appreciate it. then having completed one and learned the many little tricks there are in doing this work, you will find it quicker and easier to turn out others to sell. neatly made houses are always salable, and it should be an easy matter for you to make arrangements with a toy dealer in your town, to place some of your work in his store to sell on commission. the doll-house designed and detailed in this chapter is easily constructed and =the materials required= do not amount to very much. boards ten inches wide and one-half inch thick are preferable for the general construction, with a few four-inch boards one inch thick for the base and a few other details. basswood probably will be found the easiest wood to work with, as it is soft, straight-grained, and free from knots. packing-cases may be used to advantage when they are of the right size, but they are generally made of a cheap grade of pine, full of knots and other defects that make it difficult to do a good job. cigar-boxes make the nicest material for the interior finish, and a number of all sizes should be procured for this purpose. prepare the boxes for use as described in chapter viii. fourpenny nails should be purchased for the rough carpenter work, and brads and glue for attaching finishing-strips and all light wood. paints and other material are specified as required. as shown on the plans (figs. 65, 66, and 67), the house described in this chapter is of three floors, containing nine rooms, and is in size, thirty inches wide, twenty inches deep, and three feet high. [illustration: figs. 65-70.--plans of doll-house and patterns for the partitions.] =the base=, or false basement, should be made first. it consists of two four-by-one inch boards thirty inches long and two twenty inches long, with the ends mitred and fastened together in the form of a frame. upon this =lay the first floor=, allowing but one-half inch of the boards to bear on the frame on all sides. then lay off the first-floor plan (fig. 65) upon this floor with a pencil and square, locating the partitions by means of the dimensions given on the plan. =make the partitions= _a_, _b_, and _c_, the shape and size shown in fig. 68, and nail them to the places marked out for them on the floor. =the stairs= from first to second floors (fig. 71) should now be constructed as described later under the head of "stairways," as it would be difficult to set them in place after the walls are up. =make the front and rear walls= twenty-nine inches wide and twenty inches high, and nail them to the edges of the floor. the outside surface of the walls should now be in line with the base. leave the cutting of the windows until the rest of the house has been put together. the walls may be prevented from spreading by means of temporary braces nailed across the tops. =lay the second floor=, cutting a three by ten inch stair opening in the place indicated on the plan (fig. 66), and fasten the boards to the front and rear walls. draw upon this the second-floor plan, and =cut out partitions= _d_, _e_, _f_, and _g_, as shown in fig. 69. [illustration: fig. 71.--details of inside stairs.] after nailing these partitions to the places marked out for them, and building in the stairs, =lay the third floor= (fig. 67), cutting a three by seven inch stair opening, and fastening the boards in place as you did those of the second floor. =stairways.=--while each stairway should be built before the floor above is laid, in order that the work can more easily be done, they have been left for description here, that they might be spoken of in a general way. in figs. 71, 72, 73, 74, and 75 will be found complete details for these. the first things to prepare are =the stair stringers=, or supports for the steps (treads and risers). cut from a piece of cardboard what is known as =the pitch-board=, the pattern by which to lay out the steps (fig. 73). then draw a line lengthwise upon a thin strip of wood (_ab_ in fig. 72), and lay off the pitch-board on this as shown in fig. 72--sixteen times for the first to second story stairs and fifteen times for the second to third story stairs. draw the line _de_ parallel to _ab_, and the lines _cd_ and _ef_ as shown. then cut out the stringer along the lines _cdef_, being careful in doing so not to split off the corners. prepare two stringers for each flight of stairs. =the treads and risers= should be cut as shown in fig. 74, and the =newel-posts and hand-rails= as shown in fig. 75. make a small groove in the bottom of the hand-rail as shown in the drawing. toothpicks are of just the right size for [illustration: figs. 72-75.--details of inside stairs.] =the balusters.=--as brads are likely to split the thin cigar-box wood, the staircases should be put together with glue. first fasten the stringers in place, cutting a slot in the edge of the floors for the tops to set in, as shown in fig. 71. then glue on the treads and risers, and cut the bottom of the newel-post to fit over the second step. the lower end of the toothpick balusters are set into slits cut with a knife in the treads, and the upper ends fit in the groove cut in the hand-rail. =the balustrades= around the stair openings on the second and third floors are made in the same way (see fig. 71). as finished floors are to be laid in the halls, as described later, it will be well at this point to fasten a strip from a cigar-box around the stair openings, upon which to fasten the newels and in which to stick the ends of the balusters. the drawings give every detail and measurement necessary for the making of these stairs, and everything will work out correctly if the directions are closely followed. [illustration: fig. 76.--the front steps.] [illustration: fig. 64. a colonial doll-house.] =the front steps= are made as shown in fig. 76. cut out two balustrades the shape and size shown in the drawing. then prepare two stringers of five steps, cutting them exactly the same as for the other stairs, and glue them to the inner faces of the balustrades. the treads and risers are the same as for the other stairs, except that they are four inches in length. cut the top platform two and one-half inches wide. =the rear steps= may be built similar to the front, or may be made simpler by leaving off the risers and balustrade. =the ends of the house= should measure twenty inches square. fasten the boards together with battens at top and bottom, and hinge them to the rear wall (see plans and fig. 64). small hooks on the ends of the house will make it possible to fasten them shut. [illustration: fig. 77.--make gable-ends like this.] the roof is what is known as =the gambrel or octagonal roof=, and consists of two eight and two nine inch boards thirty-four inches long. before fastening these in place, it will be necessary to make =the gable-ends=, which are cut out as shown in fig. 77. make the partition between the nursery and ball-room (_h_) in the same way, with a door cut in it, as shown in fig. 70. fasten the partition and gable-ends in place, after which nail the roof boards _b_ and _c_ (fig. 70) to the top, allowing them to project over each gable. the lower boards _a_ and _d_ should be hinged to these, so they may be raised to get at the upper story. the edges of the boards must be bevelled in order to make perfect joints. when the work has proceeded thus far, cut =the door and window openings= in the places indicated upon the plans and fig. 64, first boring holes in the four corners of each window and door space; and then connecting them with a compass-saw. with the exception of the front and rear door, and the windows in the basement and gable-ends, make all openings three by five inches, and two inches above the floor. the casement window openings in the gable-ends are to be four by five inches and extend to the floor. cut three-by-seven-inch openings for the doors, and make the basement window openings two by three inches. figs. 78, 79, 80, 81, and 82 show the construction of [illustration: figs. 78-82.--details of dormer windows.] =the dormer windows.= these are made from cigar-boxes. for the three dormers, you will require six pieces the shape of _a_ for the sides, three of _b_ for the gable-ends, and six of _c_ for the roof (see figs. 80, 81, and 82). with the different parts cut out, it is a simple matter to fasten them together on the roof, by means of glue and small brads. the glass is bound to the ends of the side-pieces at _d_ and _e_ with strips of linen, as shown in figs. 78 and 79, and the gable-end sets on the top edge. the dormers should be placed directly over the lower windows and in line with the front wall (see fig. 79). old four-by-five camera plates may be used for =the window glass=, by cutting them down to the required dimensions--three by five inches for the first and second stories, and two by three inches for the dormer and basement windows. four-by-five plates are the right size for the casement windows. as the basement is to represent stone, there will be no finish around the openings, and the glass will have to be held in place with cigar-box strips on the inside and putty on the outside, as shown in figs. 83 and 84. the glass should be fastened in the first and second story windows by means of putty and strips of cigar-boxes (see figs. 85, 86, and 87). we will make the inside and outside trim the same to simplify matters; so cut two sets of strips for each window, making them the shape and size shown in figs. 85 and 87. fasten the outside strips in place first, then slip the ends of the glass into the centre of the wall and nail on the inside strips. fill in the spaces between the glass and strips with putty to hold the glass firmly in place. =the casement windows= (fig. 88) are made similarly, with the addition of a quarter of an inch strip of a cigar-box glued up the centre of the glass, to give the appearance of double windows hinged to swing in. [illustration: figs. 83-91.--details of windows.] narrow strips of paper glued to the glass, as shown in figs. 78, 83, 85, and 88, will produce the effect of =divided glass= and upper and lower sash. =the door trim= (figs. 89, 90, and 91) is put in place the same as the window trim, but instead of placing the door in the centre of the wall, it should be set flush with the inside trim (see _k_, _l_, and _m_ in plan, fig. 90), and is hinged by means of a linen strip glued to the edge of the door _m_ and strip _l_. the door-jambs are cased with strips _i_ and _j_. the rear door may be made simpler than this by using a plain strip for a cap. =make the door= out of a piece of cigar-box. the drawings give all the necessary measurements for door and window strips, and you will find it a simple matter to cut them out with a sharp knife. after putting the trim upon all of the windows and the doors, cut a number of strips of wood an eighth of an inch thick and half an inch wide for =outside trimmings=, and nail them to each corner of the house, around the edges of each gable-end, and around the top of the basement. purchase some narrow moulding for the cornice and nail it to the edges of the roof boards, being careful to make neat mitres at the corners. the house can more easily be moved about if mounted upon =casters.= to put these on, cut four pieces of two-by-four about three inches long, fasten a caster to each, and nail one block inside each corner of the foundation frame. [illustration: fig. 92.--construction of chimneys.] the exterior of the house is now complete with the exception of =the chimneys.= these should be made up of four pieces, two of which should have bird's-mouth cuts made in the end, as shown in fig. 92, to make the chimney fit over the top ridge of the roof. the side edges of the pieces should be mitred and fitted together. nail a strip of wood, half an inch wide, around the tops of the chimneys for caps. you will find it easier to =paint the chimneys= before fastening them to the roof. make the brickwork red and the caps white, and with a small brush and ruler stripe off the mortar joints. when the paint has thoroughly dried, nail the chimneys on to the ridge of the roof in line with the front windows (see illustration of completed house). you will want =a mantel and fire-place= in the living-room of the house, and it had better be built in at this point. figure 93 shows about the simplest form of mantel you can make, and one that presents a very neat appearance. it is made out of cigar-box strips painted to represent brick, with stone hearth and mantel-shelf. it measures seven inches wide, four and five-eighths inches from the base to the top of the shelf, and has a fire-place opening four inches wide and two and one-half inches high. [illustration: fig. 93.--the living-room mantel.] [illustration: fig. 94.--construction of mantel.] figure 94 shows the patterns for the cutting of the various pieces required to make up the mantel. _a_, the front piece, has an opening cut in it for the fire-place, as shown in the drawing. cut two strips similar to _b_ for the ends of the mantel, one the size of _c_ for the back of the fire-place, two of _d_ for the sides of the fire-place, and one of _e_ for the mantel-shelf. these pieces, with the exception of _e_, should be painted red, and striped off, when dry, with white paint to represent brick. it will be much easier to do the painting before fastening the pieces in their proper places. first divide the length and breadth of the pieces into about the number of spaces shown in fig. 93 with a lead pencil. then with a small brush, and straight-edge for a guide, trace over the pencil lines with white lead. be careful in striping the brick to get the courses the same upon each piece so they will correspond when the pieces are put together. =the hearth= is made out of a strip seven inches long by two inches wide. upon this the mantel should be put together with the pieces prepared. figure 93 shows the location of each piece, and with the aid of glue and some small brads it will be a simple matter to complete the mantel. the edges of the strips had best be mitred to make neat joints. paint the hearth and mantel-shelf white. the mantel should be fastened to the centre of partition _b_ in the living-room (see plan, fig. 65). =andirons= should, of course, accompany the fire-place. these may be made as shown in fig. 95. they consist of two pieces of cigar-boxes cut the shape of _a_ and _b_ (_a_ an inch and one-half by an inch and one-quarter, and _b_ an inch and one-half long), with the end of _b_ glued in a slot cut in the lower part of _a_. the feet and the top of _a_ and the foot of _b_ are small brass-headed upholstering-tacks driven into the wood, which give the andirons a trim appearance. paint the strips black. set the andirons upon the hearth with the ends projecting into the fire-place, and pile several nicely shaped twigs upon them for logs. =the interior woodwork= remains to be put on. cigar-boxes make excellent imitation hardwood floors, for the halls, the ball-room, and nursery. select as large pieces as possible, and fit them on the floors with close joints. nail them down with small brads. [illustration: fig. 95.--andiron.] make the door casings from the same material, cutting the strips the shape and size of those used for the outside doors (fig. 89). it is not advisable to hang inside doors, as they are easily broken off, and seldom work satisfactorily. a chair-rail should be made in the dining-room of quarter-inch strips fastened to the walls three inches above the floor. make baseboards in each room out of three-quarter inch strips, and picture mouldings out of strips an eighth of an inch wide. after completing the carpenter work of the house =set all nail-heads= with your nail-set, putty these holes and all others resulting from cracks and defects, and sand-paper the rough surfaces. if the woodwork is to be finished in its natural color, by varnishing or oiling its surface, color the putty to match the wood. =paint the house= a cream color, with white trimmings and a green roof, using yellow-ochre and white lead (mixed) for the walls; white lead for the trimmings, balustrade of front steps, chimney-caps, and striping of brickwork; dark olive green for the roof, and treads and risers of the front steps; and lamp-black for striping the stonework of the basement. the painting of the chimneys and fire-place has been described. paint the front door on both sides with white enamel or white lead, with the exception of a panel in the centre, which should be oiled as shown in fig. 89. this will give the appearance of a white enamelled door with a mahogany panel set in it. [illustration: fig. 96. another style of doll-house.] [illustration: fig. 97. interior view of doll-house.] chapter vi another doll-house and a stable [illustration: boys making doll-house.] photographs of another style of doll-house are shown in figs. 96 and 97. this house was built by the author for a little relative some ten years ago, and is still in perfect condition, as the photographs show. =packing-cases= were used for its construction, with cut-up cigar-boxes for window-casings, door-jambs, finished floors, etc., and small mouldings for the outside trimmings. the inside arrangement and the general construction of the house is so nearly like the design in the preceding chapter, that most of the details and the mode of construction may be followed in building it. if boxes are used, the dimensions will have to be figured out to suit, unless the boxes are pulled apart and the boards cut to the sizes shown in the illustrations of this chapter. =the floor plans=, which will be found in figs. 98, 99, and 100, give the sizes of the rooms, and the patterns for the making of =the partitions= are shown in figs. 101 and 102. in cutting out the second-floor partitions (fig. 102), mitre one edge of _e_ and _f_ to allow for the bedroom door opening, shown upon the plan, and mitre the edges of _g_ to fit between them above the door. the mitring is shown in the drawings (fig. 102). besides cutting a stair opening in the second floor, make an opening three by five inches in the second and third floors for =the elevator-shaft=. care must be taken to have these openings exactly over one another. make the opening in the second floor six by eight inches in the place indicated upon the plan. this will allow for the elevator shaft and stairway. no stairway has been built to the third story, as the elevator serves the purpose, and one would take up too much of the ball-room space. =the side walls= should measure nineteen inches wide by twenty-four inches high, and the other two walls thirty inches wide by twenty-four inches high. that portion of =the rear wall= enclosing the kitchen and bath-room is hinged to open (see fig. 98), and =the front wall= is made in two sections, each hinged to a strip of wood an inch and one-half wide nailed to the two edges of the house, as shown in fig. 96. =the windows= are four by five inches, so four-by-five camera plates can be used for the glass. [illustration: figs. 98-102.--plans of doll-house and patterns for partitions.] =the roof= had best be made in two sections, each measuring twenty-eight inches long by twenty-four inches wide. fasten the boards together with battens on the under side and, after mitring the upper edge of each, nail them to the house so that the ridge is fifteen inches above the third floor. then nail a board nineteen inches long by ten inches wide in the peak of the roof (_d_ in fig. 104), and a narrow strip three inches from each side wall (_k_ and _l_ in fig. 100). these cut off the triangular shape of the ball-room and give it a better appearance. =the chimney= is made the same as those for the other house, with the exception of the cap, which is built up of strips of cigar-boxes to represent corbelled brick (see fig. 103). these strips should be three-sixteenths of an inch wide, and fastened in place by means of small brads. [illustration: fig. 103.] =an elevator= is something which is found in but few doll-houses. it was built in this house, thinking it might please the young mistress, and proved such a success that the scheme has been worked out carefully in figs. 104, 105, 106, 107, and 108, that you may include it in the house you build. [illustration: figs. 104-108.--details of the elevator.] the cutting of the elevator-shaft has already been described. for material, procure two small pulleys, such as are shown in fig. 106, four feet of brass chain, six feet of no. 12 wire, half a dozen double-pointed tacks or very small screw-eyes, a short piece of lead pipe, and a cigar-box. make =the car= out of the cigar-box, cutting it down to two and one-quarter inches wide, three and three-quarters inches deep, and seven inches high (see fig. 107). place two of the double-pointed tacks or screw-eyes in each side of the car for the guide-wires to run through and another in the centre of the top from which to attach the brass chain. =the guide-wires= are made of very heavy wire that will not easily bend. cut two of a length to reach from the first floor to the ball-room ceiling, and after running them through the tacks in the sides of the car, stick their ends into small holes bored at _e_, _f_, _g_, and _h_ (fig. 104). the upper holes should be bored through the ball-room ceiling, while the lower ones need be bored but part way through the first floor. care must be taken to have these holes in the correct position, so the elevator will run up and down upon the wires without striking the sides of the shaft. the easiest way of fastening the wires in place is to run the upper ends through the holes, until the lower ends can be set into their sockets, and then drive two double-pointed tacks over the top of each wire, as shown at _e_ and _f_ in fig. 104. now run the elevator up to the top of the shaft, and mark upon the ceiling where the screw-eye in the top of the car strikes. at this point bore a hole through the ceiling and two inches back of it bore another hole, through which to run the weight-chain. when this has been done, cut a short block of wood to fit the peak of the roof and =screw the pulleys= to it two inches apart (fig. 105). fit the block in the peak of the roof, centring the front pulley over the top of the car as nearly as possible, and drive a couple of nails through the roof boards into it to hold it in place temporarily. then =attach the chain= to the tack in the top of the car, slip a piece of lead pipe about an inch long over the chain, allowing it to set on the top of the car to make the latter heavier (fig. 107), and run the chain up through the first hole in the ceiling, over the pulleys, and down through the second hole. to the end of the chain attach a piece of lead pipe for =the elevator-weight= (see fig. 108).--this should be just heavy enough to make a perfect balance between it and the car, which can be obtained by whittling off the end of the pipe until the weight of the two is the same. make the chain of sufficient length so the weight will rest upon the first floor when the car is at the third floor. you can now tell whether or not the pulleys are in the right positions. when they have been adjusted properly, nail the block firmly in place. =the gable-ends.=--the front gable-end consists of four pieces (_a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, in fig. 109), the dimensions for the cutting of which are given in the illustration. after preparing these, nail _a_, _b_, and _c_ in their proper positions in the gable of the roof, and trim the edges of _d_, if they need be, to fit between. to prevent the movable section from pushing in too far, it will be necessary to nail a narrow strip of wood to the roof and third floor just inside of it. the rear gable is made in one piece, and is fastened in place permanently. [illustration: fig. 109.--the front gable-end.] the movable gable and all hinged portions should have =spring-catches= with which to shut up and lock the house (see the illustrations). =the stairway= is shown in fig. 104, and the details for its construction will be found in figs. 110, 111, 112, 113. this stairway is made in two parts, with a platform between. cut a block of wood the shape and size shown in fig. 110 for the platform, with notches at _a_ and _b_ for the tops of the lower stringers to fit in. then =prepare two stringers= of thirteen risers similar to fig. 111 and two stringers of five risers similar to fig. 112, laying them off as described in the preceding chapter by means of a pitch-board similar to fig. 113. after cutting out these pieces, fasten the tops of the lower stringers in the notches _a_ and _b_ in the platform, and nail the platform in its proper position in the corner of the hall. when this has been done, nail the bottoms of the upper stringers (_e_ in fig. 112) to the sides of the platform at _c_ and _d_, and set the tops in notches cut in the edge of the second floor. [illustration: figs. 110-113.--details of stairs.] =the treads and risers= are made the same as in fig. 74 (chap. v), except that the depth of the risers is increased to five-eighths of an inch. cut another platform from a cigar-box to fit over the rough one. =build a balustrade= up the side of the stairs and around the elevator enclosures, using the scheme shown in chapter v (figs. 71 and 75). =all other details= not mentioned here will be the same as described in chapter v, including the painting and finishing of the house. how to make the stable [illustration: fig. 114.--exterior of stable.] the stable shown in figs. 114 and 115, and in the background of fig. 96, will go nicely with the house described in this or the preceding chapter. its construction is very simple. the dimensions are twenty-four inches wide, twelve inches deep, and twenty-two inches high, and the barn contains five stalls on the ground floor and a hay-loft above. [illustration: fig. 115.--interior of stable.] to build the stable according to the drawings, a box ten by twelve by twenty-four inches should be procured for =the first story=.--if you have a box of different proportions it will be a simple matter to make such alterations in the details as it will require. =the roof= is made in two sections, each fifteen by eighteen inches, and is fastened to the top of the box so that the peak is twenty-two inches above the bottom. =the gable-end= is made in four pieces, as shown in fig. 116, _a_, _b_, and _c_, to be nailed in place, and _d_ to be movable as in the case of the doll-house. make a three-by-five-inch window in the centre of _d_, and fasten the glass in place with strips cut as described in chapter v. strips should be nailed to the roof just inside of the movable section to prevent the latter from setting in too far, and a spring catch fastened to _c_ and _d_ as shown, to hold the movable section in place. [illustration: fig. 116.--front gable-end.] [illustration: fig. 117.--stall partitions.] figure 117 gives the patterns and measurements for =the stall partitions=, four of which should be cut out and fastened to the floor of the stable four inches apart, or so they will divide the inside width into five equal stalls. =the feed-troughs= are made out of two strips of cigar-boxes fitted between the stalls, as shown in figs. 115 and 117, and are fastened in place by means of brads and glue. above the stalls cut =small windows= an inch and one-half square in the rear wall. these are the ventilating windows for the stalls, and may be left open. [illustration: fig. 118.--ladder to hay-loft.] figure 118 shows the construction of =a ladder= to the hay-loft. this is made out of two sticks twelve inches long, with strips of cigar-boxes two inches long glued to them half an inch apart, as shown in the drawing. cut away a section of the hay-loft floor two inches square and stick the end of the ladder up through the opening, fastening the uprights to the edge of the floor (see fig. 118). a stick about three inches long, with a very small pulley attached near the end, should be fastened in the peak of the roof for a =feed-hoist= (see fig. 114). the first story has =a drop-front=, as shown in figs. 114 and 115. this is made from the box-cover. fasten the boards together with battens placed upon the inside, and hinge it to the bottom of the stable. nail two cleats to the under side of the floor (see fig. 114) to lift it off the ground, just enough to allow the front to drop without springing its hinges. when the front is down it forms an incline upon which to run the horses into the stable. for this reason it is not advisable to cut an opening in it, but merely =represent a stable door= on the outside (see fig. 114). this is done with paint and a fine brush. first paint a green panel in the centre of the front, and then mark off a couple of panels within this space with black paint, and stripe them diagonally to represent beaded-boards. with strips of wood half an inch wide make =a simple trim= around the door, the sides of the stable, and around the gable, as shown in the illustration. when the carpenter work has been finished, =paint the inside= of the stable white, and the outside the same colors as used for the doll-houses (see description on page 90, chap. v). chapter vii furnishing the doll-house [illustration: boy presenting doll-house to his sisters.] with the carpenter work of a doll-house completed, the finishing of the inside,--wall papering and painting,--and the selection of furniture for the various rooms, remain to be done. this requires as much care as the building of the house, and while any boy can do the work, the help of a sister will perhaps simplify matters and give to the rooms a daintier appearance. =the walls and ceiling= of the kitchen and bath-room should be painted with white lead or white enamel. for the other rooms select paper having a small design, such as is to be found on most ceiling papers. if you have ever watched the paper-hanger at work, you have noticed he puts on the ceiling first, allowing the paper to run down the walls a little way all around instead of trimming it off. then he hangs the wall paper, and if there is no border to cover the joints of the ceiling and wall papers he carries the wall paper up to the ceiling. use flour paste to stick on the paper, and a cloth or photograph-print roller to smooth out the wrinkles. the dining-room should have a wainscot of dark paper below the chair-rail, and a paper with little or no figure upon it above. =all hardwood floors=, the stairs, door and window casings, baseboards, and picture mouldings should be varnished thoroughly or given several coats of boiled linseed-oil. all floors, with the exception of the kitchen, bath-room, and hardwood floors, should be fitted with =carpets.=--if you do not happen to have suitable scraps on hand, they can be procured at almost any furnishing store where they make up carpets. select pieces with as small patterns as possible. the floors of the bath-room and kitchen should be covered with oilcloth. =rugs= for the hardwood floors may be made out of scraps of carpet. =window-shades= may be made for each window out of linen, and tacked to the top casing so that the bottom of the curtain reaches just above the centre of the opening. each window should also have =lace curtains= made out of scraps of lace. they should either be tacked above the windows or hung upon poles made out of no. 12 wire, cut in lengths to fit the windows. screw small brass hooks into the top window-casings for the poles to hang upon. =handsome portieres= for the doorways can be made with beads and with the small hollow straws sold for use in kindergartens. for the =bead portieres=, cut threads as long as the height of the door and string the beads upon them, alternating the colors in such a way as to produce patterns. then tie the strings together to a piece of wire the width of the doorway, and fasten the wire in the opening. the =straw portieres= are made similarly. from magazine illustrations you can select =suitable pictures= for each room, but if you are handy with brush and pencil you may prefer to make the pictures yourself. these may be mounted upon cardboard and have their edges bound with passe-partout paper to give the effect of frames, or frames may be cut out of cardboard and pasted to them. hang the pictures to the picture moulding with thread. =a cosey-corner= may be fitted up in the ball-room by fastening a strip of a cigar-box in one corner an inch and one-half above the floor for the seat, and hanging draperies on each side of it. pillows may be made for it out of scraps of silk stuffed with cotton. a doll-house properly proportioned in every detail, including the selection of its furniture, is pleasing to look at, and is to be desired much more than some of the specimens to be found in the stores. these very often have parlor chairs larger than the mantel, beds that either fill two-thirds of the bedroom space or are so small they are hidden from view by the chairs, and other furniture accordingly, all having been selected without any thought as to size or fitness. care must be taken, in buying the furniture, to have the pieces suitable to the rooms. it will no doubt require more time than to purchase the first sets you come across, but when you have completed the selections, the result will be a much better appearing doll-house. by carefully searching the toy-shops you are almost certain of finding what you want for the various rooms, as about everything imaginable in furniture has been manufactured. porcelain bath-tubs, wash-basins with real faucets and running water, gilt furniture, chandeliers, and such articles are tempting to buy. but it is rather expensive to fit up a house in this way, for, though each piece may not amount to very much, they count up very quickly. the suggestions for the making of cigar-box furniture in the following chapter, and the cork furniture in chapter xxviii, should give you plenty of material for furniture and save you the expense of buying this part of the furnishings for your house. chapter viii doll-furniture [illustration] the metal furniture which you can buy is very pretty when it is new, but this new appearance does not last long after it has come into a youngster's possession, for the pieces are very slender and delicate, and thus easily broken. wooden furniture is the most durable kind, and plain and simple pieces will generally outlast the fancy ones. the designs illustrated in this chapter make very substantial pieces, as there are no spindle legs or fancy arms to break off. they follow the lines of the mission furniture, that simple style used in the early american mission schools, and which is to-day being extensively made in handsome pieces for the furnishings of modern homes. you will find the =miniature mission furniture=, illustrated and described in this chapter, simple to make and something which is easy to sell, for there is nothing like it at present upon the market. cigar-boxes furnish the nicest material for making this furniture, and the various parts can be cut to the right shape and size with =a gig-or scroll-saw.= procure small brads and glue with which to fasten the pieces together. =to prepare the cigar-boxes= for use, place them in a tub of boiling water and let them remain there until the paper labels readily pull off. do not use a knife in removing the paper, as it is liable to roughen the wood. the paper will come off by allowing it to soak long enough. when the boxes are clean, set them in the sun to dry, after binding the covers to the backs to prevent them from warping. pull the boxes apart when they are thoroughly dry, and throw out such pieces as have printing upon them, for these would spoil the appearance of the furniture if used. [illustration: figs. 119-126.--patterns for furniture.] in order to simplify the matter of cutting the parts that make the furniture, the curved pieces have been drawn out carefully on page 111, so they can be laid off upon the strips of cigar-boxes without any trouble, by the process of =enlarging by squares.=--these drawings are shown one-quarter of their full size (half their width and half their height). to enlarge them procure a piece of cardboard nine by thirteen inches, or a little larger than twice the size of the drawing each way, and divide it into squares just twice the size of those on page 111. that will make sixteen squares in the width of the cardboard and twenty-four in the length, each half an inch square. in order to get the squares spaced equally, it is best to lay off the points first with a ruler along the top, bottom, and two sides of the sheet of cardboard, and then connect the points with the ruler and a sharp lead-pencil. then number the squares as in the illustration, using the figures along the sides and letters across the top and bottom of the sheet. with the sheet of cardboard thus prepared it is a simple matter to =reproduce the drawings= of figs. 119 to 126 by locating the points of the curves and corners of the pieces, as shown in the illustrations, in corresponding positions in the squares on your cardboard sheet. the curves may be drawn in by eye, after locating them with reference to their surrounding squares, but the surest way of enlarging them accurately is by laying off the points where the curve strikes each horizontal and vertical line in the illustration, upon the enlarged drawing. these points can then be connected with a curved line. make all of the lines heavy so they can be distinguished from your guide lines, and after carefully going over the drawing, comparing it with that on page 111 to see that no mistake has been made in locating the points in enlarging, cut the various pieces apart. these give you =the patterns= with which to mark out the pieces on the wood. we will first note the construction of =the chairs= shown in figs. 127 and 128. these are four and one-half inches high, two inches wide, and an inch and one-half deep. cut the back for the chair in fig. 127 four and three-eighths inches high and an inch and three-quarters wide, the sides by the pattern in fig. 119, and the seat an inch and one-quarter by an inch and three-quarters. with the pieces cut out, fasten them together with brads and glue, placing the seat between the arms and back so that it is an inch and one-half above the base. [illustration: fig. 127. fig. 128. chairs.] cut the back for the other chair (fig. 128) four and one-half inches high by two inches wide, the seat an inch and a quarter by an inch and three-quarters, and the sides an inch and three-eighths wide by two and one-half high. to get the curve in the bottom edge of the side-pieces, use the pattern in fig. 119. [illustration: fig. 129.--a settee.] =the settee= (fig. 129) should have its sides cut by the pattern of fig. 120. make the back-piece three and three-quarters inches wide and three and one-quarter inches high, and the seat three and three-quarters inches by an inch and one-half. fasten the seat against the back an inch and one-half above the base. [illustration: fig. 130.--a table.] =tables= for the living-room, dining-room, bedroom, ball-room, and nursery of a doll-house may be patterned after the designs of figs. 130 and 131. these should be two and one-half inches high to be of proper proportion for the chairs. the pieces necessary to make fig. 130 are a top two inches square, two sides an inch and one-half wide by two and one-half inches high, and a shelf an inch and one-quarter square. fasten the pieces together as in the illustration, placing the shelf between the side-pieces an inch from the bottom. [illustration: fig. 131.--another design.] the other design (fig. 131) will do nicely for =a dining-room table=, or table for the centre of the living-room. the top of this should be five inches long and three inches wide. cut the side-pieces by the pattern in fig. 121 and, after fastening them to the under side of the table-top four inches apart, brace them with a strip three and three-quarters inches long by half an inch wide, as shown in fig. 131. =a side-board= similar to fig. 132 should be made for the dining-room. the pattern for the side pieces is shown in fig. 122. after sawing these out, cut a piece seven inches long by three inches wide for the back and fasten the side-pieces to the edges of it. the location of the shelves can be obtained best by referring to fig. 132 and the pattern in fig. 122. cut the bottom shelf (_a_ in fig. 132) three inches long by an inch and one-quarter wide and fasten it to the side-pieces half an inch above the base (line 24 on pattern, fig. 122). make shelf _b_ three by one inches and place it at line 22. _c_ should be three and three-quarters inches long by an inch and one-half wide, with a small notch cut near each end with your knife, to make it fit over the side-pieces (see illustration). cut shelf _d_ three inches long by half an inch wide, fastening it in place at line no. 17, _e_ three inches long by seven-sixteenths of an inch wide, fastening it at line no. 15, and _f_ three inches long by three-eighths of an inch wide, fastening it at line no. 13. the top shelf (_g_) is three and three-quarters inches long and half an inch wide and is fastened to the tops of the side-pieces as shown in the drawing. [illustration: fig. 132.--a side-board.] the lower portion of the side-board is enclosed with two doors two inches high by an inch and one-half wide. small pieces of cloth may be used for hinges, but it is better to use pins, running them through the shelf above and below (_a_ and _c_, fig. 132) into the doors. stick the pins near the edge of the doors and see that they are straight, so the doors will open easily. a small mirror attached to the back between shelves _c_ and _d_ will complete this piece of furniture. [illustration: fig. 133.--a mirror.] =a mirror= in a frame should be made for the living-room of the doll-house. a neat and suitable design for one of these will be seen in fig. 133. for its construction cut two sides by means of the pattern in fig. 123, a piece five inches long by three inches wide for the back, and a strip three inches long by three-eighths of an inch wide for a shelf. fasten the sides to the edges of the back-piece, and the shelf between the sides about three-quarters of an inch above the base. now procure a mirror such as you can buy in a toy-shop for five or ten cents (or a piece of a broken mirror cut down to the right size will do very nicely), and attach it to the centre of the back. =the grandfather's clock= (fig. 134) makes an effective piece of furniture for the hall or living-room, and is easily made. figure 124 shows the pattern for the front of this clock. the back is made the same, with the omission of the square opening cut in the front frame for the clock-face. cut a block of wood two by two by three-quarters inches to fit between the frames at the top. after nailing the pieces together, procure a face from a toy watch, and fasten it in the opening made for it in the front frame. a button suspended by means of a piece of thread from a tack placed in the bottom of the block forms the pendulum. [illustration: fig. 134. a grandfather's clock.] it will be unnecessary to give any suggestions for =kitchen furniture=, such as chairs and tables, for these can also be made out of cigar-box wood along the same schemes illustrated in this chapter, with perhaps a few modifications which will make them simpler. [illustration: fig. 135.--a bed.] [illustration: fig. 136.--another design.] now for the making of some pieces of bedroom furniture. you will find in figs. 135 and 136 two designs that are easily carried out, one or both of which may be used for =the beds= of a doll-house. to make fig. 135, cut the head and foot by means of the pattern in fig. 125, and cut the two sides by means of the pattern in fig. 126. after preparing these pieces and fastening them together as shown in the illustration (fig. 135), cut a few strips a quarter of an inch wide for slats and fasten them between the sides of the bed. it is advisable to fasten these in place to prevent them from being lost. the side-pieces for the other bed (fig. 136) are cut out with the same pattern (fig. 126). make the head-and foot-pieces three by four and one-half inches, cutting a piece two by an inch and one-quarter out of the top of each as shown in the drawing (fig. 136), and using the pattern of the other bed for cutting the curve in the bottom edge. nail the pieces together in their proper places, after which cut some slats and fasten them in the bottom. [illustration: fig. 137.--a dresser.] =the dresser= (fig. 137) is made somewhat similar to the side-board. cut the sides by the same pattern (fig. 122) and fasten them to the edges of the back-piece, which should be six and one-half inches high by three inches wide. cut shelf _a_ three by one and one-quarter inches, _b_ and _c_ three by one and one-eighth, _d_ three by one and three-sixteenths, and _e_ and _f_ one-half by one and one-quarter inches. fasten shelf _a_ between the sides at line no. 24 (see fig. 122), _b_ at line no. 23, _c_ at line no. 22, _d_ at line no. 21, and notch the ends of _e_ and _f_ to fit over the side-pieces at line no. 20. drawers to fit the lower shelves of the dresser may be made out of small strips of cigar-boxes or pieces of cardboard, glued together. a small mirror fastened in the position shown in the drawing will complete the work upon this piece of furniture. [illustration: fig. 138.--a wash-stand.] =a wash-stand= can be made for the bath-room and each of the bedrooms similar to fig. 138. the sides for this should be five inches high by an inch and one-quarter wide, and the shelves one by three inches. fasten the lower shelf three-quarters of an inch above the base, and the top shelf at a height of two and one-half inches. when the stand has been put together, fit a round stick, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, in holes made in the sides with a gimlet (see illustration). this forms the towel-rack. hang a small drapery over the lower portion of the stand. =finishing.=--when the pieces of furniture have been completed, they should be rubbed down with emery-paper to remove the rough edges, and also any rough places that may have been caused by soaking the boxes in water. then give the wood several coats of linseed oil. this makes a beautiful finish for this kind of wood. if desired, the bedroom furniture may be painted with white enamel. the little hearts may be painted upon the pieces as shown in the illustration, with a small brush and red paint, or may be cut out of red paper and glued to the wood. other cigar-box furniture [illustration: fig. 139.--a doll's folding-bed.] in figs. 139 and 142 will be found some pieces of furniture that are simpler to make than that just described, and although they may not be so pretty, they present a very good appearance when neatly made. the author constructed many pieces of this furniture when a boy, and found them suitable as presents, besides being something that was always easy to sell. the cost of making a set amounts to but a few cents, cigar-boxes being the principal material. they are also very quickly made, as the boxes require but little cutting. [illustration: fig. 141.--foot.] [illustration: fig. 140.--folding-bed (open).] for the construction of =a folding-bed=, such as is shown in figs. 139 and 140, select two cigar-boxes, one of which will fit inside the other. the smaller box should be a little shorter than the inside opening of the larger box. after removing the paper from each, place the smaller box inside the larger one, as shown in fig. 139, so that the bottom of the inner box is flush with the edge of the outer box. then drive a brad through both boxes on each side, about three-quarters of an inch from the end as shown at _a_ (fig. 139). these brads should run through the outer box into the bottom of the inner box, and should be driven in carefully so as not to split the wood. the inner box should now fold down as shown in fig. 140, moving upon the brad pivots. purchase a five or ten cent mirror and fasten it to the front of the bed, after which cut two wooden feet similar to fig. 141 and glue the pegs on the ends of these in gimlet holes made above the mirror. finish the wood the same as described for the other cigar-box furniture. [illustration: fig. 142.--dresser completed.] =the dresser= shown in fig. 142 is made out of a box the same size as the larger one used for the folding-bed. saw the sides of the box in half, crosswise, and remove the upper half and the end-piece. then nail the end across the tops of the remaining halves of the sides. when this has been done, divide up the lower portion of the box into compartments as shown in the drawing (fig. 143). this should have a small drapery hung over it. the upper portion of the dresser should have a mirror attached to it, and some lace draped over the top and sides will add greatly to its appearance. [illustration: fig. 143.--a doll's dresser.] all you will have to do in making =a wardrobe= will be to fasten some small hooks inside of a cigar-box, attach the cover with a strip of linen--the same way it was attached before you soaked it off--and hang a mirror on the front. these pieces of furniture were designed for separate sets, and would not do for doll-houses the size of those in the preceding chapters, unless the boxes were cut down to smaller proportions. chapter ix a boy's printing-shop [illustration: boys working at the presses.] since the manufacture of printing-presses in small sizes, printing has become so popular among boys that it is now hard to find a neighborhood in which there is not a press. printing is one of the best methods of mastering spelling and punctuation, and is thus a great help to a boy in his studies, besides being a pleasant occupation at which he can earn money. if you cannot afford a large press, be satisfied with a small one for the time being at least. get to work, learn to print neatly and accurately, and when your friends find your work is of good quality, they will gladly patronize you. your profits should soon net you enough with which to buy a larger press and increase your equipment. after securing a press, it will be necessary to find a place in which to keep and use it, where there will be a good light to work by and where things are not likely to be disturbed. if you have a workshop, you may be able to make room in it for your outfit. [illustration: fig. 144.--a boy's printing-shop.] when the author became the proud owner of a machine, he found it convenient to keep it in his room with his type-cases and material beneath the press-stand. but in the course of several years the printing-shop required more space than the room afforded, and a new office had to be secured. this was found in the woodshed, where a corner was partitioned off, a double sashed window placed in the wall, and the interior fitted up with a case-rack, imposing-table, stock-stand, and all the necessities for an enlargement of business. figure 144 shows the arrangement of our shop a few years later, when it again became necessary to increase our floor space by adding a "mezzanine" story above, extending to the roof of the shed. this half-story was reached by means of a ladder, as shown in the drawing. the principal equipment of a boy's shop should consist of a number of cases in which to keep the fonts of type; a rack in which these cases can be kept and at which the typesetting can be done; a work-bench, one end of which may be used for an imposing-table and the other for the press to stand upon; and two cabinets, one for stock and the other for ink, tools, and general supplies. the other materials required are: a composing-stick, composing-rule, pair of tweezers, galley, leads, rules, furniture, mitre-box, imposing-stone, quoins, shooting-stick, mallet, planer, hand-roller, and gauge-pins, besides a can of ink, an oil-can, a bottle of machine-oil for washing rollers, benzine for cleaning type, and a good supply of rags. [illustration: an amateur's outfit.] small presses are usually accompanied by a few fonts of type, which are sufficient for printing small business-cards, etc., but are of so few letters as to make an ordinary job of printing impossible. with an increase of capital, =type= should be the first addition to your outfit. in making selections bear in mind the amount of money you have to spend, and buy only styles which will go together nicely and which can be used for the greatest variety of work. if possible, secure the advice of a printer in purchasing, as by his experience he can tell what you will most require better than you. you can probably obtain a specimen type-book from the type foundry in your city from which to make your selections. =type-cases= divided into small compartments for the various letters and characters, which can be bought for seventy-five cents or a dollar, provide the only satisfactory means of keeping fonts. it is advisable to spend the money for these neatly made boxes rather than attempt to make them, for the work will amount to more than what you can buy them for. figures 145 and 146 show the upper and lower news-cases with the systems of "laying" generally employed in printing establishments. it will be seen that by this method the principal letters are grouped in the central portions of the case where they are easily reached, while the less important letters are scattered around the sides. the central boxes of the lower case are also made larger than the others, "e" being allotted the largest box as it is used more than any other letter in the alphabet. [illustration: scheme for laying cases. fig. 145.--lower case. fig. 146.--upper case.] as the lettering of the spaces and quads in fig. 145 may be confusing to the beginner, it is perhaps well to explain that these are based upon the "m" quads which present a square end, the "2m" and "3m" quads being two and three "m" quads in width, and an "n" quad one-half an "m." likewise spaces are known by the fraction they represent of an "m" quad, viz. "3m," "4m," "5m," and "8m" (more commonly known as hair-space). [illustration: fig. 147.--the yankee job-case.] the upper and lower cases provide for about every character included in a complete font of type. for smaller fonts you will find the yankee job-case very convenient, the letters being arranged the same in the lower portion, and the capitals being placed in the upper boxes (see fig. 147). [illustration: fig. 148.--a type-case rack.] it will be unnecessary to have =a rack for the type-cases= until you have added several styles of type to your outfit. then you will find a rack such as is shown in fig. 148 one of the best methods of keeping the type away from the dust and at the same time in an accessible place. this rack should be four feet in height, the width of a type-case, and twenty-eight inches deep, which is large enough for twelve cases. it is best made out of four-inch boards. [illustration: fig. 149.] cut the uprights _a_ and _e_ three feet six inches long, and _b_ and _f_ four feet long. the top-pieces _c_ and _g_ should be cut similar to fig. 149. first lay out these pieces on four-inch boards, using the dimensions given on the drawing and being careful to get both pieces the same. having properly marked the pieces, they remain to be cut out with the rip and cross-cut saws. cut the bottom-pieces _d_ and _h_ twenty-eight inches long, and prepare twenty-two inch-strips of the same length for cleats. one of the most particular points to be looked after in making a rack of this kind is the attaching of the cleats, for unless they are perfectly horizontal and those on one side are on a level with those on the other side, the cases will not slide in satisfactorily and will be continually causing trouble. plenty of space should also be left between the cleats to prevent the cases from sticking by the cleats swelling or warping. [illustration: fig. 150.] in order to get the cleats in the right position, the heights should be laid off on the uprights as shown in fig. 150 and lines squared across them. you will then have the same heights on each upright. having prepared the pieces above described, we are ready to put them together. lay uprights _a_ and _b_ upon the ground, twenty inches apart, and with the lower ends on a line with one another. then fasten board _d_ to them as shown in fig. 151, the upper edge being even with the first divisions on the upright. drive but one nail in each end of _d_ until the other end of the frame is fastened together. strip _c_ should be placed as shown in fig. 151, so that the upper edge of one end is even with the top of upright _a_, and the upper edge of the other end three inches above the top of upright _b_. this gives the proper pitch to the top of the rack. then, after measuring the distance between uprights _a_ and _b_ to see that it is no more or less than twenty inches, nail _c_ firmly to them, after which drive several more nails into the ends of _d_. [illustration: fig. 151.] when this has been done, fasten the cleats in place, so that the top of each is even with the line squared across the uprights. this completes the frame. the opposite frame is made similarly. when both frames have been made, they should be fastened together by means of the crosspieces shown in fig. 148. measure the width of your cases, which varies somewhat with different makes, and set the frames about half an inch farther apart than this width. then cut the boards _i_, _j_, _k_, and _l_ the correct length and nail them to the places shown upon the drawing. strips _m_ and _n_ should be fitted between _c_ and _g_ to help support the top. the top of the rack is made to hold two cases at a time, the lower case on the front part and the upper case back of it. cases should be kept out of the dust as much as possible, as dirt accumulates in the boxes very quickly, and is hard to clean out. it is therefore a good plan to tack cloth or heavy wrapping-paper to the back, sides, and below the top of the rack, and provide a curtain to hang over the front when the cases are not in use. when the boxes do become dirty, the dust should be removed by means of a pair of bellows. [illustration: fig. 152.--how to hold the composing-stick.] in composing, or setting type, =a composing-stick= is necessary. this should be held in the left hand, as shown in fig. 152, while the right hand picks up the type one by one and drops them into the stick, where the left thumb shoves them into place. it will be seen by looking at the illustration that the type are set upside down and read from left to right. this may seem awkward at first, but with practice you will soon become accustomed to reading the letters in this position. =a composing-rule=, similar to fig. 153, should be cut out of a piece of brass rule. in typesetting, the rule is first placed in the stick, and the type then placed against it. [illustration: fig. 153.--a composing-rule.] when a line has been set and there still remains a space too small for another word, it is necessary to either place wider spaces between the words to fill out the line, or reduce the space sufficiently to make it possible to add the word. this operation, which is known as =justifying=, should be performed after each line has been set. then place a lead against the type, lift out the composing-rule from behind the first line, and place it in front of the lead preparatory to setting a new line. [illustration: fig. 154.--a home-made galley.] after composing a stick full of type, it should be emptied into =a galley.= figure 154 shows a galley made of half-inch stuff. cut the pieces as shown, and fasten them together so the bottom-piece is tilted sufficient to keep the lines from "=pieing="--or falling out of line--without tying them together. emptying a stick may prove difficult at first, but if the lines have been properly justified and are gripped at the ends with the thumb and first finger of each hand, there is but little danger of making pie. the beginner will, however, doubtless pie his type a number of times, until by experience he learns the proper handling of it. =proofs= are struck while the type is in the galley, by running an ink-roller over the matter, then placing a damp sheet of paper on the type and running a dry hand-roller over the paper. the print thus obtained is known as the "first proof." it should be fully corrected by means of proof-reader's marks, which can be found in the appendix of any dictionary, after which the corrections should be made in the type and a second proof struck off. when the matter has been fully corrected, it should be placed upon =the imposing-stone=--a piece of marble or other flat stone set upon the work table. after properly leading the type, =the chase=--an iron frame cast to hold the type for printing--should be placed over it. the space between the type and chase should then be filled out with =furniture=.--metal furniture consists of hollow metal blocks of various sizes, while wooden furniture comes in strips of different widths, which may be cut up into the lengths required. use a mitre-box similar to the one described in chapter i in cutting the wooden furniture. =locking-up a form.=--the type is locked-up by means of iron wedges known as "quoins." there are two forms of these, those driven together by means of a "shooting-stick" and mallet, as shown in fig. 155, and those locked by means of an iron key, such as is shown in fig. 156. the latter kind is probably the most commonly used to-day. before locking the form, the type should be levelled with a planer, which is nothing more than a block of hardwood with a smooth, even surface. the planer should be set upon the type and given a few light raps on the top with the hammer, until the face of the type is even. then lock the form securely, being careful to have as equal pressure as possible on all sides, to prevent the type from springing. the form is then ready for the press. [illustration: fig. 155.--locking-up a form.] [illustration: fig. 156.--key and quoins.] =distribution= consists in replacing the types in their respective boxes after the form has been printed, and is no longer desired. the matter should first be thoroughly washed, then unlocked. the distributer lifts out several lines of the type, holding them in his left hand, with the nicks uppermost and the letters facing him. one or more words are picked from the top line with the right hand, and each letter is dropped into its box, after which several more words are picked up and similarly distributed. a few pointers in regard to presswork may be helpful to the beginner. =the tympan=, or metal bed upon which the paper to be printed is placed, should be padded well with paper to make a firm impression, the number of sheets required depending upon the character of the form. these sheets are held in place by means of the iron clamps which slip over the ends of the tympan (see fig. 160). the first print struck off probably will be imperfect, that is, some portions will be lighter than others, due to uneven impression. this is overcome by what is known as =overlaying= the form. make several impressions, including one on the top tympan-sheet. then cut out the light portions of a print and paste them directly over the corresponding printing on the tympan-sheet (see fig. 160). thin tissue-paper will be found good for building up portions requiring but little increase in pressure. =underlaying= consists in pasting strips of paper to the back of type or cuts which print unevenly, to make the low portions higher. when the form prints satisfactorily, you must prepare the marginal lines before running off the job. the margins can easily be marked off upon the tympan-sheet, as you have the impression upon it for a guide (see fig. 160). when this has been done, =gauge-pins= of some sort should be stuck into the tympan-sheet along the marginal lines as guides for placing the paper in the press for printing. two forms of these pins, which can be bought for twenty-five or thirty cents a pair, are shown in fig. 157. these pins must be so placed that there will be no danger of them mashing the type. [illustration: fig. 157.--two forms of gauge-pins.] [illustration: figs. 158-161.--home-made gauges.] there are several forms of home-made gauges which may be used, three of which are shown in figs. 158, 159, and 161. the first (fig. 158) consists of an ordinary pin bent into the shape shown. the second (fig. 159) is made out of a strip of cardboard scored and bent as in the drawing. it must be pasted in place and held in position until dry, to prevent it from slipping (see fig. 160). the third form of home-made gauge-pin consists of a quad (fig. 161), or thin piece of furniture, pasted to the tympan-sheet. =in inking the press= be careful to spread the ink evenly over the disk, and apply just enough to make a clear, clean copy. too much ink will clog the type and produce a smeared print. ink should not be left upon the form after the latter has been removed from the press, but should be washed off immediately with benzine. the disk and rollers should also be washed after use, as the ink will not be good when hard and will become dirty. =the life of a roller= is greatly increased by using machine-oil rather than benzine for washing it. benzine is too drying for the composition of a roller (which is glue and molasses) and takes the elasticity out of it, causing it to crack. keep the rollers in a cool place in the summer and not in too cold a place in the winter, for extremes in temperature also affect the composition. =neatness= is absolutely necessary in printing, and to secure this you must keep your hands clean so as not to finger-mark your prints. care must be taken in throwing off printed sheets to see that they do not fall upon freshly printed ones if these are wet enough to mark them. =materials= should be put away in their proper places after use. do not throw type, leads, and furniture carelessly about, as they are likely to be lost or broken by doing so. cigar-boxes make handy receptacles for pied type, until you have an opportunity to sort out and distribute it. these are useful also for keeping leads, furniture, and rules in, and a cabinet similar to that described in chapter i (fig. 15), or the curio-cabinet described in chapter iv (fig. 59), should be made to hold them. the young printer should see to it that =proofs and scraps of paper= are thrown into a waste basket and not scattered about, as they accumulate rapidly, and not only make a shop look very untidy, but increase the danger of fire. =oily rags= should be kept in a covered tin can, for they are liable to ignite spontaneously when exposed to the air; and of course oils, gasoline, and benzine should be handled away from fire and corked up after use. chapter x amateur journalism [illustration: boy journalists.] amateur journalism is by no means a new pastime, but probably at no time in its long history has it been thought as much of as at present. it would be a difficult matter to even roughly estimate the number of papers which have been issued in the amateur world. mr. edwin hadley smith of new york city has the largest collection now in existence. this at present consists of 22,600 amateur papers, 500 amateur books, 800 photographs of amateur journalists, 800 professional clippings, and 2,500 miscellaneous printed relics dating as far back as 1845. the collection, which is the result of many years' work, is sorted and catalogued, and will soon be placed in one of our large libraries, where the public may inspect the work that has been turned out by amateurs for the past half century. [illustration: a group of amateur papers.] it is said benjamin franklin published an amateur paper in 1723, when a lad of seventeen years; and in tracing the history of amateur journalism down to the present time, a person would be surprised to find what a large number of the most successful statesmen, writers, and scientific men this country has had were amateur journalists in their younger days. there are at present in the neighborhood of two hundred amateur papers published in the united states. a few of these papers, representative of amateurs from all parts of the country, have been grouped together and reproduced opposite page 142, and several others are shown in figs. 162, 163, 164, 165, and 166. it is to be regretted that lack of space forbids a larger display of these papers, many of which are quite unique and reflect credit upon their publishers. [illustration: fig. 162.--a school paper. 32 pages. size 2-1/4" × 2-3/4".] during the centennial at philadelphia in 1876, the national amateur press association was formed for the purpose of spreading amateur journalism and bringing amateurs into closer relations with one another. the united amateur press association was formed in 1897, and, while it is a younger organization than the national amateur press association, has a large membership of amateurs. every boy aspirant to the field of journalism should join one of these associations as soon as he has the proper credential--a copy of his own paper, or an original article of his published in an amateur paper. by becoming a member and getting acquainted with other amateurs through exchange of papers, a boy is greatly benefited. he has a chance to see what other amateurs are doing, finds out through the other papers what the members think of his work, and learns through these friendly criticisms wherein he can improve his publication. he also has a chance to enter his writings for the prizes awarded annually by the associations for the best poems, sketches, essays, histories, and editorials. a great number of the members of these two associations are interested in smaller organizations, among which are the interstate association--consisting of the members of the east--and the western. again, a large number of amateurs have formed state organizations, and in large cities, where there are enough members to do so, local clubs have been formed. the city clubs hold frequent meetings, at which it is customary for the members to take part in literary programmes. the state and other organizations generally hold semi-annual meetings, and the national amateur press association and the united amateur press association meet annually in some city chosen the preceding year, and at this convention elect their officers, make awards of prizes for the year, and have a general good time. the boy who is owner of a printing-press is almost certain to get the publishing fever and commence the publishing of a small paper. if his press is too small for such an undertaking, it will of course be necessary for him to do such job printing as he can get to do until he has earned sufficient money to buy a larger press and such materials as he will need in publishing a paper. but it is not always the boy who has had a taste of printing who becomes interested in amateur journalism. there are few boys nowadays who pass through their school life without devoting some of their time to this interesting and instructive work. a paper started by one boy is generally followed by several more, and in this way the number of amateur papers sent out in a town very rapidly increases. nothing daunts the ambitious boy. if he has not a press, and there are no prospects of him earning one for some time, he will not allow this to interfere with his plans. it only means he must devise some other way of printing. many boys have already proven that a press is not an absolute necessity, by issuing papers printed with rubber type, written by pen and on typewriters, and printed by the mimeograph and such duplicating machines. these are all more or less tiresome operations, but ways in which the boy determined to publish a paper may start. a few examples of papers printed by these methods are shown in figs. 162, 163, and 164. it might be interesting to know a little something about how these papers were run. the one shown in fig. 162 was lettered by hand, and while only one copy of an issue was made, and that passed about in the school at which the publishers attended, there was a good deal of work required to get it up. [illustration: fig. 163.--another school paper.] the paper shown in fig. 163 is also a school paper, published at the lake high school, chicago. the copy for this was first written off on a wax sheet by means of a typewriter, and this sheet placed on the cylinder of a machine known as a "neostyle," the cylinder then being revolved and the papers printed from the wax sheet. [illustration: fig. 164.--printed with rubber type.] the paper shown in fig. 164 was the writer's first attempt in the publishing line, and was indeed a sorry specimen of typography. a box of rubber type, a four line holder, and ink-pad constituted the printing outfit. the paper was a twelve-paged two-column affair, requiring six impressions of four lines each to the column. the column ruling was done with a pen, and, after printing the copies, each had to be gone over and retouched with pen and ink. it was a long and tedious job, and so wearing upon the type that they were practically useless by the time the second issue had been printed. but by this time the publishers became owners of a press with which they were able to turn out more satisfactory work. the first thing for a boy to consider is =the character= of his paper--whether it shall contain news of the athletic field, the school, or the neighborhood, entirely, or be devoted to amateur journalism entirely, or be made up of a little of each. the schoolroom presents so much of interest to those in and out of it, that papers managed and edited by several pupils, with the articles written by the different classes, are generally successful. athletic news is always interesting to boys, and to have at least a portion of your paper given up to this subject might be a good plan. [illustration: fig. 165.] the paper shown in fig. 165 is an example of a small paper, the size of the sheet being three by four and one-half inches. it was published a few years ago by six boys living in lexington, kentucky. the staff, the oldest of whom was but ten years of age, consisted of the editor-in-chief, who attended to the general management, editing, and printing of the paper, and five other boys, known as the associate editors, who gathered the news and did the hustling. this paper contained mostly neighborhood news, and had a large local circulation. the paper shown in fig. 166 consists of twelve pages printed upon a press with a form capacity four by six inches, and is given up entirely to the publication of original stories and poems. [illustration: fig. 166.] some boys who do not own presses have the printing done by professionals, but simply to edit a paper gives them but half the pleasure and experience derived from executing all the work themselves,--editing, printing, binding, mailing, etc. =in naming= a paper be sure to select a suitable title for it, a name with a meaning, such as will denote the character of the publication, being desirable. =the frequency of publication= will depend largely upon the size of sheet, number of pages, the amount of time that can be devoted to the work, and the facilities for printing. whether weekly, monthly, semi-monthly--twice a month, bi-monthly--once in two months, or quarterly, try to place each issue in the hands of subscribers as nearly on time as possible. =the size of page= will depend largely upon your press. however, a small sheet is most desirable for an amateur paper. the first page should be headed with the name of the paper set up in rather large type. you will find =a stereotyped heading= cheaper to buy than a font of large type, and easier to handle on account of its being in a solid block. below the heading should appear the volume number, date, and number of issue, on one line, followed by the title of the article and body of type. =the choice of type= may be made by examining the sheets shown opposite page 142 and in figs. 165 and 166, many of which are good specimens of typography. these should also help you to formulate your ideas as to the style of your paper. the second page should be headed with the page number and name of paper--or title of story--in small caps, this line to be separated from the body of type by means of a pica brass rule. great care should be used in publishing a paper to have the proof thoroughly corrected before the form is printed, for typographical errors spoil the appearance of the paper and are always disgusting to the reader. also see to it that the marginal lines correspond on each sheet, and try to get uniform impressions throughout the paper. =a cover= is desirable for a small paper, as it adds to its appearance and size. if you have one, set it up in somewhat the same style as those shown opposite page 142. the cover sheets should be cut a little larger than the inside sheets, so they will cover the latter when they are bound together. with the printing of an issue completed, the sheets are ready for =binding=.--they may be fastened together by means of wire staples, paste, or thread. figure 167 shows a scheme of stitching much employed in printing-offices and which is simple for an amateur to do. the sheets are first folded inside one another, as in the drawing. then, starting at _a_ with a needle and thread, run the needle through the sheets; carry the thread underneath the sheets from _a_ to _b_, from _b_ to _c_ above, from _c_ to _a_ beneath, and up through the sheets at _a_. then tie the two ends of _d_ and _e_ in a hard knot, with the portion of the thread marked _f_ between them. [illustration: fig. 167.] the cover may be bound with the rest of the sheets, or pasted to them after the sheets have been stitched. few amateurs bother with =advertisements=, probably because it is hard to find merchants who have confidence in results from magazines with small circulations; but with cheap rates you should be able to secure enough ads. to more than defray the expenses of publishing a paper. before soliciting these, cut a sheet of paper the size of a page and divide it into small spaces with a pencil and ruler, making what is known as =the advertisers' dummy=.--show this to your prospective advertisers and let them pick out the space they wish, charging so much per inch, the rate varying according to the position the ad. will occupy. with at least four regular issues a year, and not less than fifty per cent of the circulation paid subscriptions, you will be able to enter your paper in the post-office of your city as =second-class matter=, which makes it possible for you to mail your papers to out-of-town subscribers at the rate of one cent per pound. to secure these privileges write to the third assistant postmaster-general of your city for an entry blank, together with full particulars concerning second-class matter. return the application with a copy of your paper; and when it has been passed upon, the postmaster will issue you a certificate entitling you to these rates and authorizing you to print upon your paper "entered at the post-office at (name of town) as second-class matter." chapter xi a boy's dark-room [illustration: a boy photographing his dog.] there is no reason why an industrious boy cannot do a profitable business with a camera, when he has learned to operate it successfully, does careful and neat work, and charges a reasonable price for his pictures. the many monthly photographic competitions in the magazines should be a great help in showing where his faults lie, and when he has overcome these he should be able to make considerable money from the cash prizes offered. an amateur should master as much of the work as possible. one of the most interesting parts is missed if you pay a professional to develop your plates, and you never know where your faults have been made in taking the pictures, by not seeing the manner in which the image appears on the negative during the development. even though you spoil one or two plates in your first attempts at developing, your results on the whole will probably be as good as those obtained by a professional, who is very often careless with amateurs' work. no discussion of photography has been included in this book, as a complete treatise would be too lengthy, and a condensed description impractical. there are a number of excellent publications which describe the subject in detail, making it so clear that a boy cannot help but understand the principles with a little study. few of these books, however, dwell upon the equipment of the dark-room, and none give a fellow any ideas for the making of his apparatus, generally an important item to a boy. =the necessary equipment= for a dark-room is not large, about all you require besides your chemicals being a ruby lantern, printing frame, three trays,--one for developing, another for fixing, and a third for toning,--a two-inch camel's-hair brush for dusting plates, a drying-rack, glass graduate, funnel, set of scales, bottles for solutions, and a cabinet in which to keep your apparatus and supplies. =a dark-room= is not a necessity, although it is a great convenience, especially if you are doing much work. with the shades pulled down, you will find that your bedroom serves the purpose very well in the evening, and many boys do their work in this way. [illustration: fig. 168. a handy dark-room.] [illustration: fig. 172. a washing box and drying rack.] figure 168 illustrates how developing is carried on in a bedroom of an old-style house, where the wash-stands are set in recesses in the wall. here a shelf made up of several boards fastened together with battens is set upon the marble slabs around the basin. in this shelf an opening four by six inches is made as shown in fig. 170, the edges of the opening being rabbeted to receive a five-by-seven camera plate. this arrangement is very complete, for the developing is performed on the shelf, the fixing on the stand below, and the washing in the basin, while light from the lantern is projected through the glass in the shelf, making it light underneath. this scheme can be used for any wash-stand, by nailing the shelf to two pieces of board twelve inches long by the width of the shelf, these pieces being set firmly upon the wash-stand. some boys use =the bath-room= for their dark-room, darkening the window and shutting out any rays of light that may come through the key-hole and cracks about the door. this works splendidly, there being running water at hand and the tub in which to wash the negatives. the work-table is made out of several boards battened together, and should be set across the edges of the tub. figure 169 shows =another scheme=--a dark-room fitted up in a closet, or by partitioning off a corner of the attic or cellar. in the latter case the inside of the partition should be covered with black paper or cloth to prevent light from entering cracks in the boards. the room should be provided with =a work-table= about three feet high. this should be built against the wall and strongly braced, as shown in the sketch (fig. 169). fasten a shelf to the wall about nine inches below the table, and under this make a rack with three divisions in it for trays. the rack should be fastened to the braces, as shown in the drawing. =running water= is a great convenience in a dark-room, as it saves the bother of having to carry water in pails, or transferring your plates to a tub or wash-basin for the final bath after development. if it is impossible to locate your dark-room where it will be supplied with running water, the best scheme is =a water-tank= with hose attachment. this is shown in fig. 169. to carry it out, procure from your grocer a "half-barrel," such as is used for the shipment of salt mackerel, etc., and, after thoroughly cleaning it, bore a hole in the side about two inches from the bottom. buy at a drug-store several feet of rubber tubing, a rubber stopper with a hole cut in the centre, two pinch-stops, a six-inch piece of glass tubing bent at right angles, and a small glass funnel. slip one end of the bent piece of glass tubing into the rubber stopper, and stick the latter in the hole made in the barrel. then slip a short piece of the rubber tubing over the glass tubing, and place one of the pinch-stops on it to be used in regulating the supply of water from the tank (see fig. 171). set the barrel on one end of the table, and run the rubber tubing through a hole cut for it in the work-table. [illustration: fig. 170. fig. 171. fig. 169.--a well-equipped dark-room.] it is advisable to filter the water used from the barrel, that you may be sure it is free from dirt, so an arrangement similar to that shown in fig. 171 should be fastened below the work-table. it consists of a glass funnel set in a hole bored in a block of wood (see _a_ in fig. 171), which is suspended from the bottom of the work-table by means of a stick (_b_), one end of which is nailed to block _a_ and the other end to the work-table. keep a piece of filter-paper in the funnel. the rubber tubing should be cut just long enough to reach the funnel, and the bottom of this filter should come within an inch or two of the sink, which will be set in the shelf below. you will find an iron drip-pan about as cheap =a sink= as can be had, considering that one twelve by seventeen inches will cost you just fifty cents--twenty-five cents for the pan and an equal amount to pay a tinsmith for soldering a three-eighths inch pipe in a hole cut in the bottom for a drain. either fasten the sink on the shelf, boring a hole for the pipe to fit in, or set it in an opening cut in the shelf, as shown in the drawing, supporting it by the rim around its top. slip a piece of rubber tubing over the lower end of the drain pipe and to this attach the second pinch-stop as a regulator for emptying the sink (see fig. 169). as the water supply would be insufficient to wash the plates thoroughly after taking them from the hypo bath, it should be used for rinsing only, and =a washing-box=, after the scheme of fig. 172, made to hold the negatives while washing them. this box will stand on the shelf beside the sink until you are through developing. the rack is made up of strips of wood fastened together with wire brads. figure 173 clearly shows its construction. strips _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ should be placed three and three-quarters inches apart for four-by-five plates, and kerfs should be cut in their edges as shown. _a_ and _d_ are mounted upon short stilts, and _b_ and _c_ are nailed to the uprights supporting the handle. the plates rest upon strips nailed across the bottom pieces. [illustration: fig. 173.--a washing-rack.] this tray was made to hold two dozen plates, but may be made smaller if you wish. the box should be just large enough for the tray to fit in. fill all the cracks and joints with white-lead and give the box several coats of paint to make it perfectly water tight. then make a hole in the side near the bottom to let the water out, and procure a cork to fit it (fig. 174). [illustration: fig. 174.--the washing-box.] before developing, cork up the washing-box, fill it with water, and set it in one end of the sink where the plates can be set in it after being taken from the fixing bath. when you are through developing, place the box and plates in the wash-basin or the bath-tub; remove the cork from the box and allow the water to run in at the top and out through the hole near the bottom. when the negatives have been thoroughly washed, the tray can be removed from the washing-box and used as =a drying-rack=. another scheme for a drying-rack easily made is shown in fig. 175. for the construction, two pieces of wood twelve inches long by four inches wide will be needed (_a_ and _b_ in fig. 175), also two blocks (_c_ and _d_) four inches square. mitre one edge of _a_ and _b_, and cut a right-angled bird's-mouth in _c_ and _d_ to receive _a_ and _b_. with the pieces prepared, fasten them together as in the illustration. then procure some corrugated straw-board, such as is used for packing glass-ware, etc., cut two pieces four by twelve inches, and tack them to _a_ and _b_ in such a way that the corrugations on one strip coincide with those on the other. for a simple rack this cannot be surpassed. [illustration: fig. 175.--a negative-rack.] for chemicals, supplies, and apparatus, make =a cabinet= similar to the one described for tools in chapter i, or the curio-cabinet in chapter v. this makes it possible to keep everything in order and in places where they can easily be reached. such a cabinet is shown on the wall in fig. 169. the best scheme for a dark-room =ruby-light= is shown in fig. 169. this is practicable, however, only when you build the dark-room itself and can cut a window in the partition. it makes it possible to have your source of light outside of the room, and does away with the heat caused by having a lamp within, where you are working. first, cut a ten-by-twelve-inch window opening in the partition on a level with the top of the work-table. then make a frame a little larger than this opening and either set a piece of ruby or orange glass in it, or paste a sheet of ruby or orange paper over it. build a track above and below the opening for the frame to slide in, doing the work neatly, so there will be no possibility of light leaking through. the light, which may be a candle or lamp, should stand upon a shelf supported upon a bracket outside of the window. it is convenient to have the window slide, as it enables you to open it and have white light to work by when a ruby light is not necessary. this window furnishes light for developing, which will be done upon the table, but none for the shelf below, where the sink is located and where the fixing tray should be kept (that there will be no danger of getting hypo into the developer). in order to have light for this shelf, you had better follow the scheme shown in fig. 170. cut an opening four by six inches in the work-table directly in front of the window, and make a half-inch rabbet around its upper edge to receive a five-by-seven camera plate (see fig. 170). [illustration: fig. 176.--a home-made dark-room lantern.] if it is not possible to have outside light for the dark room, =a home-made lantern=, such as is illustrated in fig. 176, will be found very satisfactory. it is made out of a wooden box about ten by ten by twelve inches. cut two openings six inches square in two sides of the box and cover one with one sheet and the other with two sheets of orange or red paper, spreading paste over the entire surface of the paper to make it stretch tightly over the openings as it dries. the orange and red wrappers of some makes of printing papers and developing powders can be used for the covering of these openings. for a chimney, procure a long slender baking-powder can, remove the cover and bottom, and insert it in a hole cut for it in the top of the box. then an arrangement must be made, as shown in fig. 176, to prevent light from emitting from the top of the can. this consists of a tomato-can placed over the baking-powder can, bottom side up, with its edge fastened in kerfs cut in the ends of four wooden stilts (see illustration). drive the stilts firmly into holes bored for them in the top of the box. the edge of the tomato-can should now be about an inch and one-half above the box, and its bottom an inch or more above the baking-powder can. [illustration: fig. 177.] below the chimney attach a wooden stilt to the bottom of the lantern, and tack a can cover to the top of it, as shown in the drawing. this forms a cup holder for the candle, which not only catches the drippings, but also makes the lantern fire-proof should the candle burn down to the end before you notice it. bore a number of holes in the bottom of the box, and nail two strips to the under side, as shown. the lamp is now completed with the exception of the door, which should be made in three pieces, with the edges cut and bevelled as shown in figs. 176 and 177. nail strips _a_ and _c_ to the back of the box, and slip _b_ between them. a screw-eye near the bottom of _b_ will serve as a lift in opening the lantern. as the edges of the strips are cut on a slant and bevelled, a joint which cannot possibly leak light is obtained when _b_ is slipped into place. all cracks in the box should be carefully filled with white lead. in offering this lamp to his boy readers, the writer knows they will find it most satisfactory and a solution to the problem of making a perfect dark-lantern. the air admitted through the holes in the bottom of the box carries the heat and smoke straight into the chimney, and out through the space between the tin cans, making it impossible for the flame to ignite the wood. if you use =a plate-lifter= you will find an old tooth-brush handle tapered at the end by means of a file one of the best that can be had. it is well to have some scheme for =classifying and preserving negatives=.--to keep them in their original boxes is not a good idea, as there is always danger of scratching them and no satisfactory way of keeping track of their description, date of exposure, etc. =manila envelopes=, with a printed form to be filled out, on the outside, are invaluable holders, as they not only make it possible to file away negatives in alphabetical order, but preserve them from dust, scratches, etc. [illustration: fig. 178.--a negative-case.] the four-by-five size can be bought for about twenty-five cents a hundred from a dealer in photograph supplies; but you can get them much cheaper by going to a paper house and asking for their four-by-five coin-cut manila envelope, which sells in half-thousand lots at about one dollar per thousand. if the quantity is more than you will need, you can probably dispose of a portion of them to your boy friends. with a printing-press or rubber type, the following form should be printed upon the outside, with a rule or space to the right in which to place the descriptions:- no. description date remarks =a wooden case= to hold the envelopes is desirable, and such a one may be made similar to fig. 178. for four-by-five negatives the inside of the box should measure twelve inches long, five and one-quarter inches wide, and three inches deep. it will hold about six dozen negatives. very light wood, about three-eighths of an inch thick, should be used for the construction of this case. cut two pieces twelve and three-quarters by three and three-eighths inches for the sides, two pieces six by three and three-eighths for the ends, and one piece twelve by five and one-quarter for the bottom. in cutting the side-and end-pieces, mitre the edges of each so they will make neat corners. the mitre-box should be used for this purpose. nail the pieces together with small finishing nails, after which fasten the bottom-piece between them, driving the nails through the side-pieces into it. the cover is made of a board twelve and three-quarters inches long by six inches wide, with a rim made of four inch-and-one-quarter strips nailed around its edge, as shown in the illustration. two of the strips should be twelve and three-quarters inches long, and the other two six inches long. their ends should be mitred and fitted together as the sides of the box were done, and the top should be nailed to their top edges. this cover fits over the plates, which project an inch above the sides. hinge it to the back of the box, and attach a hook to the front. if you do not keep your plates in envelopes, the sides of the box should be lined with corrugated straw-board to separate them. this may be tacked or glued to the wood. by rubbing down the outside with emery-paper, oiling, shellacking, or varnishing the wood, a very pretty case will be obtained. you will find it a simple matter to pick out a negative by having them filed in the order of their exposure, and catalogued alphabetically in a note-book. chapter xii a winter enterprise [illustration: boys with snow shovel and broom.] boys who keep their eyes open for opportunities to make money are not long in finding that the coming of snow means money in their pockets if they are willing to do a little hustling. a number of years ago a few boys undertook the job of keeping the walks of their neighborhood free from snow, and constructed =a snow plough= with which to do their work. the plough proved so satisfactory that others were made, and before long every boy in the neighborhood had enlisted in the company. by several boys joining forces in this way, and making contracts with property owners to keep their walks and steps free from snow, a good deal of ground can be covered in a short space of time, and a neat sum of money realized during the season. the work can be done before and after school, and be so divided that while several are ploughing the walks the others are cleaning the steps. a plough such as is illustrated in fig. 179 is made in two sections, four feet long by two feet wide. after battening the boards together at _a_ and _b_, as shown in the drawing, fasten the sections in place, with two ends together and the other two ends two feet apart. nail them firmly together at the angle and brace them at the open end with strips, as shown at _c_ and _d_ in the illustration. [illustration: fig. 179.--a snow plough.] the bottom edge of the plough should be covered with tin, to prevent it from wearing or becoming broken. bore a hole an inch in diameter in each section at _e_, and fasten a broom-handle in them from which to attach the rope tugs. this being done the plough is ready for use. =a scraper= is about the best appliance that can be had for cleaning snow from the steps, especially when the snow has turned to slush. for the making of one of these, prepare a seven-eighths inch board sixteen inches long by four inches wide. bevel the lower edge and nail a two inch strip below the top, as at _a_ in fig. 180. bore a hole through both thicknesses of wood at _b_ and fit a broom-handle in it, bracing the handle with a piece of wire run from a small hole bored in the handle at _c_ to the ends of the scraper. [illustration: fig. 180.--a scraper.] figure 181 shows a scheme for =a snow shovel= that is easy to make, and one which will stand a good deal of wear. for this, secure two barrel staves, cut them in two, and plane up the curved edges until they are straight. then taking three of these pieces, lay them side by side and nail a two-by-two inch strip across the top edges, as shown at _a_, to bind them together. the bevelled ends of the staves should be placed at the lower end of the shovel and bound in place by a strip of galvanized iron bent over the edges and tacked to the staves (see _b_ in drawing). another iron strip should be nailed across the staves at _c_, to fasten them more securely together. clinch the nails upon the under side of the shovel and drive their ends well into the wood. procure a broom-stick for the handle and place it in a bevelled slot cut at _d_ (fig. 182), fastening down the end with iron pipe-straps, as shown in fig. 181. [illustration: fig. 182.] [illustration: fig. 181.--an easily made snow shovel.] with the addition of brooms to the plough, scrapers, and shovels, your outfit will be complete and ready for business. [illustration: two boys with fishing pole.] part ii outdoor pastimes [illustration: in camp for the summer.] chapter xiii a back-yard club-house [illustration: boys in discussion, boys work on the club-house.] for many years there stood in a city back-yard a shanty in which the boys of the neighborhood gathered after school and during vacation, to hold their club-meetings. many a pleasant hour was spent within the walls of this little building, and it had to be enlarged year after year to hold the ever-increasing number of members. if, during the week of school preceding the summer vacation, the boys were seen making plans and talking seriously about something evidently in connection with the house, it might well be imagined that the annual alterations were about to begin. at the close of school the neighbors were made aware of it by the appearance of half a dozen boys upon the roof of the shanty, who, with hammers and hatchets in their hands, were easily recognized as the wrecking crew. perhaps the roof was to be raised a foot or given a different pitch, a window changed here or a door placed there, a side extended or a partition built through the centre; but no matter whether the alterations bettered the building or not, they gave the owners a chance to use their ingenuity in working out their schemes, and practice in carpenter work. the boys' greatest difficulty was found in obtaining large enough material with which to build. the woodshed was the lumber-yard, and as this contained only a few old boards, several packing-cases, and kindling-wood, a great deal of splicing was required and many pounds of nails were necessary to fasten the many small pieces in place. after remodelling the club-house one year, the members in way of a joke placed a "for rent" sign upon the door, and were greatly surprised to receive the following mysterious letter:- mister agent: i sea u hev a house fur rent what u want furit im a wider with 12 children six pigs 5 chickens a mule three dogs 7 cats and ten ducks i hop the house is big enuff it dont matter bout the children but i wont crowd the pigs. i soppose will paint outside an in and put awnins at the frunt winders i'd like terry cotty shades and a stun sidewalk if u'll put a piassie on and reduce the rent till after wurlds fair i'll take it what you want furit please let me know soon if u dont find me hum im like to be at mis whatnots if u dont know the way to her house just ask mis jones next door but one to me she'll tell u good by. mary jane johnstone. the letter was answered immediately and sent to the general delivery but was returned from the dead letter office, and no trace of the large family could be found. [illustration: the back-yard club-house.] knowing that many boys who would like to build themselves a club-house have not the money in their treasury with which to buy new lumber, this chapter will describe the manner in which a rough-and-ready house may be built. it will not be attempted to show the correct methods of putting up a framework, such as would be built if the right-sized lumber were obtainable, but the simplest way in which boys can make use of the material at hand. =draw the plan= of the building upon a piece of paper, and before commencing work figure out exactly what material will be required. if you haven't enough lumber you will find it a great deal easier to alter the plans at first than when the work is half completed. it is best first to place in one pile all =the material= you can find; then, after drawing the plans, sort out the boards according to their lengths. use the short boards whenever possible, so that the long pieces may be kept for places requiring long boards. several two-by-fours should be secured for the framework. if you do not happen to have these, you can easily get what you want at some alteration job or where some frame structure is being torn down. short two-by-fours may be spliced, or, more correctly speaking, "fished." this is very often resorted to in building when studding of a sufficient length cannot be procured. figure 183 shows the method of =fishing studs=.--two fish-plates, _a_ and _b_, are nailed to the sides of the studs, covering the joints, while the face _od_ remains on a level to receive the siding. by building the club-house in a corner of the yard, against the fence, house, or barn, it is necessary to build but two walls. less material is required, and a much firmer structure obtained by doing this. [illustration: fig. 183.] =stake out= the length and width of the house upon the ground, and sink a stone or a couple of bricks at the corner to support the corner post. then cut two two-by-fours the length of the greatest inside height of the house. set one upon the corner stone, bracing it temporarily with boards run from it to the fence, and spike the other to the fence on a line with the corner post (see _a_ and _b_ in fig. 184). cut the end-plate _c_ the correct length and spike it to _a_ and _b_, after which cut a two-by-four the length of the shortest inside height, and spike it to the fence rails at _d_. nail the boards _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, and _i_ to the places shown in fig. 184. =the studs= should be placed from two to three feet apart, according to the length of boards used for siding, and additional studding should be set in where it is necessary. fasten the ends of the studs to the boards _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, and _i_. studding should be placed around the window and door openings, as shown in the illustration. [illustration: fig. 184.--framework of club-house.] after completing the framework, =board up the sides=, fitting the boards around openings and corners as neatly as possible. =the roof= is a very important factor in a building of any kind, and care should be taken to make it of water-proof material, for a leaky roof will not only ruin the interior but make it damp and thus unhealthy. tar-paper will be found a good roofing material, inexpensive, and easily put on. first cover the roof with boards placed about one inch apart. then cut the tar-paper into lengths equal to the width of the roof. commencing at the lower edge of the roof tack one strip in place. lap a second strip two inches over the first, a third two inches over the second, and so on until the entire roof is covered. figure 185 shows a tin cap and nail made especially for this kind of work. the cap is punched to fit over the nail, and prevents water from running into the hole made by the latter. it will be unnecessary to coat the paper with tar, as there is sufficient in its preparation to keep it water proof a long time--probably longer than the house itself will be allowed to stand. [illustration: fig. 185.] =the floor= should not be laid directly upon the ground, but be supported upon four-inch sleepers set as shown in fig. 186, with cinders rammed in between them. the bed of cinders should not be more than three inches thick, so there will be an inch of air space between them and the floor. this will help to keep the floor free from dampness. four-inch boards stood on edge will do very well for the sleepers. [illustration: fig. 186.--construction of floor.] you can probably make a bargain with a carpenter for =a window-sash.=--they very often have a number taken from old buildings, which they will gladly sell for a small sum. there are two ways in which you can easily fasten the sash in place, either with hinges so it will swing in, as shown in figs. 187 and 188, or in tracks, to slide as described for the dark-room window in chapter xi and illustrated in fig. 169. if the window is made in the front of the building, as shown in the sketch of the finished club-house, the sash will necessarily have to be hinged, as there would not be room for it to slide sideways. we will therefore hinge it to swing in as shown in figs. 187 and 188. the studding which was placed around the window opening when you erected the framework of the house forms a frame for the sash to set in. the window-sill is made out of a seven-eighths-inch board cut the width of the opening, and should be nailed to the bottom piece of the frame so it pitches slightly outwards and its edges project a little beyond the wall inside and out (see fig. 188). the pitch of the sill can be obtained by blocking the inner edge with a very thin strip of wood, as shown in the section drawing. the sash should fit the frame with but enough space around it to allow it to open freely. place the sash in the opening with its inside surface on a line with the inside face of the two-by-four frame, as shown in fig. 188, and nail a seven-eighths-inch window-stop around the frame outside of the sash to keep the rain and wind from entering. [illustration: fig. 188.--section through window.] [illustration: fig. 187.--inside of window.] by hinging the sash to the top of the frame as shown in the illustration, it can be swung up out of the way when opened. a spring-catch should be screwed to the bottom rail of the sash with the latch-pocket counter sunk in the window-sill, and from the knob of the catch a cord should be attached and run through a screw-eye placed in the wall near the ceiling. the sash can now be opened by pulling the cord, and may be held open by looping the end of the cord over a nail. wooden buttons should be screwed to the inside edge of the jambs for additional locks (see fig. 187). a sill should be set in the bottom of the door frame, and a seven-eighths inch stop nailed to the top and to the jambs in the same way as you finished the window opening. [illustration: fig. 189.--a batten door.] =make a batten door=, fastening the boards together on the inside with battens as shown in fig. 189, with the nails driven through from the outside face and clinched upon the battens. hinge the door to the inside face of the jamb with strap-hinges, and either buy an iron latch for it or make the old-fashioned =wooden latch= described and illustrated in the following chapter. with the carpenter work of the house completed, =calk up the cracks=, of which there will doubtless be a great number, unless matched boards have been used for the walls. this may be done by rolling pieces of newspapers into wads and wedging them into the cracks with a pointed stick. several thicknesses of wrapping-paper tacked over the inside walls will help to prevent the wind from entering, and will also make a good foundation for wall-paper should it be placed upon the walls. earth should be banked up around the outside of the house to keep away the water. vines trained over the outside will help to hide the roughness of the boards. the club-house interior may be fitted up with furniture such as is described in chapter iv, "suggestions for a boy's room." chapter xiv how to build a log-cabin [illustration: boy cleaning dishes and boy cooking outside the cabin.] the log-cabin marks what might be called the beginning of american architecture, for it was the first form of building built by white men upon american soil. the introduction of saw-mills was very slow, and lumber so scarce that cabins were the best shelter the colonists could build to withstand the cold winters and the merciless attacks of indians. with the building of saw-mills, the cabin gradually gave way to the frame building, which could be more quickly built, and which was, of course, a more comfortable lodging. but this change first took place up and down the large rivers, where the mills were located, and did not extend into the interior until some time later, owing to the difficulty of hauling lumber to great distances from the mills. to-day the log-cabin is still to be found in the timber regions and among the mountains, but mostly for temporary residences, such as summer homes, camps, and play-houses. [illustration: fig. 190.--plan for a boy's cabin.] you boys who spend the summer in the woods should not miss the opportunity of building yourselves a small cabin. several boys can join forces, and in this way make the work easier and quicker to perform. =select a site= on high ground, as near to your source of timber as possible, and then decide upon =the design and size to build it=, which will be determined largely by the size and amount of timber you can procure. a plan for a cabin simple in construction is shown in fig. 190, and while the details have been carefully worked out in this chapter for a cabin of this size, you will find it a simple matter to make such alterations as you wish. for the building of more pretentious cabins, the writer would refer his readers to "log cabins and cottages" as the most practical book published upon this subject. in this volume its author, mr. william s. wicks, has not only written upon the construction and treatment of cabins, but also brought together a number of sketches showing a great variety of clever designs that have been built in different sections of the country. in carrying out the details of construction for the cabin described in this chapter, the writer has made use of a number of ideas from this book, through the courtesy of mr. wicks and his publishers. of course the most of =the material= for the cabin will be secured near at hand, but for a good roof, and the finishing of the door and window openings, a few boards should be taken along, together with several pounds of nails. [illustration: a boys' log cabin.] while it is customary to lay up the walls of a cabin and then cut the door and window openings, you will find it a very much simpler matter to leave the spaces for them when laying up the logs, as it greatly decreases the number of long logs required to build the cabin. as the inside dimensions of the cabin shown in the plan of fig. 190 are ten by twelve feet, the full-length logs--that is, those above and below the window and door openings--should be thirteen feet long for the ends of the cabin and fifteen feet for the front and rear walls. =to start the cabin=, stake out its length and breadth upon the ground, clear the space of all trees and brush, and make the ground as nearly level as possible. you will find it unnecessary to have a foundation for a cabin of this size, as it will not settle to amount to anything. [illustration: fig. 191.--the lock-joint.] probably the most simple way of joining the logs together is what is known as =the lock-joint.=--as shown in fig. 191, a notch is cut in the logs twelve inches from each end, so the surfaces of the logs will be brought together when the ends are fitted over one another, as shown in the drawing. select two fifteen-foot logs for =the sills=, and set them an inch or so into the ground, parallel to each other and ten feet apart. then after cutting the notches in two thirteen-foot logs, fit them over the sills twelve inches from the ends. the opening for the fire-place must be left in one end of the cabin, so mark out upon the end log the width of this opening, which should be five feet, and cut out this section of it. then cut two boards three feet long, the height of the fire-place opening, and nail them to the ends of the log just cut. these boards form the jambs of the opening. locate a three-foot door opening in the centre of the front sill-log, and saw along these lines to within two inches of the ground, cutting out the piece between. the remaining two-inch piece will form the door-sill. two pieces of board six feet six inches long, the height of the door opening, should now be cut for the door-jambs and nailed to the ends of the sill-log in the door opening. after testing the jambs with a plumb, such as is shown in fig. 14, chapter i, to see that they are perpendicular, continue laying the side and end logs alternately. fit the logs between the jambs and nail the latter to their ends, being careful not to get them out of plumb in doing so. above the fire-place the logs will, of course, be of full length, and at a height of four feet four inches the windows will start. locate the window openings twenty-six inches wide upon the logs laid at this height, the one opposite the fire-place in the centre of the wall, and the others twelve inches from the corners. cut the jambs twenty-six inches long, and, after setting them in place, continue laying up the logs, fitting the shorter lengths between the jambs as before. [illustration: fig. 192.--interior of cabin.] when the desired height of the walls has been reached, which need not be more than seven feet, you will be ready =to construct the roof.=--there are several ways of doing this, but as simple as any is that shown in fig. 192, and in the illustration of the finished cabin. in laying this form of roof the end logs are placed one above the other, but each tier of front and rear logs is set in a little farther than the preceding pair, until they finally meet at the peak of the roof. the roofs of cabins are generally thatched or covered with bark, shingles, or boards. the thatched roof is the most artistic, and will last from ten to fifteen years when properly made; but unless the straw is put on very thickly and closely woven, it is likely to leak. if you use shingles and expose each four and one-half inches to the weather, you will require about seven quarter-thousand bunches for a roof of this size. boards will make the most simple and inexpensive covering. they should be put on as shown in the drawing of the completed cabin, and in fig. 192. a layer of boards is first nailed across the roof-supports four inches apart, and other boards then lapped over these spaces and nailed in place. the roof boards should project a few inches over the side walls and gable-ends of the cabin. when all of the boards have been put in place, it will be necessary to finish off the ridge with =ridge boards=, to prevent water from leaking through the roof at that point. as shown in fig. 192, these consist of two boards nailed along the ridge, and the edge of one nailed to the edge of the other. it is not advisable to build =a log chimney and fire-place= with the intention of using it, for unless the work is very carefully done and kept in repair, there is always danger of setting fire to the cabin. but, nevertheless, it should be built, as it belongs to a cabin and adds greatly to its picturesque appearance. with large logs build up the chimney to a height of five feet, or two feet above the fire-place opening, in the same manner as you did the cabin walls, fitting the ends against the logs of the main structure. when this has been done sink a number of stones in front of the fire-place for a hearth, as shown in figs. 190 and 192, and also line the bottom of the fire-place with them. then mix up some clay and line the back, sides, and jambs of the fire-place with it from ten to twelve inches thick, packing the clay until it becomes solid. the upper part of the chimney should be made of smaller logs and sticks, and the inside of the flue lined with clay as the work proceeds. the exterior of the chimney will be seen in the illustration of the finished cabin. when the construction of the cabin has been completed, =calk all the spaces= between the logs with clay and moss, to keep out the weather, using a pointed stick for this operation; and grade the ground up to a point just below the line of the door-sill all around the cabin, so that no surface-water will run within. the finishing of the interior of the cabin now remains to be done. by omitting a wooden floor the cost of material will be reduced considerably, and there is really nothing objectionable to =a mud floor= if it has been properly prepared. the earth should be thoroughly dried out and packed down until hard and compact, and slightly banked up around the walls. the sills and heads of =the window openings= and the head of the door opening should be cased with boards the width of the jambs. if you can secure sash for the windows, hinge them to the inside edges of the jambs as shown in fig. 190, and nail a seven-eighths-inch window-stop around the jambs outside of them, to prevent the wind and rain from getting in around the sash (see fig. 193). if sash cannot be obtained, wooden shutters made to fit the opening will do very well, as they can be used at night and whenever you wish to close up the cabin, and when you are within the cabin in the summer you will want the windows open. [illustration: fig. 193.] after cutting boards of the proper length for =the cabin door=, fasten them together with battens placed at the top, bottom, and centre (see fig. 194). then hinge the door to the inside of the jamb with either iron strap-hinges or =wooden hinges= such as are shown in fig. 194. to make a set of wooden hinges, first cut three blocks of wood four or five inches long and nail them to the cabin wall on a line with the three door battens (see _a_, _b_, and _c_ in fig. 194). then prepare three pieces of wood eighteen inches long and two inches wide, and bore a small hole through one end of each, as shown at _d_ in fig. 195. when these have been made, nail them to the door above the battens so that when the door is put in place their ends will rest on blocks _a_, _b_, and _c_. locate the holes in the eighteen-inch strips upon _a_, _b_, and _c_, and bore holes through the blocks at these points, after which set the door in place and fasten the arms of the hinges to the blocks, either with bolts, as shown in fig. 194, or with hardwood pegs cut to fit the holes. [illustration: fig. 194.--the cabin door.] [illustration: figs. 195-199.--details of cabin door.] you will find the old-fashioned =wooden latch= and latch-string a very good and serviceable fastening for a cabin door, the details for the making of which are shown in figs. 194, 196, 197, 198, and 199. it consists of three pieces of wood,--a strip two feet long and two inches wide for the latch, with the ends rounded and a hole bored through it at _e_ and another at _f_, as shown in fig. 196; a guard cut similar to fig. 197, with a slot in it about three and one-half inches long and one inch deep; and a catch similar to fig. 198, with its upper edge rounded so the latch will easily slide into the slot. with the pieces thus prepared you will find it an easy matter to fasten them in the places shown in fig. 194. the catch is set into the jamb of the door as shown in fig. 198, the latch is screwed to the door at _e_, and the guard is fastened over the latch in the position shown in fig. 194. =the latch-string= is fastened to the latch at _f_, and run through a hole bored in the door above the top batten. to the outside end of the latch-string attach a weight of some kind to keep it from pulling through the hole (see fig. 199). to lock the door from the inside, you will find a wooden button screwed to the door at _g_ (fig. 194) very good, as it prevents the latch from being lifted, when turned against it as shown in the illustration. as in the case of the windows, a seven-eighths-inch stop should be nailed to the door head and jambs outside of the door, for the door to swing against, and to keep out the rain and wind (see fig. 193). you will have need of but few pieces of furniture within the cabin, and those can be made very simple, out of material at hand. =a mantel-shelf= out of a board five feet long should be fastened above the fire-place by means of three triangular brackets, and it is a good idea to make your =provision cupboard= to sit upon this, as shown in the drawing of the cabin interior (fig. 192). use a couple of the boxes in which you bring your camping outfit for this. set them side by side, as in the illustration, place a shelf or two within them, and, after battening the cover boards together, attach them to the ends of the boxes with hinges cut out of leather. on each side of the fire-place a comfortable =rustic seat= should be built in as shown in figs. 190 and 192. the drawings clearly show the construction of this. the two legs are driven well into the ground, and a crosspiece is nailed to their tops to support the sticks forming the seat. make the top of the seat about eighteen inches above the ground. while a very comfortable bed may be made upon the ground out of pine boughs, it is well to have at least =two bunks= for guests, who are almost certain to pay you a visit to see what kind of a time you are having, and perhaps test your cooking. these bunks may be double-decked and placed in the corner where they will be pretty well out of the way (see figs. 190 and 192). two six-foot poles should be driven into the ground about thirty inches from the wall, and two cross poles notched and fitted on to them as shown in fig. 192, one six inches above the ground and the other three feet above that. cut a number of sound sticks about three feet long and drive one end of each between the logs of the wall and fasten the other end to the crosspiece opposite. these sticks should be placed about three inches apart. in putting up this framework make everything very strong and solid, to prevent any mishaps to the occupants. the bunks should now be covered with pine boughs, cut into small pieces and spread over the sticks evenly and to a depth of two inches. when these have been properly placed, spread a doubled quilt or blanket over them, and the bunks will be completed. [illustration: two simple cabins.] as we decided not to use our fire-place for fires, owing to the danger of setting fire to the cabin through some defects in the workmanship, or the cracking of the clay lining, build your camp fire-place outside of the cabin. you will find it more enjoyable to also eat in the open when the weather permits, so build =a camp-table= between the trees for this purpose. it may be made out of two eight-inch boards fastened together on the under side with battens, and supported at one end on a cleat nailed across the trunk of a tree and at the other on two poles driven into the ground. the height of this table will be determined by the height of the boxes, stools, or whatever you use for seats. it is a simple matter to make a long rustic seat on each side of the table, and if this is done make them eighteen inches high and the table twelve inches higher. those of you who have camped have probably had enough experience to know what utensils and provisions are required, but =a few pointers= may be profitable to the boy who has never been initiated into camp life. =utensils= of the commonest kind should be taken along. an old frying-pan, a coffee-pot, two water pails, a tin pan and wash-basin, tin plates and drinking cups, some old spoons, knives, and forks, a can-opener, and a jack-knife are about all you will be in need of. among =other necessities= are blankets, towels, dish-cloths, rags, soap, rope, and string, matches, a lantern, and an axe, a saw, and nails. =for provisions=, take as much canned food as possible, as it requires but little preparation, is easily carried, and not likely to spoil. bacon and eggs are, of course, to be included in your list, as they belong to a camper's bill o' fare, are very satisfying to a fellow's appetite when he has returned to camp hungry after a day's tramp through the woods, and a boy will have but little trouble in cooking them. be sure you know how to prepare whatever food you take along to cook, before starting for camp, and don't experiment upon dishes you have never attempted, or you will probably make a mess of your materials, as is generally the case, the result of which will not be fit to eat. should there be fishing near the site of your camp, learn the proper preparation of fish for your table. chapter xv how to build a canvas canoe [illustration: boys canoeing.] canoeing is a most delightful outdoor sport, and one of the healthiest in which a boy can indulge during his vacation days. its popularity can plainly be seen by visiting any lake or stream, and noting what a large percentage of the small craft dotting its surface are canoes of various shapes and sizes, paddled by boys of all ages. for speed and the ease with which it can be carried about, the birch-bark canoe has no equal, but very few boys own them, as they are expensive, and their construction is more difficult than those of other material which will satisfy a boy fully as well. the canvas canoe is more widely used at the present time than any other form, which is no doubt due to the fact that it is very simple to make and keep in repair, and the cost of its material is small. in building a canvas canoe there are two important things to consider,--its weight and strength. these depend upon the material used. the framework must be made stiff enough to hold its shape, as the canvas adds but little to its strength, and at the same time the wood should be as light as possible. there are a great variety of =materials= from which to choose for building the framework, among which basswood, ash, spruce, and pine may be classed. the canoe described and illustrated in this chapter may have its ribs, ribbands, and gunwales made out of lattice-strips and barrel-hoops, which will save the cost of having them cut to the right size at a mill. pine or fir lattice-strips of good sound stuff are generally easy to obtain in all locations. sizes of strips and pieces required 1 piece of 2-inch by 8-inch plank 6 feet long for bow and stern pieces. 15 2-inch by 3/8-inch lattice strips 12 feet long for ribbands, gunwales, keel, and bilge-keels. 20 barrel-hoops for ribs and deck braces. 1 strip 8 feet long, 2 inches wide, and 1 inch thick for keelson. 2 strips 4 feet long, 2 inches wide, and 5/8-inch thick for deck ridge pieces. 2 strips 8 feet long, 4 inches wide, and 1/4-inch thick for cockpit frame and coaming. several 6-inch and 8-inch boards from which to cut deck beams, patterns, etc. copper nails and brass screws should be purchased for fastening the framework together, and copper tacks for putting on the canvas. iron nails will rust and break off, and therefore should not be used in any part of the canoe's construction. use nails only where their ends can be clinched, and screws in all cases where this cannot be done. for covering the framework, three and one-half yards of canvas forty inches wide will be required for the lower portion, and the same amount thirty inches wide will be required for the deck. boiled linseed-oil should be purchased for filling the canvas and the best grade of mixed paint for painting it. a drab, or cream color and white trimmings, are both suitable for a canoe. if the latter is used, buy white paint, and, after pouring out enough to cover the finishing strips, mix the rest with enough yellow ochre to make a pretty shade of cream. below will be found a bill of the material required to build a canoe such as this chapter describes, and although the prices of canvas and a few of the fittings are likely to fluctuate somewhat, the price of the canoe should not exceed this amount, and there are locations where it may be less. bill of material 3-1/2 yards no. 10 duck, 30 inches wide, 27 cents $0.95 3-1/2 yards no. 10 duck, 40 inches wide, 36 cents 1.26 1-1/2 pounds 1-inch copper nails,30 cents .45 2 pounds 3/8-inch copper tacks, 35 cents .70 2 dozen 3/4-inch brass screws (flat heads), 7 cents .14 6 dozen 5/8-inch brass screws (flat heads), 6 cents .36 3 dozen 5/8-inch brass screws (round heads), 6 cents .18 1/2 gallon boiled linseed-oil .25 1/2 gallon best quality mixed paint .75 15 lattice-strips, 12 feet long .90 1 piece of 2-inch by 8-inch plank 6 feet long .20 miscellaneous strips and pieces (see page 202) .50 --- total cost $6.64 [illustration: fig. 200.--bow and stern pieces.] [illustration: fig. 201.] having procured the necessary material for the canoe, the first things to make are =the bow and stern pieces= (see fig. 200).--the proper way of laying these out on the eight-inch plank is shown in fig. 201. first cut the plank in half, and then place these two pieces side by side upon the floor or work-bench as shown in the drawing one piece upon which to draw the pattern, and the other upon which to locate the centre for drawing the curves. then square the line _ab_ across the planks, and locate the points _d_ and _e_ on either side of it, by means of the measurements given upon the drawing. the most satisfactory scheme for =drawing the curves= is with a piece of cord, to one end of which a pencil has been tied (see fig. 201). with this as your compass, hold the end of the cord at _d_ for a centre, and with a radius of ten and one-quarter inches strike an arc cutting the line _ab_ as at _c_. _c_ is now the required centre for drawing the curves. drive a small nail into the plank at _c_, and wind the end of the compass cord around it until the correct length of radius is obtained (see drawing). describe the arc _de_ with a radius equal to _cd_, or ten and one-quarter inches. then with a ruler lay off along the line _ab_ the distances for the other arcs, as shown in the drawing. _fg_ will be two inches from _de_, _hi_ an inch and one-half from _fg_, and _jk_ an inch and one-quarter from _hi_. having located these points and described the arcs, draw the lines _cd_ and _ce_, extending them so as to cut off the arcs, as in the drawing. at the upper end of the pattern draw the line _lm_ one inch from and parallel to _fd_. with a radius of an inch and three-quarters and the centre _n_ describe an arc as shown in the drawing. at the lower end of the pattern draw the line _op_ two inches from and parallel to _gk_, and the line _qr_ one inch from and parallel to _pk_. having carefully drawn out this pattern, turn over the plank and draw the same thing upon it, locating the points exactly opposite one another, by squaring lines across the sides and edge. prepare the other piece of plank similarly. to cut out the patterns, place them in the vise of your work-bench, one at a time, and rabbet the surfaces between _de_ and _fg_, and _fg_ and _hi_, as shown in the section drawing, fig. 202. this done reverse the piece and do the same to that side. when these surfaces have been trued up carefully, remove the piece from the vise and saw the pattern from it. in doing this, first saw along the lines _dj_ and _ek_, and cut out the corners _flmd_ and _pqrk_. then follow roughly the curves of lines _de_ and _jp_, after which place the work in the vise and trim them off nicely with a draw-knife, rounding the outer curve as shown in fig. 202. the portion _oqrg_ should be cut down to a plain surface as shown in fig. 200. [illustration: fig. 202.--section through bow and stern pieces.] with the bow and stern pieces completed, the most difficult part of your work has been accomplished. now pick out the eight-foot strip procured for =the keelson=.--square off the ends so that it is exactly eight feet long, and then, commencing six inches from one end, lay off mortises for the ribs (see fig. 203). these mortises should be cut half an inch deep and the width of the barrel-hoops, and their centres should be spaced twelve inches apart. [illustration: fig. 203.--the keelson.] in order to give the correct shape to the canoe in putting the framework together, it will be necessary to make =a mould= similar to fig. 204. fasten together two boards about two feet long with battens, as shown in the drawing, and with a piece of cord to which a pencil has been attached describe a semicircle upon it, using a radius of eleven and one-half inches. saw out the mould carefully, and in the centre of the bottom cut a mortise two inches by one-half for the keelson to fit in. [illustration: fig. 204.--the mould.] everything should now be in readiness =to put the framework together=.--in order to give the keelson the proper slope of one inch between its centre and ends, nail two blocks of wood one inch thick to the work-bench eight feet apart, and rest the ends of the keelson upon them. then fasten the ends of the keelson in the mortises cut in the bottom of the bow and stern pieces. set the mould which you have prepared over the exact centre of the keelson, and fasten it in place temporarily. when this has been done take two lattice-strips for =the gunwales=, and after locating the exact centre of each, screw them at this point to the ends of the mould just below the top. drive these screws but part way in, as the mould is to be removed later on. commencing at the bow end of the canoe, draw the end of one gunwale to the bow piece, and, after marking it the correct length cut it off so it will fit nicely in the rabbet cut in the side of the bow piece. then screw the other end to the stern piece, after which attach the gunwale on the opposite side in the same way (see figs. 200, 205, and 206). now take the barrel-hoops which are to be used for ribs, and fasten them in the mortises cut for them in the keelson, bending their ends until they come inside of the gunwales. then fasten them to the gunwales and trim their ends so as to be even with the top of the canoe (see figs. 205 and 206). [illustration: fig. 205.--top view of canoe, showing gunwales, ribs, and ribbands in place.] [illustration: fig. 206.--side view of canoe, showing framework completed.] [illustration: fig. 207.--top view of canoe, showing framework completed.] after fastening the ribs in place, =the ribbands= should be put on. pick out eight of the soundest lattice-strips you have, and fasten these at their centre to the sides of the mould, placing four on each side of the keelson and spacing them at equal distances. as the mould is only temporary, do not fasten the ribbands to it securely, but drive in the nails part way. then, beginning at the bow, draw the ends of the ribbands to the bow piece one at a time, and cut them off so they will fit neatly into the rabbet. screw them in place, being careful to space them as equally as possible, after which attach the stern ends in the same way. figure 205 shows the top view of the canoe at this stage of its construction. [illustration: figs. 208-211.--details of deck beam and ridge.] =the deck beams= should now be made and put in place, one each side of the cockpit, or fourteen inches from the centre of the canoe (see fig. 207). at this point measure the exact distance between the gunwales, and lay it off upon a four-inch board (see fig. 208). the top of this piece should be curved as shown in the drawing, and a mortise two inches wide by five-eighths of an inch deep should be cut in the edge for the deck ridge pieces to fit in. as a means of preventing the gunwales from spreading, it is best to dovetail the ends of the deck beams into them (see fig. 207). cut a tongue half an inch long and half an inch thick on each end of the beams, as shown in fig. 209, undercutting it slightly, as in the drawing, to make it wedge-shaped. then, having prepared the ends, place the beams in the positions they will occupy in the framework, and mark upon the top of the gunwales the shape of the tongues. mortise the gunwales at these points (fig. 210), so the tongues can be slipped into them and fastened in place. by examining the corners of a drawer you will see clearly how the dovetail joint is made. =the ridge pieces= are strips running from the deck beams to the bow and stern pieces (see figs. 206 and 207). for this canoe, they should be made out of a strip two inches wide by five-eighths of an inch thick. cut them of correct length to reach from the mortises in the tops of the deck beams to the mortises cut in the tops of the bow and stern pieces. mortises two inches wide and a quarter inch deep should be cut along the top of these ridges, as shown in fig. 211, to receive the deck braces. securely screw the ridges in place. then cut twelve pieces of barrel-hoops for =the deck braces=, and fit them in the mortises made in the ridge pieces. screw these in place and bend their ends until they can be fastened to the inside face of the gunwales. the curve of these braces should be the same as that of the deck beams, so it will be possible to put on the deck canvas neatly (see figs. 206 and 207). the space between the deck beams is left for =the cockpit=, the frame for which we are now ready to prepare. first remove the mould, being careful that the framework does not spread in doing so. then cut two two-inch strips to fit between the deck beams, and fasten one on each side of the cockpit two inches from the gunwale (see fig. 207). when this has been done take the strip eight feet long, four inches wide, and one-quarter inch thick, procured for the cockpit frame, and bend it around the opening, fastening it to the sides of the deck beams and the side strips. the top edge of the frame should now be shaved off with a draw-knife, so that it will be on a line with the deck braces at every point (see fig. 206). this is necessary in order to make the curve of the deck around the cockpit the same as elsewhere. the framework of the canoe is now completed, and should be painted and left to dry before you go on with the rest of the work. it is no easy matter to stretch =the canvas covering= over the framework without having it wrinkle, but with the help of a boy friend it can be stretched fairly even, and with care and patience may be made to look neat. turn the framework bottom side up and, after finding the centre of the forty-inch strip of canvas, lay it along the keelson from bow to stern. smooth it over the surface with your hands, and start a few tacks along the keelson to hold it in place. as a means of keeping the canvas stretched over the bottom of the framework while working upon it, attach several weights to the edges; then, with your helper on the side opposite you, commence at the middle rib and stretch the canvas down that rib to the gunwales, starting a couple of tacks in the gunwales to hold it in place. then work along each rib from the centre of the framework toward the bow, and then from the centre toward the stern, stretching the canvas as tightly as possible, and driving tacks along the gunwales not farther than one inch apart. you will find that the only way to get the canvas on smoothly is by removing the tacks wherever any wrinkles appear and, after restretching it, replacing the tacks. as the tacks will probably have to be removed a number of times during the operation, it is advisable to drive them in but a little way at first. it is most difficult to make a neat job at the bow and stern, and a few wrinkles will probably remain, no matter how much pains are taken in fitting the canvas, on account of the narrowing of the canoe at these points. fill the outer mortise made in the bow and stern pieces with paint, and, after folding the edges of the canvas, tack it in these mortises. place the tacks as close as their heads will permit, which, together with the paint, will make a joint that water cannot penetrate. now examine the canoe carefully, and, if you have smoothed out the wrinkles as much as possible, drive home the tacks and trim the canvas close to the gunwales. =the deck= is much easier to cover. spread the piece of thirty-inch canvas over it from bow to stern, with the centre of the canvas running along the centre of the deck, and place a tack in it at the bow and another at the stern. stretch the canvas in the same manner as when covering the bottom of the framework, and lap it over the gunwales, tacking it along the outer edge. cut through the canvas at the cockpit, and trim it off so there will be just enough to lap around the cockpit frame. trim the canvas along the gunwales so that it does not project more than an inch. after the deck has been covered, the canoe is ready for =painting=.--a coat of linseed-oil should first be applied to the canvas, to fill the pores and make a good foundation for the paint. then allow the canvas to dry thoroughly, after which give it a coat of paint,--cream, or whatever color you have selected. when this has dried, rub it down with pumice-stone or fine emery-paper, and apply a second coat. all that now remains to complete the canoe is the attachment of the cockpit coaming, the keel, bilge-keels, and the outside gunwales. take the strip eight feet long, four inches wide, and one-quarter inch thick, which you procured for =the cockpit coaming=, bend it around the frame of the pit, and cut off the ends so they will join neatly. then fasten it to the cockpit frame, allowing two inches to project above the deck, and shave off the top edge the same as you did the cockpit frame, so it will be two inches above the deck at every point. for a small canoe built for paddling only, it is unnecessary to have anything more than a strip fastened to the bottom for =the keel=.--so cut a lattice-strip eight feet in length, and screw it along the bottom of the keelson (see fig. 212). =the bilge-keels= are lattice-strips fastened along the sides of the canoe as a protection to the canvas, and should be attached directly over the ribbands. one of these on the centre ribband of each side will be sufficient (see fig. 212). [illustration: fig. 212.--the canvas canoe completed.] for a finish to the upper edge of the canoe, =outside gunwales= should be attached outside of the present ones. these will cover the joint between the canvas of the deck and the lower portion of the framework. all of these outside strips should be fastened in place with the round-headed screws, after which they should be painted. figure 212 shows the canoe completed. =a seat= is desirable for the bottom of the canoe, for comfort as well as to prevent your feet from wearing out the canvas. this seat should be movable, so it may be taken out to drain the water from the bottom of the canoe, and may be made as shown in fig. 213. batten together two six-inch boards upon their under face and notch the two side edges to fit over the ribs of the framework (see fig. 207). [illustration: fig. 213.--seat.] in order to keep your canoe in good condition, do not allow it to remain in the water for any length of time when not using it, as the canvas would soon rot by doing so. after a spin, pull it out of the water, and turn it upside down to dry; then put it away under cover to remain until again wanted for use. with the greatest of care a boy will puncture his canoe once in a while, so it is a good idea for him to know =how to mend punctures=.--there are several ways of doing this, but the best is by either sewing a piece of canvas over the puncture and then painting it with white lead, or daubing the canvas around the hole with varnish, and then laying a canvas patch over it and varnishing it. the making of a well-shaped paddle is no easy matter for an amateur to accomplish, so it is advisable for a boy to procure =a hand-made single paddle=, such as can be bought for a dollar and a half. this is generally made of selected spruce, with a copper-tipped end, and is nicely finished. the length of the paddle will depend upon the size of the boy who is going to use it, but should be between four feet six inches and five feet. it may be well to warn those who build canvas canoes about the ease with which they are overturned. as long as the boy remains seated he is perfectly safe, but the moment he attempts to change his position, he need not be surprised if he receives a ducking. upsets are common in canoe-racing, and especially in a close finish, where one paddler after another overbalances himself in his efforts to beat out his companions. but these only add to the fun of such a race, and no harm is done if the canoeist prepares for them beforehand by putting on his bathing suit. chapter xvi home-made traps [illustration: boys trapping.] trapping and trap-making is, and probably always will be, a pastime which every boy enjoys. if he lives in the country or near the woods he is sure to grow fond of the wild creatures around him, and spend some time in following their tracks and watching their ways and habits. if he is a city boy he may not have these advantages, but is probably just as much interested in the study of birds and animals as his country cousin is, and when the opportunity presents itself will slip off to the nearest woods to spend the day with his little friends, and perhaps carry one or two back home to share city life with him. when boys wish to trap animals for pets, or for eating while camping, or when they have become so numerous in a locality as to be a nuisance, it can be considered clean sport; but as soon as they begin to trap and kill them just for the fun of it, without deriving any good whatever from the act, they are guilty of a great cruelty. the various forms and schemes for home-made traps that have been devised, and which are to be found in use by boys all over the country, are countless, but there are of course a number of these which are more effective than others, and some which have gained more favor among boys. several years ago the author wrote an article upon traps, and has since been more than pleased to note the success boys have had in making and using them. with a few additions, the same schemes have been embodied in this chapter, and it is hoped that the several kinds of snares and traps will prove as satisfying to the majority of boy trappers. they are all simple to make, require but the material ordinarily at hand, and are effective for most of the smaller species of animals, and many varieties of birds. [illustration: fig. 214.--stick for the figure-four trap.] [illustration: fig. 215.--the figure-four.] [illustration: fig. 216.--the figure-four trap set.] one of the oldest forms of traps, and one of which every boy should understand the construction, is =the figure-four trap=.--it is about the simplest example, and its principle will be found in the schemes of a great many of the more complicated traps. for this the preparation of three sticks, such as are shown in fig. 214, will be necessary. these sticks may be made of any length you wish, but their proportion should be about as shown in the drawings. the illustrations show clearly how the sticks should be notched, and how one end of the trigger should be tapered for the bait. fig. 215 will explain the manner in which these sticks are placed together in the form of a figure-four. the rest of the trap consists of a soap-or cracker-box with the cover hinged to it. to set the trap, place the box upon the ground, cover down, and rest its upper edge upon the top of the figure-four, as shown in fig. 216. when putting the figure-four together, it is necessary to hold the sticks until the box is set upon them, as the weight is required to hold them in position. for squirrels and rabbits, for which this trap is very good, bait the trigger with a carrot, piece of apple, or cabbage leaf. it is easy to see that the slightest nibble at the bait will disarrange the sticks, and cause the box to drop over the game. [illustration: figs. 217-219.--a box trap.] in fig. 217 is shown an invention of the writer's, a simplified form of the much-used =box trap=, having the principle of the figure-four involved in its trigger. this trap has proven exceptionally good for rabbits and squirrels. a small box about the size of a cracker-or soap-box should be procured for the making of this trap. remove one end, and, after nailing it to the cover boards, hinge the latter to the end of the box, as shown in the illustrations (figs. 217 and 218). with no hinges at hand, the writer has found several nails driven through the ends of the cover boards sufficient to hold the cover while opening and closing it. bore two holes, one over the other, in the back of the box, and cut out the space between. this makes a rectangular slot (see _d_ in fig. 218). when this has been done, take a stick about eighteen inches long, and, after tapering one end, nail it to the box cover, allowing the tapered end to project about nine inches. then prepare a trigger twelve inches long, similar to fig. 219. the trap is now ready to set, which is done by slipping the trigger into the slot at _d_ and, after baiting it at _c_, catching the notch _b_ on to the box at the top of the slot, at the same time fitting stick _e_ into the notch at _a_ (see cross section, fig. 218). the weight of the cover will now hold the trigger in place until "bunny," or some one of his neighbors, attacks the inviting bait. then the trigger will loosen its hold at _b_, and cause the cover to fall over the intruder. a few holes may be bored in the side of the box for ventilation, but these, as well as the slot in the back, should be protected with tin, to prevent your captive from gnawing the openings large enough to escape. =the dead fall= is a trap commonly used for skunks, minks, muskrats, and coons, and probably cannot be excelled as a means of killing off destructive and annoying animals. figure 220 shows a form of this trap which has been successfully employed. first make a pen out of stakes driven well into the ground in the form of a wigwam. this is a guard for the bait, and should be open on one side only, as shown in the illustration. place a short log in front of the opening, and at both ends of this drive a stake against the outer face of the log, as shown in the drawing. then procure a log of the same diameter, and about six feet long, and slip it between these stakes and the wigwam, so it falls upon the first log. cut a forked stick about twelve inches long for the bait-stick, notching one end and tapering the other, as shown in fig. 221, and cut another stick twenty-four inches long and flatten it at both ends. [illustration: fig. 221.--the bait-stick. fig. 220.--the dead fall.] to set the dead fall, raise an end of the upper log and slip one end of the flattened stick under it, resting it upon the top of the stake outside of the log. place the bait-stick, point downward, inside of the pen upon a chip of wood, and set the other end of the flattened stick in the notch (see illustration). the bait-stick should now be in such a position that the log above it will fall when the bait is tackled, and strike its victim on the head or neck with sufficient force to kill it. for baiting this trap, use some food of which the animal is particularly fond. [illustration: fig. 222.--the coop trap.] =the sieve trap.=--this is a most simple form of trap, consisting of a sieve and a short stick with which to prop up one side of it. fasten a long cord to the stick, and, after scattering grain beneath the sieve, carry the end of the cord to a place of concealment to await the appearance of some birds. as soon as these are attracted by the grain, and begin feeding under the sieve, pull the cord and they will be your prisoners. =the coop trap=, shown in fig. 222, can be used for trapping the larger variety of birds. this is well known as an effective trap for wild turkeys. it consists of a number of sticks piled up in the form of a pyramid and tied together as shown in fig. 222. dig away enough of the ground under one side of the coop to allow a bird to enter, and then scatter some grain inside and a little in the entrance to attract the birds. [illustration: fig. 225. fig. 226. fig. 224. fig. 223. a rabbit snare and twitch-up.] it may seem strange to the reader, but it is nevertheless a fact, that, after entering the coop, a bird will try to fly out of the top, and will remain there until starved to death, if not released, without attempting to escape by the way it entered. =a rabbit snare.=--this can be used to the best advantage after the first snowfall, for the footprints of a rabbit are then easy to follow. bunny can be counted upon keeping in the same path to and from his burrow, and a snare set in the centre of his path is pretty certain to catch him before very long. the snare should be made of a piece of soft wire about two feet long. make a noose in one end about four inches in diameter, and fasten the other end to a branch projecting over the path (see fig. 223). this noose is commonly attached to what is known as =a twitch-up=, or a sapling bent down and held as shown in fig. 224. one of a number of schemes employed for holding the sapling in position is here shown. select a spot a few feet from a sapling, and there make an enclosure about twelve inches in diameter. this should be made of twelve-inch sticks driven into the ground in a circle, leaving an opening of about six inches on one side. drive a stake into the ground on both sides of the entrance, and cut a notch in the outer face of each about six inches above the ground (see fig. 225). find a twig somewhat similar to the one in fig. 226, and, after slipping it into the notches and baiting the prong, fasten the noose and sapling to it. with the trap thus set, a slight pull on the bait dislodges the crosspiece, and the sapling springs up, jerking the animal into the air, and causing its death almost instantly. [illustration: caught at last.] ranchers of the western plains and mountains are continually experiencing severe losses from the attacks of wolves and coyotes upon their live-stock, and to rid themselves from the nightly raids of these animals requires unceasing warfare against them with traps. but the wolf and coyote are very crafty fellows, and extremely keen-scented, so that even professional trappers have trouble in capturing them, often resorting to every scheme they can devise without success. steel traps are generally employed by the professional, as they are less cumbersome and quicker to set than the home-made affairs. the traps are handled with gloves, as the touch of the bare hands would be instantly detected by the wary animals, and, after being placed in a circle around the bait, are covered over with leaves and brush. in order not to leave human footprints behind him, the trapper often sets them while mounted upon horseback. not long ago, a trapper was hired by a rancher in new mexico to capture some loboe wolves which had been making serious raids upon the cattle, and one of his experiences while working there was somewhat laughable, though probably not seen in that way by all the parties concerned. using a dead calf for bait, the trapper dragged it to a selected spot, and there surrounded it by eight or ten traps, which he chained fast to stakes, and carefully hid from view. setting out to visit the traps as usual, on the following morning, he mounted a knoll from which he could see the location of the bait, and there plainly made out that a number of his traps had been sprung and were occupied. but upon reaching the spot, his surprise and disgust can be imagined when he found a dog in one trap and a bad-tempered indian held fast by the clutches of three others. after releasing the captives, the trapper gathered from the indian's half-broken english that he had been riding by on the previous night, and his dog had wandered from the trail and sprung a trap. he had then dismounted to release the animal, but had not taken more than half a dozen steps before his foot became clutched in a trap, the force of which threw him forward, and, in trying to break his fall with his outstretched hands, each became securely clutched in traps. fortunately no wolves made their appearance, and the couple were unharmed; but the indian no doubt spent a sleepless and uncomfortable night in the position he was forced to occupy. chapter xvii toy guns, targets, and bows and arrows [illustration: boys at target practise] [illustration: figs. 227-230.--examples of ancient guns.] some of the old war engines used in europe before the introduction of gunpowder were most ingeniously contrived, and were wonderfully effective, considering that their projective force was obtained by means of springs and levers. it is hard to find many good examples, as authorities have badly confused them, but the writer has been fortunate in securing drawings of what he believes to be pure types of the most commonly used guns. these are reproduced on page 230, believing that the average boy will be interested to see the kind of weapons that were employed in warfare centuries ago. with a little study, the working of these guns will be clearly understood without further explanation than what is given upon the drawings. the catapult (fig. 227) and the trebuchet (fig. 228) were used for storming fortifications, and each hurled large stones. the trebuchet was a much later invented machine than the catapult, and, being built on a much larger scale, was more powerful. it is claimed that trebuchets were often built large enough to hurl carcasses of horses into an enemy's fortifications. the ballista (fig. 229) was in reality a large cross-bow, built to shoot long, heavy bolts or arrows. the illustration shows a form mounted upon wheels for field service. the cross-bow (fig. 230) was a weapon used by the foot-soldiers of a number of european countries. it was in use in england for some time, but, on account of the terrible wounds inflicted by its short barbed arrows, was finally forbidden and superseded by the long-bow. [illustration: figs. 231-233.--a cross-bow.] some ideas for the making of toy shot-guns and pistols, worked by springs and levers much the same as the ancient guns, will be appreciated by the boy who is denied the use of firearms. the schemes illustrated and described on the following pages will be found easy to carry out, and such as will furnish enjoyment for many a day in the woods or back-yard. figure 231 shows a new idea for =a cross-bow.=--the stock for this should be cut out of a tongued-and-grooved board, with the groove running along the top, and a mortise should be made at _a_ in which to set the trigger. this mortise should be about two inches long and as wide as the thickness of the board will permit, and is made by boring a couple of holes through the stock at this point, and cutting out the wood between with a chisel. select a strong barrel-hoop for the bow, and fasten it at its centre in a hole cut for it at _b_, driving a nail into it at _c_. the trigger should be made similar to _d_ in fig. 232. cut block _e_ out of a piece of tongued board, leaving the tongue to fit the groove in the gunstock. notch the bottom to fit over _d_ (see fig. 233). place a tack in each side of the block, and run cords from them to the end of the bow. these cords must be of such a length that the bow will bend almost to its limit when block _e_ is placed over the trigger. a heavy rubber band should be attached to the lower end of the trigger, and to a tack at _f_. this must be strong enough to cock the trigger. the cross-bow will shoot either pebbles or arrows, but the latter are the most satisfactory. [illustration: fig. 234.--shingle arrows for cross-bow.] =shingle arrows= are very good, as they shoot straight, and are so quickly made as to be easily replaced by a fresh lot when lost or broken. mark them out as shown in fig. 234, with the head at the thick edge of the shingle and the tail at the thin edge, and cut them out with your jack-knife. the head and tail are made flat on one side, so as to lie flat in the groove of the gun. =a toy pistol= can also be made out of a tongued-and-grooved board. some such shape as shown in fig. 235 should first be drawn upon the board, with the groove extending along the top. cut this out with your jack-knife, and make a mortise for the trigger. cut the trigger similar to fig. 236, fastening it in place with a brad driven through it at _a_. it will be noticed that the trigger is notched at both ends. these notches are for a rubber band, which should be stretched from the upper notch of the trigger, over the muzzle, and around to the lower notch, as shown in the drawing. the rubber band lies in the groove in the top of the pistol. [illustration: figs. 235-237.--a toy pistol.] =the bullets= for this pistol consist of pieces of cardboard cut into small squares. to load the pistol, slip one of the squares through the rubber band as shown in fig. 237, so that it rests on top of the groove, as shown in fig. 235. upon pulling the trigger the bullet will shoot out of its position, and though naturally one might think the loop of the rubber band would catch the card, it is not the case. the card frees itself and travels in a straight line in the direction in which the pistol is aimed. it is advisable to keep this pistol out of range of your companions' faces. =a shot-gun= can be made on the same scheme as the pistol, by cutting a stock the size of that used for the cross-bow (fig. 231), and fastening several rubber bands together to extend around the added length. [illustration: fig. 238.] =an elastic sling= made with a wire framework, as shown in fig. 238, is an improvement over the one made out of a tree crotch, as it is not easily broken. about no. 12 wire, which is the thickness of eight-penny nails, should be bought for this. with a pair of pincers, bend it into the shape shown in the drawing, with loops at _a_ and _b_. wrap the handle with cord, and attach strong rubber bands to _a_ and _b_, with a piece of shoe leather or kid glove set in between, at _c_. [illustration: fig. 239.--a barrel-hoop target.] a most satisfactory scheme for =a boy's target= is shown in fig. 239. it consists of a barrel-hoop, fastened by means of staples to a wooden platform, as shown in the illustration. pack the inside of the hoop with earth which has been moistened sufficiently to make it hold together, and place a piece of paper over it, pasting it to the edges of the hoop. the paper will be stretched as tight as a drumhead when dry. five rings should then be painted upon it, as shown in the illustration. fasten screw-eyes in the top of the platform, and hang the target by these wherever you wish to use it. by preparing several sheets of paper, a fresh piece may be pasted over the hoop after one has been filled with holes. the earth will prevent the paper from splitting, and will be soft enough for the end of an arrow to stick into. should the earth become too dry, it may be moistened each time a new paper is put in place. [illustration: fig. 240.--a simpler target.] =a simpler target=, and a scheme which will answer a boy's purpose, if he does not care to go to the trouble of making the hoop target, is shown in fig. 240. a circular piece of cardboard, with five rings painted upon it, is tacked to the end of a broom-handle, and this is stuck into the ground. =points are scored= in target shooting as follows: bull's-eye 9 points; second ring, 7 points; third ring, 5 points; fourth ring, 3 points; fifth, or outside ring, 1 point. =the bow and arrow= is always popular with boys who are forbidden the use of guns. authorities claim that the best materials from which to make bows are mulberry, sassafras, southern cedar, black locust, black walnut, apple, and slippery elm, in the order named; but if a boy selects what appears to be a good sound piece of wood, with straight grain, he has something which will suit the purpose. [illustration: fig. 241.--a boy's bow.] =the length of the bow= should be about the height of the person using it. figure 241 shows a five-foot bow, with the other proportions such as are on makes to be found in the stores. cut your piece of wood five feet long, and, after placing it in the bench-vise, shape it down with a draw-knife or plane until it is one inch wide by one-half inch thick at the handle and three-quarters of an inch wide by one-quarter inch thick at the ends. the bow can be made round on the inside or face toward the archer, and flat on the outside or face away from the archer, or the two faces may be made round. cut a notch in the bow two inches from each end, as shown in the illustration, from which to attach =the bow-string.=--a cord with as little elasticity as possible should be used for this. if you care to spend the money for it, a good cotton string can be purchased from a dealer in archery goods for twenty-five cents. with a home-made bow-string, a loop should be made in one end and bound with thread, as shown in fig. 242. slip the loop over the upper notch, bend the bow until the centre of the string is about five inches away from the handle, and attach the loose end to the lower notch by means of a slip-knot similar to that shown in fig. 243. the bow should be sand-papered until smooth, and thoroughly oiled with linseed-oil. a piece of velvet about three inches wide should be glued about the centre for a handle. [illustration: fig. 242. bow-string ends. fig. 243.] for a five-foot bow, cut =the arrow-shafts= twenty-four inches long and one-quarter inch thick. whittle them out of straight-grained strips of wood, round them nicely, and cut a notch in the ends large enough to fit over the bow-strings. it is not supposed that boys would care =to prepare arrow-heads= of stone or bone as the indians did, for there are other schemes that are simpler to carry out. if the wood is reasonably hard, the heads can be cut on the ends of the shaft, as shown in fig. 244. for target practice, a wire nail driven into the end of the shaft, as shown in fig. 245, with the head of the nail filed off and pointed, has proven very good, and a thick piece of zinc or lead, cut the shape of _a_ (fig. 246) and set into a slot cut in the end of the shaft, with cord bound around the shaft to hold the metal in place, makes another excellent head. the metal points should be used only for target practice, and then with proper care, to prevent injury to yourself or companions. [illustration: figs. 244-246.--schemes for arrow-heads.] =feathering= is the next operation. turkey or goose feathers are generally used, but the former is considered the better of the two. strip off the broader side of the vane of three feathers, and glue them to the shaft one and one-quarter inches from the notch, spacing them equidistant from one another. one feather should be placed at right angles to the notch. this is known as the cock-feather, and should always point away from the bow when the arrow is shot. =a quiver= of some sort should be provided, large enough to carry a dozen or more arrows, and this should be three inches shorter than the arrows, so that their ends will project above the top. it may be made out of any thick cloth, as shown in fig. 247. a circular piece of cardboard is placed in the bottom to which the cloth is sewed, and a piece of heavy wire, bent into a circle, fits in the top to keep the bag open. the quiver should hang on your right side, being suspended by means of a cloth strap long enough to pass over the left shoulder. [illustration: fig. 247.--a quiver.] =to shoot= with the bow, take the position shown in fig. 248, with both feet flat upon the ground, and the heels in line with the target. hold the handle of the bow in the left hand and place an arrow on the left side of the bow, slipping the bow-string into the notch and letting the head of the arrow rest upon your left hand. catch the bow-string with the first three fingers of your right hand, so that the end of the arrow comes between the first and second fingers, and draw the string until the head of the arrow rests upon the left hand; then aim quickly and let go of the arrow. by always taking the same hold upon your bow and arrow, you will soon be able to know just where the arrow is going to strike. the boy who has had the hobby of collecting indian arrow-heads has no doubt often wondered how they were made, and also how the bows and arrows were prepared. the ways in which all uncivilized people do things is interesting, and especially when it is remembered that they had but raw materials with which to work and only such tools as they could make out of stone. [illustration: fig. 248.--correct position for shooting.] =the indian's bow= was made of different woods, and, though it varied in shape and size, was generally about forty inches in length, so as to be conveniently carried and handled on horseback. the bow-string consisted generally of a deer sinew or a strand of deer-skin rolled or twisted, and this was strung very tightly from a notch cut on one end of the bow to a notch on the opposite end. now, while an indian generally made the greater part of his weapons, there was always a warrior in the tribe who was skilled in the art of arrow-making, and, as the preparation required far more care than the bow, he was intrusted with this work. the arrow-shaft was made of various woods, reeds being often used, as they were straight and required but little cutting. their lengths depended largely upon that of the bows. for the feathering of the shafts, wild turkey feathers were considered best and used when they could be had, and these were attached to the shaft with deer sinews. [illustration: fig. 249.--some specimens of indian arrow-heads.] a great variety of materials were used for arrow-heads, among which flint, obsidian, horn of deer, claws of eagles, and the spurs of wild turkey-cocks may be mentioned. many of these are being picked up annually in the mountains and on the plains, which were once the battle-fields and hunting-grounds of the redmen, and in excavating for building purposes they are frequently found. a few specimens of stone heads showing a variety of the shapes and sizes used will be found in fig. 249. the preparation of these heads was usually left to the old men who were unfit for any other work. in making the flint head, the indian made a loop in a piece of buckskin which had been thoroughly wet in cold water, and then taking a piece of flint, heated it, and with the strip of buckskin chipped off what was not wanted until the head was of the correct shape and size. as hornstone is more brittle than quartz, the heads made from that material were broken and shaped by striking them against the latter. the stone heads were attached to the shaft by means of sinews, generally from deer. for hunting small birds, the indians often made wooden arrow-heads, hardening the wood by fire after shaping it. chapter xviii an outdoor gymnasium [illustration: boys pole vaulting and shot putting.] with a little work, and a small outlay of money chiefly for two-by-fours, and such boards as are specified in this chapter, a boy, or club of boys, can construct and set up all the necessary apparatus for an outdoor gymnasium. it is true a great many city back-yards are much too small to accommodate all of the apparatus; but there is generally a vacant lot in the neighborhood which you can obtain permission to use. those of you boys who are fortunate enough to spend the summer months in the country have splendid opportunities for making a complete gym and should not miss the chance to fit one up. =a horizontal bar.=--a well-made horizontal bar requires a firm standard which will not sway when swung upon. this is best attained by fastening at least one upright to the side of the barn, the fence, or some other stationary object. it is also very important to secure a strong bar free from knots and cracks. curtain-poles are frequently used by boys, but at great risk, as there may be a dangerous knot lurking beneath the highly polished surface that will break at a critical moment and cause them serious injuries. a four-foot hickory or ash bar can be bought from a dealer in sporting goods for about a dollar and a half, but it will cost much less to have a bar turned to the right shape and size at a planing mill. the diameter of the pole should be an inch and one-half, and the ends should be two inches square (see fig. 250). for the uprights procure two two-by-sixes nine feet long. mark off a square equal in size to the end of the bar, six inches from one end of each, and cut out the wood with an auger. with a chisel trim the holes square and large enough for the bar to slip through. [illustration: figs. 250-251.--the horizontal bar.] sink the lower ends of the uprights twelve inches into the ground, _a_ against the stationary object, whatever it may be, and _b_ directly in front, at a distance equal to the length of the bar. spike _a_ to the abutting surface, and brace the base of _b_ with two two-by-fours to make it solid (see fig. 251). the tops of the braces should be mitred against _b_, and the bottoms spiked to stakes driven into the ground, as shown at _c_. to make it possible to adjust the bar to different heights, holes may be cut in the uprights every foot or so, in which case be careful to locate the holes exactly opposite one another. it is well to have an old mattress beneath the horizontal bar as a guard against injury in case of a fall. this also makes a splendid =tumbling mat= for practising rolls, hand-springs, and wrestling. if a mattress cannot be obtained, a few potato sacks stuffed with shavings or excelsior will answer the purpose. the most satisfactory scheme for making a pair of =parallel bars= is shown in fig. 252. to acquire the necessary firmness without putting in bracing that would interfere with the performer, the base of the apparatus should be set underground, as indicated by the dotted lines in the illustration. in height the parallel bars should be about four feet six inches, in length seven feet six inches, and in width twenty inches between the bars. this makes the uprights _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ six feet long, allowing eighteen inches to project into the ground. prepare one end of each as shown in fig. 253, notching it for the bar to fit in and cutting off the corner. [illustration: fig. 252.--the parallel bars.] when this has been done, cut four two-by-fours twenty-eight inches long. then lay the uprights _a_ and _b_ on the ground twenty inches apart, and spike two of the two-by-fours to them at _g_ and _h_ (see fig. 254). uprights _c_ and _d_ should be similarly fastened together with the other two-by-fours at _i_ and _j_ (see fig. 252). when these frames have been made, set them upon their bases six feet apart, and spike the two-by-fours _k_ and _l_ to the uprights in the places shown in fig. 252, with braces set between them and the pieces _h_ and _j_, at _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_ (see figs. 252 and 255). [illustration: fig. 256.--section of bar. fig. 253.--dress ends of uprights like this. fig. 254. fig. 255.--corner bracing. figs. 253-256.--details of parallel bars.] the bars should be seven feet six inches in length, and cut out of georgia pine two-by-fours. figures 252 and 256 show how these should be dressed, the tops rounded to fit the hands and the ends curved. first roughly shape them with the draw-knife, then smooth up with the plane, and finally scrape and rub them down with sand-paper until perfectly smooth. when the bars have been prepared, slip them into the notches cut in the uprights, and spike them in place. with the constructive work done, it is only necessary to bury the base to complete the apparatus. excavate a trench eighteen inches deep, and level off the bottom. then lower the framework and, after determining that the bars are level, fill in the earth, packing it well against the uprights and braces. boards _e_ and _f_ should be laid across the top of _g_ and _i_, and spiked in place. =the punching-bag platform=, illustrated by fig. 257, should be made thirty inches square and suspended from the shed or a wall. nail a thirty-inch piece of two-by-four to the wall, two feet above the height at which the platform is to be placed, as at _a_ in the drawing, and nail another on a level with the top of the platform, as shown at _b_. fasten the platform boards together with battens, using nails long enough to clinch on top of the upper face, and nail the two boards _c_ and _d_ to the edges, mitring the edges as in the figure. then lift the platform to the desired height, and fasten the ends of _c_ and _d_ to the ends of _a_. also nail the bottom of the platform to the under side of _b_. a swivel such as shown in fig. 258 can be bought for forty or fifty cents, and one of these should be screwed to the bottom of the platform, from which to suspend the punching-bag. [illustration: fig. 257.--a punching-bag platform.] =a pair of jump standards= are made out of two two-by-fours about eight feet long. after planing them smooth on all sides, measure off two feet from one end of each, and mark off the remaining six feet in inches, as shown in fig. 259. after squaring these divisions across the poles with your try-square, bore holes three-eighths of an inch in diameter through the poles at each division. then, with a small brush and black paint, mark off each foot with a band extending around the pole, each half foot with a narrower band, and each inch with a short line, as shown in the drawings. letter the foot divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. [illustration: fig. 262. fig. 260. fig. 261. fig. 259.--the jump standards completed. figs. 259-262.--details of jump standards.] when both standards have been finished, bury them in the ground to a depth of thirteen inches, eight feet apart. cut two wooden pegs similar to fig. 261 to fit the holes, and procure a nine-foot pine or hickory pole one inch thick for a cross-bar (see fig. 260). when the bar is placed upon the pegs, the distance from its top to the ground should correspond with the figure on the upright. if not the same, raise or lower the uprights until the error is corrected. with a pair of these standards there is no danger of injury by tripping over the bar, as the latter will fall off with the slightest knock. there is one disadvantage in using a stick, however, it being easily broken if jumped upon. because of this, a rope with a weight attached to each end, as shown in fig. 262 is often substituted. the ends of the rope are hung over the pegs in such a way that it will slip off the pegs when struck. the weights should be just heavy enough to prevent the rope from sagging in the centre. =a vaulting pole= should be made of a strong wood, free from knots and other defects. the regulation pole is made of selected spruce, its length varying from eight to fourteen feet. if you make your own pole, be careful to plane off all splinters and irregularities, making it round and smooth, and point one end so it will stick into the ground and prevent slipping. although seldom used in an outdoor gymnasium, =a spring-board= is excellent for practising the high and broad jumps, and is a piece of apparatus with which a great deal of fun may be had. figure 263 shows a scheme for a spring-board that is easy to make. first cut three pieces of two-by-four two feet long, lay them on the ground parallel to each other eighteen inches apart, and construct a platform four feet long by two feet wide on top of them. [illustration: fig. 263.--a spring-board.] [illustration: fig. 264.] cut another two-by-four two feet long, taper it as shown in fig. 264, making it two inches thick on one edge and an inch and a quarter on the other, and nail it to one end of the platform. secure a log two feet long (a cedar fence post will do very nicely), and fasten it across the centre of the platform parallel to the two-by-fours. the upper portion of the spring-board should be made of elastic boards, preferably ash. construct a second platform six inches longer than the first, leaving about one-half inch between the boards, and battening the pieces together at _a_ and _b_ (see fig. 263). nail the battens securely in place, using nails of sufficient length to allow clinching on the under face of the battens. the clinching will prevent the boards from springing apart. this platform should be fastened to the first, with the end which has not been battened secured to the two-by-four at _c_. the best method of fastening the ends of these boards is with bolts long enough to extend through the two platforms and project an inch or more below the bottom two-by-four (see illustration). large washers should be placed under the heads of the bolts to prevent the latter from cutting through the boards. the upper platform should not be nailed to the log, but merely held to it by straps passed diagonally around the outside boards and log, as shown in the illustration. set the spring-board upon the spot you wish to use it, and bank up the earth behind it until a gradual slope is made from the ground to the top. if any difficulty is experienced in keeping the spring-board in place, it may be overcome by driving stakes into the ground around the sides of the lower platform. after setting up your gymnasium apparatus, oil the bars of the horizontal bar and parallel bars with boiled linseed-oil, and paint all the rest of the wood to keep it in good condition. =hurdles= should be lightly constructed, so as to be easily knocked over should a hurdler trip upon them. they are made similar to carpenter horses, directions for the making of which are given in chapter i. their height will depend upon the skill of the hurdler. if the field is large enough, =a running track= can be made around it, by levelling off the ground, removing all stones and irregularities in its path, and banking up the corners to enable the runner to turn the curves readily. [illustration: fig. 265.] =for short sprints= the most common method of starting is upon all fours, as illustrated in fig. 265. make a depression in the ground for the toe of the rear foot to press against in starting off. =for broad jumping=, a block of wood two feet long should be sunk into the ground, as a mark from which to leap. it is a good plan to organize =an athletic club= among the boys of the neighborhood with which to raise money necessary to buy the material for apparatus, and =athletic meets= may be held among the members and with other clubs. chapter xix a back-yard circus [illustration: the boy's circus.] shortly after the founding of rome, a large building was built within which to hold commemorations of roman victories and anniversaries, with chariot races, bull-fights, gladiatorial contests, and athletic games; and from this building, which was called the "circus," this class of entertainment derived its name. to keep up with the times, the circus has had to profit by every scientific discovery, adding continuously to its line of attractions, until now it is necessary for a show to produce a new, sensational, and hair-raising feat each season in order to keep in the favor of the public and compete with others in the field. the tight-rope walkers, bare-back riders, and trapeze performers were not long ago the main attractions of a circus, but these do not seem nearly as remarkable now when compared with such daring feats as looping-the-loop or looping-the-gap on a bicycle, riding down an incline on a single wheel, or diving from the peak of the tent into a small tank not more than six feet square, to be seen at the present day. when a circus came to town, it seemed but natural for the boys of our neighborhood to club together and arrange a performance on a small scale, but as nearly like that of the professionals as possible. a back-yard was transformed into training quarters, and here we worked hard for several days before the show, imitating as best we could the stunts of the circus performers. because one fellow could walk on his hands, and turn hand-springs, besides being the owner of a pair of tights, he naturally became the chief attraction; another had a pair of riding boots, so he was chosen ring master; a third made a bargain with his sister to cut him out a cheese-cloth costume, and was chosen to take the part of a clown,--and in this way each boy helped along the performance by contributing his best efforts. the most successful shows were those in which a week or more was spent in rehearsing the performance and getting things in shape. tickets and programmes were neatly printed by one of the members who owned a press, and the former were distributed among the boys and their friends to sell. the first thing to do in preparing a yard for a circus, is to =mark out a ring= in the centre, with a diameter as large as the yard will permit. this circle may be drawn on the same principle as that shown in fig. 201, chapter xv, using a rope at either end of which a stake has been attached. after describing the circle, secure several six-inch boards sufficiently limber to enable you to bend them around the circle, and fasten them in place by means of stakes driven into the ground outside of the boards. the enclosed space should then be filled in with several inches of shavings, which you can procure from a carpenter if you have not enough in your own workshop. =good circus seats= can be made out of boxes eighteen or twenty inches high, with planks laid across their tops. to give the back-yard a real circus appearance, we always thought it necessary not only to have a ring but also a tent over it and the grandstand, so we gathered together all the old awnings, tents, and carriage covers we could scrape up, and fastening these together with pins or heavy thread made =a large tent.=--a ten-foot pole was sunk into the ground in the centre of the ring, and ropes were run from the top of this to the fence, after which the tent was fastened to the ropes and propped with poles wherever any sagging occurred. bright colored cheese-cloth was used =in decorating the tent=, and for evening performances japanese lanterns were hung about the yard. [illustration: fig. 267.--halving. fig. 266.--ticket office and turnstile.] =a ticket office= should be built at the entrance to the yard. this can be made out of two boxes, one set on top of the other, as shown in fig. 266. cut an opening fifteen inches square in the front for a window, round the top, and make a guard of wooden strips to fit it. cut a slot in the counter, fastening a box beneath it in which to drop tickets, and for a cash drawer fasten strips to the under side of the counter, as shown in fig. 266, so that a cigar-box will slide upon them. to the top of the ticket office fasten a board cut the shape shown in the illustration, and print the word "tickets" upon it. these letters may be illuminated for an evening performance by boring holes through them and placing candles behind (see fig. 266). =a turnstile= should be made in front of the ticket office, so that all are obliged to pay their admission fee and pass through the turnstile before entering the tent (see fig. 266; also illustration opposite page 268). the stile is made with two sticks about forty inches long fastened together at their centres, as shown in fig. 267. this joint, known as =halving=, consists in cutting away one-half the thickness and the width of each piece so that the remaining portions fit together flush. after nailing the pieces together, bore a quarter-inch hole through the centre, and screw the crosspiece at this point to the top of a piece of two-by-four driven into the ground in front of the ticket office. the crosspiece should now revolve with the screw as an axis. the turnstile should, of course, have a lock, and an arrangement similar to that shown in fig. 266 answers the purpose. cut a slot in the front of the lower box on a level with the top of the stile for the arms to run through (see illustration), and then prepare four blocks, such as _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ in fig. 268. screw one end of _b_ and _c_ to the ends of _a_ and fasten block _d_ between the other ends of _b_ and _c_, after which nail block _a_ to the under side of the counter in the position shown in fig. 266. prepare a lever such as is shown in fig. 269, cut a mortise in the top of the counter for it to fit in (see fig. 266), and pivot it to the side of the upper box. place a screw-eye in the end of the lever and another in _d_, and connect the two with a piece of cord. figure 266 shows an arm of the turnstile held by the lock, which is released by pushing back the lever. a railing should be built in front of the turnstile to block the passage on that side. [illustration: fig. 268.--lock.] [illustration: fig. 269.--lever.] =the side show= should be placed in one corner of the yard. the cages can be made out of boxes with either slats or wire-mesh fastened over the front, and the top or side hinged in place for a door. the animal performers of the circus should occupy these cages before the show commences, and to make the menagerie as large as possible, a few cages may be filled with pets borrowed for the occasion. several closed boxes should be placed alongside of the cages, and lettered "lion," "tiger," or the names of some such ferocious animals as these, and the public should be informed that for their safety the management thought it best not to place these specimens on exhibition. =animated animals= generally have a place in every circus, and help out the clowns in their end of the performance. the animals are not difficult for handy boys to make, so several should be manufactured for your show. if you can get your mother or sister to do the necessary sewing, it would be well to secure her help. =the elephant= is one of the oldest forms of animated animals, and is at the same time one of the most popular. four or five yards of gray cambric should be purchased for its covering. [illustration: figs. 270-271.--the elephant.] the cloth should be cut out like the pattern shown in fig. 270, the correct measurements being secured from two boys who have taken the position shown in fig. 271. fold the cloth along the centre and then sew the dotted lines _aa_ and _bb_ together. paper cornucopiæ form the tusks, and the ears are made of gray cambric cut the shape shown in fig. 271, and lined with heavy wrapping-paper to make them stiff. two boys are required for the elephant. these must bend forward, as shown in fig. 271. the rear boy places one hand upon the front boy's back and wags the tail with the other, while the front boy runs one hand through the elephant's trunk and keeps it in motion. fasten potato sacks on to your legs to make them as large as possible. =the giraffe= is one of the rarest of animals, and very few are to be found in captivity. in fact, a large circus claims there is only one specimen in this country, outside of a herd in their possession. so if you make a giraffe, which is not difficult to do, you will have a feature in your show that none but the very largest combines can afford. the animal's head should be drawn the shape of fig. 272 on a board, and then cut out with the aid of a saw and draw-knife. the jaw, ears, and horns should be cut out separately, the shape of figs. 273, 274, and 275. bore two holes in the head at _a_, slanting them toward one another, and fit in them the pegs cut for the horns. the jaw should be pivoted with a small nail at _b_ on one side of the head, and an ear should be likewise fastened at _c_ on each side of the head. when these portions of the giraffe's anatomy have been put in place, stretch a rubber band from a tack driven in the top of the jaw to another tack driven into the neck (see fig. 272), and attach another rubber band similarly to each of the ears. these rubber bands will act as springs, causing the ears to wag and the jaw to open and close when the giraffe moves his head. [illustration: figs. 272-276.--details of giraffe.] paint the head, making the features as nearly like those of a giraffe as possible, and, when the paint is dry, mount the head on the end of a six-foot pole. [illustration: fig. 277.--the giraffe's tail.] the covering for the body is made out of a large piece of tan cloth with brown spots marked upon it, as shown in fig. 276. it is not necessary to give a pattern for this, as the illustration clearly shows how it should fit over the two boys who form the body, and hang from the headpiece. the neck should be stuffed out with excelsior. a short and a long stick should be nailed together, as shown in fig. 277, and cloth should be sewed to the end of the short stick for the animal's tail. stuff the tail with excelsior and fasten unravelled rope to the end, as shown in the drawings. the long stick should be held by the boy who forms the rear of the animal, so that by means of it he can manipulate the tail (see fig. 276). as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 276, the boy in the front portion of the animal holds the end of the pole supporting the animal's head. [illustration: fig. 278.--the wild man and the wild horse.] [illustration: fig. 279.--framework of wild horse.] [illustration: figs. 280-282.] an animated animal very often brought into a circus ring is the two-legged =wild horse=, owned by the wild man of borneo. this breed of horse is shown in fig. 278. a framework is necessary for the body, and this is best made as shown in fig. 279. cut two four-foot strips for the side-pieces, fasten them two feet apart, with a barrel-hoop at either end and arch barrel-hoops over the back, as shown in the drawing. the head (fig. 280) is made in the same manner as that of the giraffe, the jaws and the ears (figs. 281 and 282) being cut out separately and pivoted in place similarly to those of the giraffe. paint the face, marking the eyes and nostrils, and make a mane and tail of unravelled rope. having finished the head, mount it upon a short stick and fasten this to a crosspiece set in the framework, as shown in fig. 279, bracing it with an upright fastened to another crosspiece. in fastening the various pieces of the framework together, it is well not only to use long enough nails to clinch, but also to bind each joint with wire or cord to make it stiff. purchase brown or black cambric for covering the framework. tack it to the wooden strips, leaving an opening in the top for the rider to stand in, and allow it to hang to the ground as shown in the illustration, so as to conceal the feet of the rider. [illustration: fig. 283.--"jocko."] =the wild man= should wear an old slouch hat and a hunting jacket, and should have a pair of false legs fastened to him, so that while his own are inside the framework, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 278, they appear to be astride. to make the false legs, cut off the legs of an old pair of long trousers, stuff them with excelsior, and fasten a pair of shoes to the ends. these legs should be fastened to the hips of the rider. the framework should be held to the rider by means of ropes tied to the side strips, as shown in fig. 279. these should be long enough to cross the boy's shoulders in the same way as a pair of suspenders. [illustration: fig. 284.--jocko's hat.] =a monkey's make-up= is shown in fig. 283. the boy who is most apt at making a monkey of himself should be selected to take the part of this animal. in the first place he requires a red suit, which may be made quickly by sewing red cloth over an old coat and a pair of trousers. cover the legs with a pair of tan stockings, and slip the feet into a pair of large gloves. the face and hands should be colored, and for this purpose buy some brown grease paint. in rubbing the paint over the face, leave a circle of white around the eyes and mouth, and make a brown mark each side of the mouth to give it a broadened effect. a tight-fitting cap should be made of cloth as nearly the shade of the brown paint as possible, to hide the hair. figure 284 shows the monkey's hat, consisting of a tomato-can covered with red cloth, which is fastened around the monkey's chin by means of an elastic cord. a piece of rope can be fastened beneath the coat for a tail. =the ring master= should wear a high silk hat, a stand-up collar, and a pair of boots, besides being supplied with a long whip. =the clown's suit= is best made out of red and yellow cheese-cloth, this material being about as cheap as can be bought for the purpose. the suit consists of a pair of baggy trousers or bloomers, with elastic around the waist and ankles, a loose coat with large buttons, a collar, a skullcap, and a hat. make the buttons out of red cheese-cloth and stuff them with cotton. the coat may be made of red and the trousers of yellow cheese-cloth, or both may be made of yellow with red polka dots sewed on to them, as shown in the illustration of his costume (fig. 285). the collar is made of white cloth, lined with paper to make it stiff, and should be pleated around the neck to form a ruffle. a skull cap should be made out of white cloth to hide the hair. make a peaked hat of stiff paper, and cover it with red cheese-cloth. [illustration: fig. 285.--the clown's make-up.] [illustration: the back-yard circus.] when making up for a performance, the clown should powder his face, neck, and hands with magnesia, and draw expression marks upon his face with burnt cork, as shown in fig. 285. =the attendants= for the elephant and giraffe should wear old bath robes or gowns, and have turbans made by twisting a piece of red cheese-cloth about the head. by visiting any circus and closely watching how things are managed, it ought to be a simple matter to get enough =ideas for a performance= that can be carried out with the animals and performers described in this chapter. the clown should, of course, have his usual supply of jokes, which he can get out of the comic papers, and should do his best to annoy the other performers. he should make himself =a slapper=, consisting of two sticks with a block slipped between at one end. this will produce a great deal of laughter among the audience, for when the slapper is struck against a performer the ends of the sticks strike together, making a loud, cracking noise, and one would hardly believe that a stinging blow had not been dealt. the clown attempts the tricks of the other performers, but always fails or gets them very badly mixed. a startling feat to be announced upon the programme will be =looping the hoop on a giraffe.=--this stunt is performed by the elephant, who is given a number of barrel-hoops, which he tosses by means of his trunk over the giraffe's outstretched neck. the elephant and giraffe should always be entered in a race, which will prove exciting, inasmuch as your specimens will be evenly matched. the monkey may do almost anything and be amusing. swinging upon a turning-pole, teasing the animals, boxing with the clown, and climbing a rope, are all his specialties. then he should have =a chariot= within which to ride around the ring. this can be made out of a soap-box, as shown in fig. 286. cut down the sides, as in the illustration, attach two shafts to the bottom, and mount it upon a couple of small wagon wheels. when this has been done paint the wood a bright red, and cut stars of different sizes out of gilt paper and glue them all over the outside. [illustration: fig. 286.--jocko's chariot.] the ring master acts as manager of the performance, and should use his whip unsparingly upon the animals, to force them into obedience. if a boy can turn upon a turning-pole, an apparatus such as is described in chapter xviii may be set up outside of the ring. before performances, the entire circus--animals, acrobats, and showmen--should parade about the neighborhood in circus attire. we always made the =parades= a feature of our circuses, and found them not only great sport, but the best kind of advertising. the animal cages should be placed upon wagons decorated with flags. head the procession with a couple of drummers, and have two boys march in the rear carrying signs advertising the show. =the advertising signs= may be painted with bluing upon large pieces of manila wrapping-paper, and should be tacked on wooden stretchers mounted on poles. [illustration: circus parade.] chapter xx suggestions for fourth of july [illustration: boy startled by fire-cracker and lanterns on kite-string.] as most boys probably know, the first fourth of july celebration took place in 1775, following the signing of the declaration of independence in independence hall, philadelphia. when the old bell rang forth the result of the meeting of the continental congress, citizens gathered in the streets and displayed their great joy by shouting, beating drums, and firing muskets. the news spread very rapidly, and great rejoicing reigned everywhere. it soon became a custom to celebrate annually this famous event, and it should be every boy's privilege to have a rollicking good time upon this day, making as much noise as he pleases. when the average boy has bought a few sky-rockets, roman-candles, and cannon-crackers, for the fourth, he generally finds, to his sorrow, that he has run out of pocket money. it is then that he is very apt to want to try his hand at making pyrotechnics. there are many publications which describe how amateurs may manufacture roman-candles, sky-rockets, nigger-chasers, and such pieces, but it is hoped that no boy will venture to carry out any such experiments, for, with the greatest of care, unforeseen accidents will occur which may result disastrously to him. at the same time, there is no economy in it, for the apparatus and materials will generally cost him more than to buy the fireworks ready made. this is also true of colored lights, for which there are many simple formulæ, but none of which can be made up as cheaply as the powders can be bought already prepared. there are, however, many things a boy can make for the fourth that are perfectly harmless, such as fire-cracker cannons and home-made set-pieces, besides different schemes for firing crackers and fireworks that he can carry out. the suggestions offered on the following pages will be found interesting, and they will probably suggest other ideas to the inventive boy. the store toy cannon and cap-pistol are exceedingly dangerous for boys to use, and were all cities to pass laws forbidding their sale, as in the case of a great many of the larger cities, thousands of young lives would be saved from the terrible accidents resulting annually from celebrating with these toys. in fig. 287 is shown =a fire-cracker cannon= with which a boy can have a great deal of fun and at the same time with no danger of injury. cut the two gun-stocks similar in shape to fig. 288, and the two wheels four inches in diameter (fig. 289), after which bore holes in the gun-stocks at _a_, and in the centres of the wheels, through which to run the axle. procure a baking-powder can and make a couple of holes in the sides for the axle to run through (fig. 290), and one in the bottom of the can the size of a fire-cracker fuse. cut a conical piece of wood about two inches long and nail it to the outside of the can cover as shown in fig. 291. [illustration: figs. 287-291.--a fire-cracker cannon.] when the various pieces have been thus prepared, place them together as shown in fig. 287, and slip a piece of heavy wire through the holes made in them, and bend over the ends of the wire to hold the wheels in place. =to fire the cannon=, place a cracker in the can with the fuse projecting through the hole in the bottom, and fit the cover over the can. then light the fuse. the exploding cracker will force off the cover, which is the projectile, and hurl it a considerable distance in the direction the cannon has been pointed. =a toy mortar= may be made similarly, with the exception of the carriage or mortar-bed. figures 292 and 293 show the details for this, which is different from a regular mortar, one end being enclosed for an ammunition box. make a cover for the ammunition box to prevent sparks from igniting the packages of crackers, using pieces of leather for hinges. as shown in the section drawing (fig. 293), the mortar-bed is mounted upon a small board, being held in place by means of a short screw, which makes it possible to swing the mortar around in any position desired. [illustration: figs. 292-293.--a fire-cracker mortar.] these cannons and mortars will furnish sport not only for the fourth, but for any other day of the year, as they can be used by a crowd of boys in =mimic battles=, with paper soldiers. the boys should divide into armies, and construct their fortifications about twenty feet apart, planting the guns upon the works and placing the paper soldiers behind. all paper soldiers knocked over are out of the game, and the side first completely killing the enemy's garrison is, of course, the winner of the day. these battles are always very exciting, especially toward the end, when there are but a few warriors remaining. in order that the projectiles may fit all the cans, it is necessary to have them all of the same size. [illustration: fig. 294.--another toy cannon.] =another toy cannon= that is simple to make is shown in fig. 294. for this, buy a short piece of glass tubing at a drug-store and have the druggist seal one end of it. then secure a good-sized cork and cut a hole through the side large enough for the tube to run through (see _a_ in fig. 294). cut out a pair of wooden wheels about three inches in diameter, and fasten them to the ends of the cork with a pin or small nail. make the cannon shafts four inches long, point one end of each and stick them into the cork at _b_ and _c_. the open end of the tube should be at _d_ and the sealed end at _e_. =to fire the cannon=, slip a match into the open end of the tube with the head toward _e_, and hold a lighted match at the closed end. as soon as the heat ignites the phosphorus, the match will shoot out of the open end of the tube. =firing fireworks from kites= presents a novel feature for a fourth of july celebration, the aërial display making a very pretty spectacle, and the boy who sets off his fireworks in this manner will have something different from the rest of the neighborhood. [illustration: fig. 295.] figure 295 shows the manner in which a roman-candle can be attached to a kite-string. a piece of punk about an inch and one-half long should be bound to the fuse of the candle, and as the fuse is rather short it is necessary to cut through the paper bound around it, and set the punk into the end of the candle, as shown in the drawing. attach a piece of twine two feet long to the other end of the candle, and then, after getting your kite up, attach the end of this string to the kite-string and light the punk, being very careful in doing so not to ignite the fuse of the roman-candle. after attaching the candle and lighting the punk, let out the kite-string as rapidly as possible, so that by the time the punk has burned down to the fuse end, the roman-candle will be well up in the air. as soon as the candle begins to explode, shake the kite-string so as to make the balls shoot into the sky in different directions. =a pack of fire-crackers= with a piece of punk attached to the fuses may also be suspended from a kite-string and fired in mid-air. [illustration: fig. 296. fig. 297. schemes for attaching lanterns to kite-strings.] other fireworks may be set off similarly, and colored lights produce a fine effect. =nigger-chasers= shot into the air by means of a cross-bow, such as is described in chapter xvii, present another novelty. =japanese lanterns= hung from kite-strings are also a pretty sight, and, while they give somewhat the same appearance as fire-balloons, they are lasting and can be saved for another year. after procuring a number of lanterns of different shapes and sizes, fasten candles securely in them so that there is no possibility of them igniting the paper. figures 296 and 297 show two ways in which the lanterns may be attached one below the other. the first method (fig. 296) consists of pins stuck through the bottoms of the lanterns and bent over into hooks, while in the second (fig. 297) a small hole is made in the bottom of one lantern and the wire handle of another is slipped through this hole and looped over a burnt match. before sending up the kite with these lanterns, make a number of small loops in the kite-string where you wish to hang the lanterns, and provide the handle of each series of lanterns with a pin-hook, as shown in fig. 297. then, when everything is in readiness, have one of your friends hook the lanterns to the loops while you attend to letting out the kite-string. of course the smaller the lanterns are the greater number you can hitch in place, and if you use a team of kites you will find that they will carry a number of strings of lanterns. [illustration: fig. 298.--a shooting-torch.] =a shooting-torch=, such as is shown in fig. 298, is a scheme that is simple to carry out. it consists of a stick about eighteen inches long, with fire-crackers bound around it with wire, and the fuses twisted together, as shown in the illustration. it is fired in the same way as a roman-candle. after firing all of your fireworks, you should have =a final set-piece= with which to close the exhibition. a good scheme for such a piece is shown in fig. 299. mark out the letters upon a board, and, with a quarter-inch bit, bore holes about one half-inch apart along the outlines of each letter. then cut enough sticks of punk two inches long to fit all of the holes, and put them to soak in kerosene. the oil makes the punk burn much brighter than it would in its dry state. when the punk is thoroughly soaked, stick the pieces in the holes. a candle will be found most convenient for lighting the punk. nail the board to a tree or post, and place several cannon-crackers in holes bored near the bottom of the board. after allowing the punk to burn for a short time, light the cannon-crackers and blow up the set-piece as a grand finish. [illustration: fig. 299.--a final set-piece.] chapter xxi halloween [illustration: witch riding broomstick and halloween prankster] halloween, or the eve of all saints' day, has been observed since the beginning of the christian era. in very early times, ghosts, demons, and spirits were believed to rule the universe on this evening, and any one who ventured upon the streets after dark was doing so at the risk of his life. for companionship, as well as protection, it was customary for large numbers of friends to spend the evening together; and these gathered around the fire-place, and passed away the time drinking cider, cracking nuts, eating apples, and telling ghost stories. while the superstitious fears of halloween have almost entirely disappeared, the evening is generally celebrated in the same manner as in the past. this is the only evening on which a boy can feel free to play pranks outdoors without danger of being "pinched," and it is his delight to scare passing pedestrians, ring door-bells, and carry off the neighbors' gates (after seeing that his own is unhinged and safely placed in the barn). even if he is suspected, and the next day made to remove the rubbish barricading the doors, lug back the stone carriage step, and climb a tree for the front gate, the punishment is nothing compared with the sport the pranks have furnished him. there is, of course, such a thing as boys going too far with their halloween fun and getting into malicious mischief, but the cautious boy is not likely to cause any serious trouble by his actions. [illustration: fig. 301. fig 300.--a section through the bean-blower. a magazine bean-blower.] every boy who has used a bean-blower knows that the beans swell when held in the mouth, often to such an extent that they will not go through the opening, and clog the tube. figure 300 shows a scheme for a =magazine bean-blower=, which does away with this difficulty, inasmuch as with it the beans are not put in the mouth. the drawing shows a section taken through the centre of one the writer has before him, which works admirably. this bean-blower will cost you just two cents, the price of two of the regular nineteen-inch tin tubes sold in the stores. to these add a large ribbon-spool, which can be had for the asking at almost any dry goods store, some glue, and a sheet of writing paper. place the spool in your bench-vise, and bore a quarter-inch hole in the centre of the side of it (see _a_, fig. 300). this hole should be on a slant, and extend only into the hollow part of the spool, as shown in the drawing. when this has been done, take one of the tin tubes and cut off two sections of it, one four inches long and the other three and one-half inches long. this is easily done by filing through the tin on one side with a small file, and then bending the tube back and forth until it breaks. place the end of the four-inch tube in the hole bored in the spool at _a_, gluing a strip of paper around it to make it fit tightly (see _b_ in fig. 300). a piece of paper smeared with glue should be wrapped around the other end of this tube in the form of a funnel, as shown in fig. 301. press the paper around the end of the tube, as shown in the section drawing, fig. 300, and use plenty of glue upon it to make it stiff. glue a strip of paper around the short tube, and stick it in one end of the spool, as shown at _c_, fig. 300. the little wooden mouthpiece that is furnished with bean-blowers nowadays should be slipped over the other end of the tube, as shown in the drawing. now take the second bean-blower, and glue it in the other end of the spool, as shown at _d_. the bean-blower is now complete. to operate it, hold the spool in one hand, and, after dropping a number of beans or peas into the magazine, place the palm of the other hand over the top of the paper funnel, and blow until the tube is emptied. it is necessary to close the opening in the top of the magazine, or the beans will blow out of it instead of from the end of tube _d_. dried peas always work better than beans in a bean-blower, as they are round and never clog the tube. [illustration: fig. 302.--a new style of tick-tack.] [illustration: fig. 304. fig. 303. details of crank for tick-tack.] the loud drumming noise of a tick-tack rattled upon a window is enough to give any one the cold shivers, and if the guests of a halloween party are gathered about the fire-place, telling weird ghost stories, this unearthly noise is sufficient to give even the bravest heart a conviction that the house is haunted by supernatural beings. the writer and his friends used to make =a new style of tick-tack=, such as illustrated in fig. 302, which claims several advantages over the ordinary kind. in the first place it has a crank arrangement which does away with the long string that is everlastingly becoming entangled, and only one boy is necessary to operate it where two are required with the old-style affair. again, by having the tick-tack upon the end of a long pole, second-story windows can easily be reached with it. for the making of this tick-tack, procure two large spools, some heavy cord, and a long pole (perhaps you can borrow your mother's clothes-pole for the occasion). with a knife cut notches in the flanges of one spool, and fasten it to one end of the pole, driving a large nail through the hole in the centre of the spool into the pole (see fig. 302). place the other spool in your bench-vise and saw it in two pieces, as shown in figs. 303 and 304, so that _a_ is one-half the size of _b_, or one-third of the length of the spool. cut a strip of wood about six inches long, bore a hole near one end a little larger than a sixteen-penny nail, and nail the strip to the end of spool _a_ so that the hole comes exactly over the one in the spool (see fig. 303). attach spool _b_ to the other end of _c_ by means of a nail driven through the hole into the strip. the crank is now completed, and should be fastened to the lower end of the pole by means of a nail driven through the hole in _a_. it will be seen that this tick-tack is a simple piece of apparatus. the crank at the lower end of the pole is turned and revolves the notched spool at the upper end. to keep the cord from slipping on the pole, a little resin should be rubbed upon it, and it might be well also to rub a little upon the spools. [illustration: fig. 305. the clockwork tick-tack.] =a clockwork tick-tack=, such as is illustrated in fig. 305, is another good idea, and one that can be carried out with a few minutes' work. remove the works from an old alarm clock, and fasten them with wire or cord to the end of a pole, as shown. attach a cord to the striker, and make it long enough to reach to the other end of the pole. make a loop in the end of the cord, and drive a nail into the pole over which to loop the cord to keep the striker in check. this tick-tack is worked by placing the end of the pole close to the window-glass, with the striker toward the glass, and slipping the cord off its nail. the striker is controlled entirely by the cord. =the goblin-man= (fig. 306) is easily made out of such material as you can most generally find about the house. the framework for the body of this ghostly creature is shown in fig. 307, and consists of a pole about four feet long with the centre of an eighteen-inch crosspiece nailed across it. in order to fasten these pieces firmly together, they should be halved as shown in fig. 267, chapter xix. the arms consist of two sticks (_a_ and _b_ in fig. 307) fastened together at right angles with small iron braces, and screwed in place near the ends of the crosspiece, as shown in the illustration. holes should be bored through the arm pieces in order that they may work freely on the screws. place a small screw-eye in each arm at _b_, and attach a short string to it. a short stick should be nailed to the four-foot pole about eighteen inches from the lower end, so that the boy who carries the framework can rest it upon his shoulder. [illustration: fig. 306.--the goblin-man.] [illustration: fig. 307.--framework of the goblin-man.] the head of the goblin is a jack-o'-lantern made out of a piece of cardboard, bent as shown in fig. 308, and held in this shape by means of broom-wire laced back and forth across the top. cut a hole the shape of an ear in each side, and paste a piece of red tissue-paper over the opening. for the face, take a piece of white paper a little larger than the face is going to be, mark out eyes, nose, and mouth upon it, and cut the openings for them. paste red tissue-paper over the openings for the eyes, and mark a large black pupil in the corner of each (fig. 309). for the mouth, paste a piece of white tissue-paper over the opening, and mark out the teeth in black (fig. 309). a piece of red tissue-paper should be pasted over the opening for the nose. after finishing the face, paste it on to the cardboard head. the goblin's countenance is lighted up from within, by means of a candle fastened in a baking-powder can. cut down one side of the can with a pair of tin-shears or a can-opener, and tack it to the framework about six inches above the crosspiece, as shown in fig. 307. this can must not be put in place, however, until the head is fastened to the framework, which is done by punching a hole in the cardboard large enough to admit the end of the pole. get an old derby for a hat, and, after punching a few holes in the top for the heat and smoke of the candle to escape, sew it to the cardboard head. cover the back of the head with black cloth in such a way that it may be opened to light the candle. to save the goblin-man the embarrassment of losing his head, drive a nail through the crown of the derby-hat into the end of the pole. for a neck, button a cuff around the pole between the crosspiece and head. [illustration: fig. 308. fig. 309. figs. 308-309.--the goblin's head.] a white suit of clothes is, of course, the correct style for the goblin to wear. this can be found in an old nightshirt, lengthened with white cloth, if necessary, to make it reach the ground when it is placed upon him. the shoulders should be padded out to hide the framework. when the goblin-man is finished, strap the shoulder-stick of the frame to your shoulder, and fasten the end of the pole to your waist with a belt. your hands are then free to manipulate the arms, by means of the cords attached to their ends. before starting out upon the street, have some one light the candle in the head. as this weird-looking creature passes along the streets, with glaring eyes and other features equally brilliant, people will have to stop to reassure themselves that they are not face to face with some unearthly demon. a trick that will furnish amusement for at least a portion of the evening is =the disappearing rope=, which is not an entirely new idea, but one which is always popular. procure a number of rubber bands and tie them together, end to end. then attach one end of these to a front fence, and to the other end fasten several yards of string. after doing this, cross over the sidewalk with the string, pulling it tightly so the rubber bands will stretch, and hang a sign with the word "danger" printed upon it in large letters over the string where it crosses the sidewalk. it is only natural that the person who sees this sign will make a grab for it, thinking you are blocking the sidewalk to make him walk around it. this is your opportunity to act quickly and let go of the string, which will snap back to the fence upon the contraction of the rubber bands, and disappear from view, leaving your much-astonished friend to pass on, knowing that the joke is upon him. chapter xxii a back-yard toboggan-slide [illustration: children on the toboggan-slide.] it is the misfortune of a great many boys to be deprived of one of winter's greatest sports, by living in a flat country where there are no hills upon which to coast. these boys have little use for sleds aside from "hitching," unless they can make an artificial slide. in a number of large cities, toboggan-slides on a large scale are erected in the parks each year, and thrown open to the use of the public. although this coasting cannot equal that to be had on natural hills, it affords a great pastime to thousands of boys and girls, and is a luxurious treat to many who have never seen hills larger than the artificial park variety. the construction of a toboggan-slide is not difficult for a boy or several boys, and though it must be limited in size, a small slide has an advantage in that there is not a long walk from the end of the run back to the starting-point. [illustration: fig. 310.--a back-yard toboggan-slide.] it is a good idea to locate the toboggan-slide in a back-yard or an enclosed lot, so that the outside fellows cannot monopolize it; and it is well to have some firm object to which the framework can be fastened, as it saves a great deal of bracing, and materially lessens the amount of lumber needed. the work should be done in the early part of the fall, before the cold weather sets in. figure 310 shows a slide built in the corner of a yard against the fence. =the length= will be determined by the size of the yard. if the yard is short, the slide should be proportioned accordingly, to allow the sled its full run before reaching the end of the lot. =a platform= should be built in the corner, six feet square, and about seven feet above the ground. for this, cut four two-by-fours six feet nine inches long, fasten one in the angle formed by the two fences, and another five feet four inches to the right of it (_a_ and _b_ in fig. 312). the third upright (_c_) should be nailed to the fence five feet eight inches from _a_, and the fourth (_d_) should be fastened at an equal distance from _b_. then cut two pieces of two-by-four each six feet long, and nail them across the tops of _a_ and _c_, and _b_ and _d_, respectively, as shown at _e_ and _f_ in fig. 312. the uprights should now be braced with horizontal and diagonal bracing, as shown in fig. 312, to give the platform the necessary stiffness. [illustration: figs. 311-313.--framework of toboggan-slide.] after deciding upon the length of the slide, lay off the distance upon the ground from the bottom of upright _b_, and drive a stake into the ground at the farther end. then attach a cord to the stake and run it along the fence to a nail driven into the top of upright _b_. this cord, shown in fig. 311, marks the pitch of the slide, and will give you a guide-line by which to work. when this has been done, cut three pieces of two-by-four about two feet long, and spike them to the fence just below the guide-line (see _g_, _h_, and _i_, fig. 311), spacing them about six feet apart on centres. when these have been fastened in place, take a piece of two-by-four and mark off upon it the distance from the ground to the top of block _i_. then square a line across the two-by-four at this point, at an angle corresponding to that at which block _i_ is nailed to the fence (see fig. 313). saw the two-by-four on this line, and then stand it upright in front of block _i_, thirty or thirty-two inches from the fence (according to whether eight-or ten-inch boards are used upon the slide), and spike a piece of two-by-four to the top of it and to the top of block _i_, as shown in fig. 312. cut and set up a similar upright and crosspiece at _g_ and at _h_, after which brace all as shown in the illustration (fig. 312). if you are going to buy boards with which to cover the platform and slide, get twelve-foot lengths, eight or ten inches wide. by using these you will have no waste, and but little cutting to do. if, however, you have material of other dimensions on hand which you can use, the supports of the slide should be so spaced that the boards will reach from one to another. the boards should run lengthwise upon the slide, and be nailed to the framework, leaving as small cracks as possible between them. in order to prevent sleds from running off the slide, a guide should be nailed to the edge farthest from the fence, from the top to the bottom, and on the opposite side where it extends above the fence top (see fig. 310). after nailing the platform boards in place, =build a railing= out of boards around three sides of it, to prevent any one from slipping off (see fig. 310). =a ladder=, made out of two two-by-fours, with two-inch strips nailed across them, should be set against the front of the platform and spiked in place, as shown in the illustration of the completed slide (fig. 310). this will make it easier to reach the platform than by the way of the icy slide, and also prevents those coasting from colliding with those who are returning. any ingenious boy will know how to make a swift slide by turning the hose upon it, and allowing the water to run over the surface until every portion is well covered. a toboggan-sled is out of proportion for a slide of this size, and will not be found as satisfactory as a sled with runners, as the steepness of the slide will not be sufficient to make it go. =a home-made sled=, such as that shown in fig. 314, requires but little material, and if carefully made will prove stronger than the variety commonly sold in the shops. [illustration: fig. 314.--a home-made sled.] [illustration: fig. 315.--pattern for runners.] figure 315 shows the pattern for the runners, which should be cut out of four-inch boards, seven-eighths of an inch thick. round the top edges, and cut the front and rear ends as shown in the drawing. make a slot in the place indicated for a handle, and bore a hole near the front end for the crosspiece to run through. the seat consists of a board cut twenty-two inches long and nine inches wide. this will not be nailed to the runners but to cleats, as shown in fig. 316. cut three cleats nine and one-quarter inches long, two inches wide, and seven-eighths of an inch thick, and fasten these between the runners, five-eighths of an inch from their tops, placing one near the end of the seat, one at the centre, and one at the front. four two-inch iron braces should be procured, and two of these screwed to the under side of the front and rear cleats, and to the sides of the runners, as shown in fig. 316. the seat can then be nailed in place, and a broom-handle fastened in the hole bored near the ends of the runners. =the best kind of iron runners= for a home-made sled are those that a boy can put on without the aid of a blacksmith, and such a pair of runners is shown in the drawing of this sled. they consist of what are known as half-oval iron strips, and can be had usually at a hardware store or blacksmith shop. a pair forty inches long and three-quarters of an inch wide, with five holes for countersunk screws drilled in each, can be bought for fifty cents. when they have been procured, screw them to the bottom of the runners, using one inch or one and one-quarter inch screws for the purpose. [illustration: fig. 316.--a section through the sled.] although these runners are plenty heavy enough for light coasting, they would probably prove weak for coasting upon hills of any great size. to withstand the strain brought to bear upon the runners when hill coasting, boys generally find it necessary to make them out of two-inch stuff. this, however, makes the sled heavy and clumsy, and can be done away with by following a scheme which a friend of the writer's invented and found very satisfactory. it consisted of =reënforcing the runners= with steel bars driven into holes bored vertically in them. the holes were bored while the runners were held in a vise, and the steel bars were a little larger than the holes, so that they would fit them tightly. this scheme allows the use of seven-eighths inch stuff for the runners, and sixty-penny wire nails can be filed off to the proper length and substituted for steel bars if the latter cannot be obtained. when the sled has been completed, it should be given a good coat of paint. [illustration: boys discuss the project.] part iii indoor pastimes [illustration: a miniature theatre.] chapter xxiii a miniature theatre [illustration: children at the theatre.] probably nothing can be found which will make a more interesting entertainment for a winter evening, than a miniature theatre patterned as nearly as possible after a large playhouse. the construction of the stage, and preparation of miniature scenery, properties, and mechanical effects, furnish good work for disagreeable weather when it becomes necessary to remain indoors, and there is plenty of it, and of great enough variety, to occupy the attention of a number of boys. very little material is necessary, outside of what generally can be found in the attic, cellar, and woodshed, so that the expense incurred by making the theatre amounts to almost nothing. a gilt picture-frame makes =an excellent proscenium= for the front of the stage, and, as it will not be marred in the least, you can probably borrow one for the occasion. [illustration: fig. 317.--the stage framework.] on the opposite page is shown a miniature theatre completed, and in fig. 317 will be seen the proper construction of =the stage framework=, which is made of narrow boards and built upon two horses the width of the picture-frame. make the horses as shown in fig. 317, one two feet six inches high and the other two feet nine inches high, using two-by-fours for the tops and narrow boards for the legs and braces. after constructing the horses, cut four boards seven feet long and nail two to the ends of each (_a_ and _b_, fig. 317), after which cut two pieces to reach across the tops and nail them in place as shown at _c_. then set the horses five feet apart, with the lower one in front, and screw three boards to the tops as shown at _d_, _e_, and _f_, and three narrow strips to the top of the framework as shown at _g_, _h_, and _i_. strips _g_, _h_, and _i_ form what is known as =the gridiron=, or supports from which the scenery drops are suspended, and should have a row of tacks driven into each edge, as shown in fig. 317, upon which to hang the drops. by fastening the framework together with screws, it may be taken apart after a performance and packed away for another time. =the stage floor= rests upon boards _d_, _e_, and _f_, and is made of laths laid close together, parallel to the front of the stage. the laths should not be nailed in place, as it is necessary to have the stage floor movable. when the work has proceeded thus far, set the picture-frame between the uprights of the front frame so that the opening comes on a level with the stage floor, and fasten it to _a_ and _b_ with nails driven through screw-eyes placed in the back of the picture-frame. =the drop-curtain= should be made of white muslin, and measure in width several inches wider than the opening in the picture-frame. hem the two side edges of the cloth, and sew brass rings on to them two inches apart. then tack the top and bottom to strips of wood. a scene may be painted upon this curtain, but you will find the result probably more successful if you paste a picture of some sort upon the cloth, as suggested in the illustration of the completed theatre. [illustration: fig. 318.--view of curtain from stage.] in fig. 318 we have a view from the stage of the arrangement by which the curtain is raised and lowered. two heavy wires should be slipped through the rings on the curtain, and their ends fastened to four screw-eyes placed in the uprights at _j_, _k_, _l_, and _m_. these form the curtain guides. bore two holes in uprights _a_ and _b_ above the picture-frame, and run a broom-stick through them for a roller, after which make a crank similar to that shown in fig. 319 and fasten it to one end. place two screw-eyes in the crosspiece at _n_ and _o_ (fig. 318) and slip two cords through them, tying one end of each to the top of the curtain and the other end to the roller. by turning the crank the string will now wind around the roller and raise the curtain. it will be necessary to screw a button on to upright _a_ at _p_, as shown in fig. 319, to lock the crank when the curtain is raised. we often had two and three drop-curtains upon our miniature theatres, which made it necessary to have additional rollers and guide-wires. [illustration: fig. 319.--crank for curtain pole.] [illustration: fig. 320.--the footlights.] the greatest precautions should be taken =in lighting the theatre=, to have all wood surrounding lights covered with tin, and not to use candles or matches around inflammable substances. figure 320 shows a satisfactory arrangement of =the footlights.=--a piece of tin the length of the picture-frame and ten inches wide should be procured for these and bent into the shape shown in the illustration. drive tacks through the bottom of the tin about two inches apart, and stick a short candle upon each. then fasten the tin below the picture-frame as shown in the drawing of the completed theatre, and paint it black upon the outside. [illustration: fig. 321. fig. 324. fig. 322. fig. 323. details of floodlights.] =floodlights=, which are used to throw light from the wings on to the stage, may be made as shown in figs. 321, 322, 323, and 324. the case for the light is made in the same manner as the dark-room lantern, described in chapter xi, and illustrated by figs. 176 and 177, except that the door is placed in the side instead of the back and no glass or paper is fastened over the front opening (see figs. 322 and 323). make the opening four by five inches, and fasten two grooves, formed by nailing two strips of wood together, as shown in fig. 324, above and below it, in which to slide glass plates for the purpose of throwing =colored lights= upon a scene. the slides consist of old four-by-five camera plates with colored tissue-paper pasted upon them, and are operated in the same manner as magic-lantern slides. the light should be mounted upon a standard, such as is shown in fig. 321, consisting of a seven-foot pole fastened at the lower end to a board and braced with triangular blocks, as shown in the illustration. it should be so attached to the pole that it can be adjusted to any desired height, and to attain this two pipe-straps should be fastened to the back of the box, as shown in fig. 322. first nail two vertical strips in place as at _a_ and _b_ in the drawing, and to these screw the two iron pipe-straps. when the straps have been attached, slip the end of the pole through them, and place a screw-eye in the box, another in the pole near its upper end, and a nail in the side of the box. then attach a cord to the screw-eye in the box, and, after running it through the screw-eye near the top of the pole, twist it several times around the nail in the side of the box, which will hold the box in that position. one of these lights should be made for each side of the stage. in addition to them, you may have occasion to use =spotlights= to throw more light upon one portion of a scene than another. bicycle lamps will be found handy for this purpose. if your house is wired for electricity, several miniature incandescent lamps can be procured for the footlights, while larger lamps can be used for all the other necessary lighting. as the work of making scenery, properties, and mechanical effects is not in the same line as the construction of the stage and its framework, it has been treated in the following chapter. before setting up the theatre for a performance, it is well to spread a large cloth over the carpet, to catch anything that may drop from the stage. then, with all the framework fastened together, hang draperies on each side and above and below the proscenium arch, as shown in chapter heading. this will conceal everything but the proscenium opening. =admission tickets= and programmes should, of course, be printed with a printing-press if you have one; otherwise with rubber stamps. chapter xxiv scenery, properties, and mechanical effects [illustration: working on drops.] scenery for a miniature theatre will be made in much the same manner as the small drops and wings a scenic artist prepares of each scene of a play, before he commences work upon the large canvasses. any handy boy will find it an easy matter to prepare his scenery, as it does not require a knowledge of drawing so much as it does the knack of copying scenes from pictures, and the proper placing of the various wings and drops. several simple suggestions for water, field, street, and interior scenes, with sketches of the drops and wings necessary to complete them, have been placed on the following pages of this chapter with a view to helping you with your first attempts at making scenery. by the time you have made some of these you will have had enough practice in the work to devise other designs and work up the details more elaborately. with a little shifting of drops and wings, or substituting one for another, the appearance of the scene can be sufficiently changed to make it as good as an entirely new setting. several examples of this will be found among the illustrations. =for materials=, you will require some large pieces of paper, several sheets of cardboard, a box of colored chalks, a pair of shears, and a pot of paste--add to this a bunch of laths with which to make the frames, and some nails, screws, and tacks for fastenings. the back of wall-paper presents an excellent surface for chalks, and several rolls will cost you but a few cents, as you can purchase old-style patterns. suit and shoe boxes will furnish the necessary cardboard. [illustration: fig. 325.--drop for ocean scene.] [illustration: fig. 326.--drop (_d_ in ocean scene).] the size and proportion of the scenery will depend entirely upon those of the proscenium, and as these are governed by the size of the picture frame you procure, no attempt will be made to give you the dimensions of wings and drops; but you will get a good idea as to their proper proportion from the illustrations shown of the scenes set up, as the line of the proscenium opening is dotted upon them. in the full-page illustration of the completed theatre preceding chapter xxiii is shown =an ocean scene= in which the entire depth of the stage is used for the setting. here you will notice the drops have been made to extend beyond the sides and top of the proscenium opening, a thing which is necessary in order that those of your audience sitting close to the front of the theatre, or to one side of the centre of the stage, will not be able to see through the openings between the drops and wings. figure 325 shows how the four drops necessary for this scene should be made. first sketch drop _a_, shading the clouds and waves with colored chalks as shown in the drawing of the completed theatre. then cut out the opening in its centre, carefully following the outlines of the clouds. lay this sheet upon another and mark out drop _b_, with a smaller opening in its centre, and then, after coloring and cutting it out in the same manner as you did drop _a_, lay it upon a third sheet and mark out drop _c_, with a still smaller opening in its centre (see fig. 325). drop _d_ forms the background of the scene, and should be made as shown in fig. 326, with a horizontal line separating the sky and water. with the exception of a few white caps in the foreground, no waves should be shown upon this drop. if wall-paper is used for the scenery, several widths will have to be pasted together for each drop. [illustration: fig. 327.--waves for ocean scene.] =additional waves= should be made out of strips of paper and fastened together as shown in fig. 327, with the crests of the waves of each strip extending a little above those of the strip in front. prepare three sets of the waves, and, after pasting one to the bottom of each drop, bend out the crests so as to leave a little space between each strip. these drops should now be tacked to frames made out of laths similar to fig. 328, with the corners nailed and braced with diagonal strips. place a couple of tacks in the top of these frames, and to these attach cords. the drops should now be hung by means of the cords to the tacks in the top strips of the stage framework. space them about as shown in the illustration of the completed theatre, and so adjust the lengths of the cords that, from a point equal to where the centre of your audience will be located, the horizon lines of your drops will appear on a line with one another. then having found the proper lengths of the cords, make loops in them so the drops can be quickly hung in place without further adjustment. [illustration: fig. 328.--frames for drops.] [illustration: fig. 329.--rocks for a seashore scene.] in the foreground of the ocean scene a stone wall has been shown, which should be made upon a strip of cardboard, with the joints of the stones marked off with gray paint. this strip should be set against the bottom of the front drop. to change this setting into =a mid-ocean scene=, it is only necessary to substitute a strip of waves similar to fig. 327 in place of the stone wall; and =a seashore scene= can be had by making a strip of rocks similar to fig. 329 to set against the front drop, and covering the foreground with sand to form the beach. [illustration: fig. 331.--drop (_g_ in field and blockhouse scene).] [illustration: fig. 332.--drop (_h_ in field, blockhouse, and street scene).] [illustration: fig. 330. a field scene.] [illustration: fig. 338. a blockhouse scene.] [illustration: fig. 333.--wing. fence and foliage (_i_ in field scene).] [illustration: fig. 334.--wing (_j_ in field and blockhouse scene).] [illustration: fig. 335.--wing (_k_ in street and blockhouse scene).] [illustration: fig. 336.--standard for trees.] =a field scene= should be set up as shown in fig. 330. make the background drop _g_ similar to fig. 331, tacking it to a frame as you did the drops of the ocean scene, and prepare the foreground drop _h_ similar to fig. 332, tacking its upper edge to a single lath from which it can be hung in position. draw the leaves upon drop _h_ about as shown in the illustration, and in cutting out the strip make a few openings between the leaves as shown in the drawing. wings _i_ and _j_ are shown in figs. 333 and 334. these should be drawn upon cardboard, and then cut out with a sharp knife, with openings made in places between the leaves and branches. tack the bottom of =the trees= to small blocks of wood for standards (see fig. 336), and drive brads through the blocks so they will stick into the stage floor and prevent the trees from toppling over. in setting up this scene, as in the case of all others, you will have to shift the pieces until all entrances and exits are hidden by the wings. the places can then be marked upon the stage floor. this scene will occupy but the front part of the stage. if a greater depth is desired, it will be necessary to prepare additional wings, which can be made similar to figs. 333 and 334, with possibly a few changes in the form of the branches and leaves. figure 335 shows a tree that can be used for the centre of a scene. a little earth scattered over the stage floor will give the appearance of ground. [illustration: fig. 337.--blockhouse (_l_ in blockhouse scene).] by using the same background drop, _g_, and the foreground drop, _h_ (figs. 331 and 332), trees, _j_ and _k_ (figs. 334 and 335), and making a blockhouse and stockade similar to _l_ (fig. 337), you will have the proper setting for =a blockhouse scene=, such as is shown in fig 338. the blockhouse should be fastened to a strip of wood in the same manner as you fastened the ends of the trees (see fig. 336). for outdoor scenery, and especially forest scenes, the writer remembers using =pine boughs= for trees and shrubbery. these were cut into pieces of the right length for trees, with their ends pointed so they would stick into gimlet holes made in the laths of the stage floor; and loose pieces were thrown in between for shrubbery. mounds and hills were made with moss. this saved the work of making so many drops, and, of course, looked a little more realistic than paper scenery, but was not as handy to set up, and caused longer delays between the scenes. [illustration: fig. 340.--drop (_m_ in street scene).] =rustic bridges= can easily be constructed with a few twigs, as can also rustic seats and fences. a very realistic =pond or lake= can be represented by placing a piece of a mirror upon the stage floor, and banking sand or moss around its edge. [illustration: fig. 339. a street scene.] [illustration: fig. 341.--wing (_o_ in street scene).] [illustration: fig. 342.--wing (_n_ in street scene).] figure 339 shows a simple setting for =a street scene=.--the background will be made similar to fig. 340, and the wings _n_ and _o_ as shown in figs. 341 and 342, while drop _h_ and wing _k_ are the same as used for the other scenes (see figs. 332 and 335). wing _o_, the house upon the right of the stage, will be made in one piece, with window openings cut in it and covered with tissue-paper ruled to represent the window-sash (see fig. 341). show the trim around the openings and also the siding upon the building. then fasten the back of the wing to a standard such as used for the trees (see fig. 336). wing _n_, or building upon the left of the stage, will require a number of pieces of cardboard to show its perspective correctly. make the front of the building as shown in fig. 342. then fasten a piece of cardboard to edge _a_ for the side, three pieces at _b_, _c_, and _d_ for the roof, and a strip across the front at _e_ for the porch roof. the pieces can be fastened together best with strips of linen glued to their inside surfaces. the porch roof will be supported upon four posts made out of strips of cardboard as shown in fig. 339. this building will be the village post-office, grocery, and hardware store combined, and should have a number of signs to this effect painted upon the front. [illustration: fig. 343.--a simple interior scene.] [illustration: fig. 344.--pattern for walls of interior scene.] to the several outdoor scenes already described, you should add a setting of =an interior=, as you will probably have occasion to use one in any play you produce in your miniature theatre. figure 343 shows a simple interior, the size of which will, of course, depend upon that of the stage. however, it should not be very deep. figure 344 shows the pattern by which to cut the five pieces of cardboard, of which the walls are made. the edges of these pieces should be glued together with strips of linen. cut the door openings at _f_, _g_, and _h_, two window openings at _i_ and _j_, and slots in the tops of _b_ and _d_ at _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, and _p_, as shown in the drawing. make the doors out of pieces of cardboard, hinging them to the openings with linen strips, and draw the window-sash and their divisions upon tissue-paper and paste them over the openings _i_ and _j_. oil the paper if it is not very transparent, so the audience can see the villain when he passes by the windows. make a wainscoting around the walls to the height of the window-sills, ruling the boards with a lead pencil, and draw a line across wall _c_ a little below the bottom of slots _m_ and _n_ in walls _b_ and _d_, as shown. if you have used white cardboard for the walls, and not injured its calendered surface when cutting the openings, it will have a good plaster appearance. otherwise, cover the cardboard with white or tinted paper. paint the wainscoting and the door and window trimmings brown. to set up the room, bend the walls into the shape shown in fig. 343. then cut three strips of cardboard several inches longer than the width of the room and slip them into the slots you have cut in the tops of the walls _b_ and _d_ (see _q_, _r_, and _s_, fig. 343). _t_ is a drop like _s_, but is suspended in front from the gridiron. these strips form the ceiling of the room, and generally have beams or mouldings painted across their bottom edges, but it will simplify matters to leave them plain, as shown in the illustration. the line which you have drawn across the rear wall corresponds with these strips. cut a number of illustrations from a magazine for pictures, and either hang them upon the walls or paste them to the cardboard. doll furnishings can be used to complete the scene. there are a great variety of subjects upon which a boy can base his plays, but what probably will make the most interesting programme and one of the simplest to prepare is =a war drama=.--in this you can picture a number of battles after the descriptions you have read in your history, or dramatize one of your favorite war stories, bringing its young heroes before the footlights. this class of plays will give you an opportunity to use =paper soldiers= for actors. probably you have a supply of these, but if not, you can get them at any toy store. they come upon printed sheets ready to be cut out, and as they cost only a penny a sheet it pays to buy rather than make them. cavalry and infantry of about every nationality, indians in various positions upon horseback and on foot, and a large assortment of american soldiers in marching order and fighting array are now to be found in these sheets. for =marching soldiers= across the stage, tack their feet to a lath as shown in fig. 345, and then slide the lath across the stage, at the same time pushing out one of the laths forming the floor. the moving of the laths scarcely will be noticeable from the position of your audience. [illustration: fig. 345.--scheme for marching soldiers.] =separate standards= for soldiers you wish to set about the stage should have small strips of cardboard glued to their backs and bent out in the same manner as easel-backs are made. at least four or five of the soldiers should be jointed so they can walk about the stage and appear perhaps a little more graceful in their actions than their stiff-jointed comrades who are fastened to laths. figure 346 shows =a jointed figure= made out of a paper soldier. suppose you have a soldier in some such position as shown in fig. 347. first cut off the legs along the dotted lines shown in the illustration, each leg in two pieces (see _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, figs. 347 and 348). remove also the hand projecting beyond the body at _e_. a small piece of cardboard of the same thickness as that upon which the soldiers are printed should be glued to the back of _c_ and _d_ where those pieces were cut into in cutting off the legs (see _f_, _g_, and _h_, fig. 348). when this has been done, pivot _a_ and _b_ to _c_ and _d_ at _f_ and _g_, and then pivot the ends of _c_ and _d_ at _h_ and _i_ to the hips of the soldier (see fig. 346). thread should be used for pivoting these pieces together, with knots tied on either end. new arms will have to be made, as those printed upon the body cannot be cut out. these are made in two pieces similar to _j_ and _k_ in fig. 348. you will find it a simple thing to make them and paint the hands flesh color and the sleeves to match the rest of the clothes. pivot _j_ to _k_ at _l_ and the end of _k_ to the shoulder at _m_. the arm printed upon the side of the figure should now be painted so as to blend with the color of the coat. the white cardboard glued to the joints should also be painted to correspond with the rest of the body. you will find this method of making a jointed soldier much easier than to attempt to draw, paint, and cut out one of your own design. figures in other positions can, of course, be jointed in the same manner. [illustration: figs. 346-348. scheme for making a jointed figure.] the movements of a jointed figure are controlled with pieces of silk-thread attached to the hands, feet, and head, as shown in fig. 346. these threads should be carried through the top of the stage framework and loops made in their ends should slip over the fingers of your hands, in which position they can be operated. it will take a little practice beforehand to enable you to work the threads successfully, so you will not be responsible for such laughable performances as making him dance while delivering a farewell address, or leave the scene through the top of the stage during an exciting portion of the play. in an interior scene, such as fig. 343, the jointed figures will have to make their entrées and exits through the passages between the front walls and the proscenium, as the operating cords would interfere with them going through the other openings. the figures which pass through the doors will have to be tacked to the floor laths and shoved across the stage. all the small movable furnishings of a scene are known as =stage properties=.--these include such pieces as furniture, boats, carts, and trains. [illustration: fig. 350. fig. 349. a tent.] =tents= will be necessary properties for an encampment scene. these should be cut out of white paper the pattern of fig. 349, then folded along the dotted lines, and edge _b_ pasted over the flap _a_. the front flaps will be left open. figure 350 shows the tent set up. =an indian teepee= will also be required for indian warfare. follow the pattern shown in fig. 351, marking it off as though it were made up of a number of skins, and place a few figures of decoration upon it. then cut three or four short sticks and, after crossing their ends as shown in fig. 352, fasten the paper covering over them, bending flap _a_ along the dotted line, and pasting _b_ over it. [illustration: fig. 351. fig. 352. a teepee.] the field scene (fig. 330) and the blockhouse scene (fig. 338) will be used for the settings of your battle-fields. for your miniature sea-fights, the mid-ocean scene will be used. =battleships= should be made out of cardboard as shown in fig. 353, with the masts reënforced at the back with strips of wood, and the rigging made with heavy thread. it will be well to have a number of pictures from which to work in drawing and painting the various ships of your fleet. the hull of each ship should be curved as shown in the illustration, and mounted upon a cardboard rocker. make a number of slashes along the curved edge of the hull, and bend out the little flaps alternately, first to one side and then to the other (see _a_ in drawing), after which glue them to the rocker. attach a cord at _b_, with which to pull the ship across the stage, and another cord at _c_, with which to guide the stern. the hull will, of course, run between the strips of waves, so as to be half concealed by them. a person cannot imagine how realistic these little battleships appear when tossing about upon the toy waves, without having seen them in operation. [illustration: fig. 353.--a battleship.] =trains and wagons= can be cut out of cardboard and moved across the stage by means of laths to which they have been attached in the same manner as the paper soldiers shown in fig. 345. toy wagons, carriages, and an automobile such as described in chapter xxvi, may also be used in some scenes. rain, wind, thunder, and such stage sounds, a moon or sun-rise, and lightning, as produced on the stage, are known as =mechanical effects=.--most of these can easily be adapted to your theatre, though the apparatus need not be as elaborate as that used by professionals. =thunder= can be produced by means of a large piece of heavy cardboard held by one corner, as shown in the chapter heading, and vibrated back and forth. the beating of =rain= upon the outside of a house is imitated with a small quantity of dried peas or beans dropped upon the head of a drum or into a cardboard box. every time the door is opened during such a storm, the audience should hear the whistling of the =wind=, which is imitated by a few low drawn-out whistles. the stage must, of course, be dark for producing =lightning=, in order to get the best effects. the flashes can be made by igniting a small amount of flash-light powder, placed in a tin can cover. =the roar of cannon= and firing of smaller guns can be imitated to good effect upon a drum. chapter xxv making a toy railway [illustration: bicycle powered railway.] it is often thought that a toy railway is beyond a boy's ingenuity to construct, whereas, in reality, it is one of the simplest toys he can make. this applies to the tracks, stations, and cars of every description, all of which can be made with a few strips of wood, some spools, nails, cardboard, and a bottle of glue, for materials. if you have passed the age of caring for such toys as this, you will, no doubt, enjoy the making of one for your younger brother, or for one of your boy relatives. [illustration: fig. 354.] [illustration: fig. 355.--the toy railway in operation.] [illustration: fig. 356.--support for trolley-line.] figure 355 shows a railway set up and in running order. as shown in the illustration, =the trolley-line=, or overhead cable, runs around the wheels of two supports, one at either end of the track. prepare four pieces of wood the shape and size of that shown in fig. 354 for the uprights of these supports, and make two wheels three inches in diameter. the wheels may be marked out with a piece of string and pencil as shown in fig. 201, chapter xv, if you haven't a compass. when the wheels have been cut out, place them in your bench-vise, one at a time, and with a rasp make a groove around the edge as shown at _c_, fig. 356. bore a three-eighths inch hole through each upright at _f_, fig. 354, and another through the centre of each wheel. now fasten two of the uprights six inches apart upon a block of wood, as shown at _a_ and _b_, fig. 356. whittle a shaft to fit loosely in the holes of the uprights, and, after slipping it into them, fasten one of the wheels upon one end and a small spool upon the other (see _c_ and _d_ in fig. 356). a weight of some sort should be fastened to the base, as shown at _e_. the uprights for the other support should be similarly mounted upon another block of wood. fasten the remaining wheel to an axle run through the holes in the uprights, and, as it is unnecessary to have a spool upon the other end of the axle, cut it off short and drive a nail through it to prevent it from slipping through the holes. having thus prepared the supports, place them as far apart as you wish to extend the railway, and run a cord around the two wheels and tie it. then set the supports a little farther apart, if necessary, to tighten the cord. run another cord from spool _d_ to =a water-motor=, steam engine, or whatever power you can get with which to operate the railway. a bicycle inverted with the tire removed from its rear wheel has been used satisfactorily, as has also a sewing-machine with the belt slipped off and the cord from the spool put in its place. [illustration: fig. 357.--the tracks.] a good substitute for the tin tracks ordinarily sold in shops for toy railways will be found in those shown in fig. 357. these =tracks= consist of quarter-inch strips mounted upon pieces of cardboard. make a small gimlet-hole in one end of each stick, and drive a short finishing nail in the opposite end (see fig. 357). cut the cardboard strips the length of the sticks, and tack them to the sticks as shown in the illustration. if inch and one-half spools are used for the car wheels, the inside gauge of the tracks should be an inch and three-quarters. by lapping the cardboard strips over the ends of the sticks, and the sticks over the ends of the cardboard strips, and placing the nail dowels in the ends of the sticks as in the drawing, a strong track is formed when the pieces are fitted together. this may be extended to any desired length by adding more sections to it. [illustration: fig. 358.--a top view of car truck.] [illustration: fig. 359.--spool wheels.] [illustration: fig. 361. fig. 360.] =the cars= for this railway will have their trucks constructed alike, and it is a simple matter to transform a car from one style into another. figure 358 shows a top view of a truck. for the bed of this cut a three-eighths-inch board twelve inches long by two and one-quarter inches wide, and, after rounding the ends as shown in the drawing, cut a mortise at _a_ and _b_ two and three-eighths inches from either end. procure two one and one-half inch spools for wheels, and drive a wooden peg through the hole in each, cutting off the ends so they project a little beyond the hole, as shown in fig. 359. then bore four holes in the edges of the truck-bed with a gimlet at _c_, _d_, _e_, and _f_ (see drawing), and, after setting the spools in mortises _a_ and _b_, pivot them in place with small finishing nails driven into the wooden pegs. these nails should fit loosely in the gimlet holes. in order to drive them into the exact centres of the spools, it is best to locate these points upon the ends of the pegs before placing the spools in the frame. a quarter-inch hole should be bored in the top of the truck-bed at _g_ and _h_ (fig. 358) in which to fasten the two uprights _i_ and _j_ (see fig. 360). make the uprights four inches long and whittle a peg upon the lower ends to fit holes _g_ and _h_ (see fig. 361). bore a hole with a gimlet in the top of each and run a piece of heavy wire from one to the other, bending it as shown in fig. 360. fasten _k_ between _i_ and _j_, as shown. place a small brass ring upon the wire before you fasten it in place. a small hook should be screwed into one end of the truck and a screw-eye into the other end for couplings, should you wish to hitch two or more cars together. =a gondola car=, such as shown in fig. 362, should have its truck made similar to fig. 358, with the exception that it should be two inches shorter, in order that cigar-box strips can be used for the side-pieces. cut the strips an inch and one-half high and fasten them to the bed of the car with brads. this car may be used as a trailer. [illustration: fig. 362.--a gondola car.] [illustration: fig. 363.--side view.] [illustration: fig. 364.--end view.] [illustration: figs. 365-373.--details of toy street car.] the car shown in fig. 360 is a rather crude affair, but with a little more work may be transformed into a better-looking car-=a street car= such as is shown in figs. 363 and 364 being an example of what can be made. the sides, ends, and roof of this car are made of cardboard, the patterns for the cutting of which are shown on page 339. figure 365 shows a cross section taken through the centre of the car. the two side-pieces _a_ should be first prepared as shown in fig. 366. with a ruler and lead-pencil draw in the windows about as shown in the drawing, using double lines to indicate the sash. then, with a sharp knife, cut out the centre of each just inside of the inner line. these windows may be left open or may be covered on the inside with tissue-paper. if tissue-paper is used oil it to make it more transparent. when the two sides have been prepared, bend each along the dotted lines (see fig. 366) and tack one to each side of your car truck as shown in fig. 365. when properly bent, the distance between the upper part of the sides should be two and three-quarters inches. cut the two inner ends of the car the shape of fig. 367, using a compass with a radius of two and one-half inches with which to describe the curve at the top. draw in the panels and sash lines as you did those upon the side-pieces, being careful to get them on the same level, and cut out the door and window openings. fasten these end-pieces between the sides with glue, and also tack them to the uprights of the car (_i_ and _j_, fig. 360), which will come just inside of them. the roof is made in two sections (_b_ and _c_, fig. 365). for _b_ cut a piece of cardboard twelve and one-quarter by three and three-quarter inches (fig. 368), draw the curved end with a compass, using the radius shown on the drawing, and slit the corners as indicated by the dotted lines. when this piece has thus been prepared, remove the wire from the top of the truck (see fig. 360). bend the cardboard over the sides and ends of the car, and lap corners _d_ and _e_ over _f_ and _g_, and _h_ and _i_ over _j_ and _k_, tacking them with thread to hold them in place. to fasten this part of the roof to the top of the car, cut a number of small strips of linen, and glue them to the under side of the roof and to the inside face of the sides and ends of the car (see fig. 365). the upper portion of the roof _c_ should be made out of a piece of cardboard bent into the shape of fig. 369 and cut at the ends so the upper portion of _c_ projects a little beyond its sides. draw the ventilation lights upon the sides of _c_ as shown on the drawings, and then fasten the piece upon the top of _b_ with strips of linen in the same manner as you fastened _b_ in place. _c_ should now have the same curve to its top as _b_. cut and glue a piece of cardboard in each end of _c_ to complete the roof. the shape of this piece is shown in fig. 370. the outer ends of the car should be made as shown in fig. 371 and tacked around the ends of the wooden truck platform, and also fastened to the under side of the roof with strips of linen. the window openings may be cut in the ends, but it will make a stronger car if they are simply drawn upon it. cut four cardboard steps similar to fig. 372 and tack them to the sides of the front and rear platforms. when the car has been put together, replace the wire in the tops of uprights _i_ and _j_ (fig. 360), running the ends through the roof (see fig. 363). paint the sides and ends of the car yellow with brown trimmings, and paint the roof a light gray. water colors can be used for the purpose. letter the name of your car-line upon the sides and the number of the car upon each end and side. the route should be lettered upon strips of cardboard with pins run through them as shown in fig. 373, these strips to stick in the roof of the car (see figs. 363 and 364). having seen how the car is made, you will find it a simple matter to make designs for =other cars=, using the same scheme for the trucks, and altering the patterns for the sides, ends, and roof, to suit the design. nothing has, as yet, been said about the =operation of the railway=, and though fig. 355 probably shows sufficiently clearly how it is run, a few words may be helpful. the car or cars are placed between the wooden tracks, and the trolley (or cord attached to the ring on top of the car) is tied to the trolley-line as in the illustration. upon starting your engine, water-motor, or whatever motive-power you have, the car will run from one end of the track to the other. when it has reached the support of the trolley-line, it will stop long enough for the cord trolley to pass around the wooden wheel, and then run in the opposite direction until the other support is reached. it will thus be seen that the trolley hangs to the upper part of the cable, or trolley-line, in running one way, and to the lower part on the return run. in changing the direction of the run, the ring to which the trolley is attached slides to the other end of the car. [illustration: fig. 374.--the railway depot.] =a station= such as is illustrated in fig. 374 is made out of cardboard and mounted upon a seven-eighths-inch board large enough to form a railway platform. after cutting out the side-and end-pieces, with door and window openings placed as shown in the illustration, fasten them together with strips of linen glued in the corners. make the roof low and extend it over the platform upon each side and over the gable-ends, as shown in the illustration. paint the sides of the depot the regulation depot red, and the roof a shingle or slate color. paint the door and window-sash black, letter the name of the station upon the gable-ends, and with a ruler and lead-pencil rule off the boards upon the sides, and the slate or shingles upon the roof. as this is a typical railway station, two may be made of the same pattern, one for either end of your car line. chapter xxvi clockwork automobiles [illustration: children play with toy automobiles.] it is generally easy for a boy to get hold of a set of old clockworks, for a discarded clock of some sort is almost certain to be found in the household storeroom. if the main-spring is intact, it is highly probable that a little tinkering and cleaning will be sufficient to put the mechanism in working order, at least so that it can be used for running small engines, automobiles, and other mechanical toys that most interest boys. before taking a set of works apart, it is well to examine it carefully and note the positions of the various springs and wheels, so it will be possible to put them together again properly should you wish to do so. without taking notice of this, you are likely to have a handful of wheels as a result, with which you can do nothing except perhaps convert them into tops. [illustration: fig. 377.--top view of wooden frame.] [illustration: fig. 375. the car completed.] [illustration: fig. 376. the framework.] the adaption of a set of works to =an automobile touring-car= is shown in figs. 375 and 376, the former showing the little machine completed and the latter its frame with the clockworks fastened in place. the same scheme as that used for the cars of the toy railway described in the preceding chapter will be followed in making =the frame= of the automobile, as that is about the simplest way, and makes a light, easy-running vehicle. the bed will be cut of a different pattern, however, as will be seen in fig. 377. lay out the piece to the dimensions shown upon this drawing, and then cut it out, making a mortise in each end for the wheels to fit in. the spool wheels should be mounted in the same manner as those of the railway cars, for which see fig. 359, chapter xxv, and the directions upon page 335. one end of spool _a_ should be pivoted with a longer finishing nail than those used for the other pivots, so that when driven in place about half an inch will project beyond the frame. a small silk spool should be fastened upon this for a belt-wheel (see _b_, fig. 377). the hole in one of these spools is about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, so, in order to make it fit tightly upon the nail, it is necessary to fill in around the nail with sealing-wax. to do this, turn the wooden frame upon its edge and place the spool over the nail, being careful to get the nail in the exact centre of the hole. then hold a stick of sealing-wax over the spool, and with a lighted match melt the end and allow it to drip into the hole. when the hole has been partially filled, allow the wax to harden a little, and then press it down around the nail with the end of a match, being careful not to throw the spool out of centre by doing so. the hole should then be filled to the top. we are now ready to prepare the clockworks for mounting upon the wooden frame. the works shown in fig. 376 are from an alarm clock, but if you have a striking clock, or one with works a little different from those shown in the illustration, it does not make a bit of difference in the scheme for attaching the works. the three parts shown in the foreground of fig. 376 must first be removed from the works. these will be recognized readily in any clock, as they are pivoted close together, and regulate the speed of the other wheels. when they have been removed, the main-spring will unwind rapidly. the frame of the works shown in the illustration is held together with nuts, so that in removing the wheels it was necessary to unscrew two of them, spring the frame open enough to let the wheels drop out, and then replace the nuts again in their former positions. if the frame of your clockworks is riveted together, the wheels will have to be broken out. a small silk spool, such as _b_ (fig. 377), should be fastened upon the small pivot which originally operated the clock's hands, for a belt-wheel. lay the works upon a table with the face-side down, and, after centring the hole of the spool upon the pivot, fasten it in place with sealing-wax in the same manner as you attached spool _b_. the works should now be attached to the wooden frame. place them with the striker uppermost, near the edge of the frame, so that the small belt-wheels are in line with one another. then bore a number of gimlet holes in the wooden frame and run copper wire through them, passing it around the posts of the clock-frame and twisting its ends until the works are firmly fastened in place. a rubber band about an eighth of an inch wide and long enough to reach from one belt-wheel to the other should be procured for =the belt.=--this should stretch just enough to cling upon the spools, as more than that would cause too much friction. [illustration: figs. 378-385.--patterns for the automobile touring-car.] before going any further with the construction of the automobile =test the machine=, to be sure that it is in perfect running order. wind up the main-spring, pressing a finger against one of the wheels to hold it in check until you are ready to start the machine. when properly made, the clockwork automobile should run a distance of from twenty to twenty-five feet upon a wooden floor, while about three-quarters of that distance should be covered upon a floor with a fairly smooth carpet. =the cardboard sides= and other details of the automobile should now be made. the pattern for these have been so shown in figs. 378-385 that they can easily be laid out to the proper shape and size by means of the process of enlarging by squares described on page 110, chapter viii. white cardboard should be used upon which to draw these pieces, and the thinner it is the easier you will find it to work with. [illustration: fig. 386.] [illustration: fig. 387.--cardboard side of automobile.] first prepare the two sides, cutting them out by the pattern of fig. 378. then glue the bottom edge of each side to the edge of the wooden frame, cutting holes in the left side for the belt-wheels and projecting posts to run through (see fig. 375 and _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, and _e_, fig. 387). the top to the front of the car should now be cut as shown in fig. 388, the distance between the sides being measured to get the piece of proper dimensions. bend the edges as in fig. 388, and glue them to the inner surfaces of the side-pieces as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 387. in the same way cut and glue a piece of cardboard between the side-pieces at _g_ and _h_ (fig. 387) for the seat-backs. the bent edges of these pieces are shown by dotted lines in the illustration. draw four =wheels= as shown in fig. 379, using a compass with which to describe the circles, and cut them out with a sharp knife. you can cut out between the spokes, if you wish, or leave them solid. glue the wheels to the cardboard, placing their centres about as located at _i_ and _j_, fig. 387. four =mud-guards= should be cut like fig. 380, with flaps made along one edge. then bend these guards around the tops of the wheels, and, after applying glue to the flaps, press them against the cardboard side, holding your fingers upon the flaps until the glue has dried (see fig. 375). the guards should be placed a little above the tops of the wheels. cut four =lamps= like fig. 381, and glue end _k_ of two upon the front of the automobile at _l_ (fig. 387) and one of the other two upon each side at _m_. these lamps are shown in position in the illustration of the completed automobile (fig. 375). draw and cut =the steering-wheel= similarly to fig. 382, and, after pivoting it to the end of a strip of cardboard with a pin, as shown in fig. 389, bend the lower end and glue it to the under side of the cardboard top _f_ at _n_ (see fig. 387, also fig. 375). make a =horn= like fig. 383, and glue it to the steering-wheel as shown in fig. 389. a strip of cardboard about the size of that used for the upright of the steering-wheel should be cut for =the brake=, and glued to the inside surface of the right side of the car at _o_ (fig. 387). [illustration: fig. 388.] [illustration: fig. 389.--the steering-wheel.] =the chauffeur= should now be made. cut his head and body the shape and size of fig. 384, drawing the face upon each side with goggles over the eyes. cut the arms in two pieces the shape of _p_ and _q_ (fig. 385), and then pivot _p_ to _q_ at _r_ and the end of _q_ to the shoulder of the body at _s_, using thread for fastening the pieces together. paint the hat, coat, sleeves, and gloves a leather color, and the face flesh color. the body should then be fastened to the hammer of the clockworks with sealing-wax, as shown in fig. 386, while the left hand should be glued to the edge of the steering-wheel and the right to the end of the brake (see fig. 375). by thus attaching the body to the end of the hammer, and winding up the small spring, the chauffeur will shake violently when the auto runs across the floor, showing the vibrations of the machine in a greatly exaggerated and amusing manner. it is now only necessary to =paint the machine= to complete it. the photograph (fig. 375) indicates the different colors used. the lamps, and top, ends, and sides of the front portion of the car should be painted the color of brass, and the rest of the sides, with the exception of a strip along the bottom and the edge of the arms, should be painted vermilion. paint the inside of the car and the edges of the seat-arms tan color, to represent leather upholstering. with black paint, or ink, stripe off the door and trimmings upon the sides and top of the machine, as shown in figs. 375, 387, and 388. blacken the brake and steering-wheel and the spokes and rims of the wheels. along the bottom of each side roughly indicate some machinery with black paint, about as it is drawn in fig. 387. when you have tired of your touring-car, you can easily convert it into =an automobile delivery wagon=, such as illustrated in fig. 390. to make this you will require the same frame as that used for the touring-car, with the clockworks and belt-wheels attached in the same manner. if you have made the touring-car, remove the cardboard sides from its wooden frame, separating the cardboard from the wood carefully, so you can put the machine together again when you wish. if you haven't made this automobile, you will find the details for the construction of the frame in figs. 376 and 377, and the manner of performing the work described on pages 343 to 346. [illustration: fig. 390.--an automobile delivery wagon.] =the cardboard sides= are much easier to prepare than those for the touring-car, as they are straight and require but little cutting. the outline for these is shown in fig. 390, surrounding the drawing of the completed wagon. lay out one side upon a piece of cardboard, using the dimensions given upon the drawing, and then place it upon a board and cut it out with your knife. using this as a pattern, place it upon another piece of cardboard and run a pencil around its edges, thus marking out the second side. in cutting out the latter piece, run your knife a little inside of the line in order to allow for the increase in size caused by marking it out with the first cardboard side. having prepared the two sides, draw panels upon them in some such form as shown in the illustration, separating them with three lines. draw a small window, with its top slightly arched, near the front edge of each side, and cut an opening for it (see illustration). glue the sides to the edges of the truck in the same manner as those of the touring-car were done, piercing holes for the posts of the clockworks to fit in, and openings for the belt-wheels to project through, in the left side. cut a piece of cardboard for the back of the wagon, fit it between the sides, and fasten it in place by gluing a number of linen strips to it and the sides upon the inner or unexposed surfaces. then cut a piece of cardboard for the roof, making it about two inches longer than the sides, to give it the proper projection over the front of the wagon. fasten this piece in position in the same manner as you fastened the back of the wagon. make the floor and footboard for the wagon out of a piece of cardboard bent as shown in fig. 390, and fasten it across the top edges of the projecting portions of the sides with linen strips. cut a strip for a seat, and fit it between the sides an inch and one-half above the floor. =the wheels= of an automobile wagon contain fourteen spokes, but as you have the pattern for the touring-car wheels of twelve spokes, you can just as well use it in making the wagon wheels. they should be mounted upon the sides of the wagon, a trifle above the bottoms of the spool wheels, as shown in the illustration, so they will not touch the carpet when the machine is operated. =all other portions= of the wagon should be made of the same patterns given for the touring-car, viz. the chauffeur (figs. 384 and 385), the steering-wheel (figs. 382 and 389), the brake (fig. 375), and the lamps (fig. 381). as the legs of the chauffeur will show, it will be necessary to cut a pair out of cardboard (the drawing shows the shape clearly enough to work by) and fasten them to his body. fasten the chauffeur upon the seat and glue his left hand to the steering-wheel, placing the latter in front of him, as shown in the drawing. stick the lower end of the cardboard upright of the steering-wheel upon a pin run through the wagon floor from the under side. glue the upper end of the brake to the chauffeur's hand and the lower end to the side of the wagon. =paint the wagon= with water colors, making the sides, end, and roof olive green, the steering-wheel, brake, and spokes of wheels black, and the lamps yellow or the color of brass. in painting the sides show the battery compartments upon them below what would properly be the bottom of the wagon (see illustration). leave the cardboard white below this box, as it represents no portion of the machine, but is necessarily brought down so far to conceal the wooden frame. it will give the machine a more finished appearance if, after painting, you go over it with black paint and a fine brush and stripe the panels upon the sides, following the lines which you drew upon them with a pencil. letter the word "delivery" upon the centre panel of each side, and the firm name in the small panel between the lamp and window. by attaching a set of clockworks in the same manner as described for the automobiles, you can make =a clockwork railway=, constructing the cars similarly to the street car shown in fig. 363, chapter xxv, and using the schemes in the same chapter for the tracks and depots. chapter xxvii work to do with a knife [illustration: boy sharpening knife.] a number of years ago a friend of the writer paid a visit to a large penitentiary where the prisoners were engaged in the manufacture of boots and shoes. among the workers he became particularly interested in a small german boy who was industriously marking the backs of boots with the lot numbers always to be found upon these goods. the boy didn't have an ink bottle near him, and yet, with what appeared to be a wooden stick, was marking the numbers in ink. a closer inspection disclosed the fact that the pointed stick held by the lad was nothing more or less than =a home-made fountain pen.=--upon seeing that the visitor was struck with the novelty of the affair, the superintendent presented him with one of the pens and told him of its origin. the pen was the invention of a forger who was placed in this department of the prison, and when its good qualities were seen it was very quickly adopted by all of the prisoners in place of the pointed stick and ink-bottle they had been using. the pen is shown in fig. 391. it is made out of a piece of elderberry wood about five inches long, a small glass vial, and a piece of sponge. first push out the pith of the piece of elderberry wood (this you will find easily removed), and then point one end pen-shape, as shown in the illustration, and split it back from the point about an inch in the same manner as a writing pen is made. whittle the other end of the stick so it will fit tightly in the neck of the glass vial. this bottle, or reservoir, should be filled with ink, and a small piece of the sponge you have procured should be pushed into the hollow of the pen above the point (see illustration), as a means of preventing the ink from flowing too freely upon the point. [illustration: fig. 391.--a home-made fountain pen.] although the pen was originally made with a coarse point for marking heavy figures, you will find that it can be made to write to a reasonable degree of fineness by whittling a fine point upon it. [illustration: fig. 392.--the magic pin-wheel.] =the magic pin-wheel= represented by fig. 392 can be made with a few minutes' work, and is something entirely new in the line of magic toys. there are probably few persons who will understand this simple yet mysterious toy when they see it properly operated, until the secret is disclosed to them. as you will see by looking at the drawing, the pin-wheel consists of nothing more than a stick notched along one edge, and a thin piece of wood about an inch in length fastened through its centre to the end of the stick by means of a pin. in cutting the notches it is important to make them of the same length and depth. locate the exact centre of the chip of wood before pivoting it to the end of the stick, and with your knife make a small hole for the pin to run through at this point. be careful to drive the pin in straight. [illustration: fig. 393.--how to operate the pin-wheel.] =to operate= the pin-wheel, hold the stick in the left hand as illustrated in fig. 393, and then, taking a coin in the right hand, rub it vigorously across the notches. the vibration produced by rubbing the stick causes the small pin-wheel to revolve about its pin axis. the funny part of the performance is the fact that you can have perfect control over the wheel, and change the direction of its course at will, if you but master one little trick performed with the first and second fingers of the right hand. in holding the coin between the thumb and first finger of the right hand, allow the end of the first finger to extend over the top of the stick and bring the second finger close to the side of it, as shown in the illustration (fig. 393). to make the wheel revolve from left to right, allow the end of the first finger to rub along the top edge of the notches; then, to reverse the direction, relieve the pressure of this finger, and press the second finger against the other edge of the notches. at first you may not be able to make the wheel obey your commands, but with a little practice you will find it a simple matter to make it change its direction without any one noticing how you perform the magical trick. =a brass tack= driven into the stick a little below the notches, about the point where the thumb of your left hand will strike, will add to the mystic appearance of the pin-wheel. a person invariably notices this the first thing when he sees you operate the wheel (you can make it a point to press your left thumb against the tack), and thinks he has solved the trick. but when you let him have the toy, he will soon find out that all his pressing and pulling upon the tack will have no effect upon the wheel, and beg you to "put him on" to the trick. =a wooden chain and rattle= has long been one of the most interesting pieces of work a boy can make with his jack-knife, and, inasmuch as the making of one requires careful cutting, the exercise is a good test of a boy's skill with this handy tool. [illustration: fig. 394. fig. 395. fig. 396. details of a wooden chain and rattle.] in making the first chain and rattle, you had better use a pine block, as hard wood is not so easy for a beginner to handle. therefore, for a first attempt, select a piece of sound pine free from blemishes, and plane it down to the dimensions, seventeen inches long, two inches wide, and two inches thick. with a lead-pencil mark off ten divisions one inch apart, running the lines around the four sides of the block (see fig. 394). then draw two lines lengthwise on each side of the block, as shown at _ab_ and =cd=, making them one-half inch apart and three-quarters of an inch from each edge. with a chisel, cut out the four corners of the block down to the tenth line, as represented by the shading in fig. 394. =the chain= is to be cut out of the remaining core, one link out of every two divisions. commencing at the top of the block, remove the shaded portions _t_ and _u_ (fig. 395), as those would form only half links; then notch out the shaded corners marked _x_ in the drawing, and gradually cut the core into circular links. having finished this operation, draw a circle inside of each link, and cut out the wood inside of it. round the edges of the links as shown in the drawing of the finished chain (fig. 396). your success in making a good chain will depend largely upon a good, sharp knife and careful cutting. with a dull knife you are almost certain to split the links when separating one from another. =the rattle= is to be made from the lower portion of the block. this part of the figure is more difficult to cut than the chain. first draw the two lines marked _hi_ and _jk_ in fig. 394 one-half inch from the edges; then draw the cross lines _lm_, _no_, _pq_, and _rs_, as shown in the illustration. these lines should be similarly drawn upon the other three sides of the block. remove the wood from the spaces shaded in the drawing, and you will then have left a centre solid block from which to cut the ball. gently round the corners of this, and then gradually separate it from the surrounding framework. when this has been accomplished, the centre block will slip up and down. now continue cutting the block until it is a perfect round ball, but be careful not to make it small enough to fall out of the frame, for that would spoil the entire piece of work. after completing the cutting, sand-paper the links and rattle until they are perfectly smooth. then oil the wood or give it a coat of varnish. chapter xxviii cork toys [illustration: materials needed and finished articles.] it is surprising the number of small toys that can be made out of corks of different shapes and sizes with the aid of glue, pins, burnt matches, worsted, and cardboard. even though a boy has passed the kindergarten age, he will find this work entertaining for days when the weather is disagreeable without; and though he may not care to play with them himself, his work will not have been wasted, for a younger brother will surely be glad to have some cork animals and birds to add to his menagerie, and a sister no less delighted with a small log-cabin and set of cork furniture. flat and tapered corks can probably be found about the house on old jars and bottles, while the straight variety can be procured at any drug-store. in buying the latter ask for no. 9, inch and one-half, straight, common corks, half a gross of which will cost about twenty-five cents. [illustration: fig. 397.--the pig.] =cork animals= are peculiar-looking beasts of abnormal proportions, but all sorts of magical feats are performed by toy makers, and such wonders as =a pig= that can boast of a body as large as that of an elephant is commonly found among the so-called noah's ark animals. to make a pig, first draw its head, as in the drawing of fig. 397, upon a piece of cardboard, and then, after cutting it out, select a straight cork and make a slit in one end of it in which to stick the head. a little glue applied to the cardboard will hold the head in place. the pig's feet consist of four pieces of burnt matches pointed at the ends and stuck into the cork as shown in fig. 397, while the tail is formed of a piece of copper wire curled at one end and stuck into the cork. when the pig has been made, paint its head and feet to match its body. [illustration: fig. 398.--the horse.] =a horse= requires a cork of the same shape as that used for the pig. cut the head out of cardboard and glue it in a slit made in the end of the cork (see fig. 398). dip the ends of four burnt matches in glue and stick them in the cork for legs, and fasten a few pieces of worsted in a hole made in the end of the cork for the tail. a piece of thread should be fastened about the animal's neck for reins. after making the horse, take another straight cork for =the elephant=, and cut the head, trunk, ears, and tusks out of a piece of cardboard as shown in the illustration (fig. 399). cut the tail out of another piece of cardboard, and glue it in a slit made in the end of the cork. the legs are, of course, larger around than those of the horse, and, as matches will be too slender, whittle four short wooden pegs for them. point these pegs at one end, and, after dipping them in glue, stick them into the cork. [illustration: fig. 399.--the elephant.] [illustration: fig. 400.--the giraffe.] =the giraffe= is just as simple to make as any of the animals, for he is put together in the same manner, except that a tapered cork is used for the body. the head and neck are made in one piece of cardboard (see illustration), and a piece of worsted forms the tail. when you have painted the head and neck a tan color to match the cork, and marked a number of brown spots upon the body, this tall and most graceful of animals will appear very life-like. [illustration: fig. 401.--the korka-bird.] =a porcupine= is simple to make out of a long, straight cork with toothpicks cut into small pieces for quills, and stuck into the cork as close as you can place them. the head and other portions of this animal can easily be made with the aid of a natural history, and it will be a simple matter to devise =other animals= upon the same schemes as those just described, by consulting the pictures in one of these books. it is not necessary to always copy a real animal. use your ingenuity and see what queer-looking creatures you can make. figure 401 gives a suggestion for one of these, which we will call =the korka-bird.=--you will see by looking at the drawing that the two legs are made of matches, the lower ends of which are stuck into a piece of cork for a standard; and the neck consists of a burnt match stuck into the end of the cork with its upper end split to receive the cardboard head. a small chicken-feather stuck into the top of the head (the cardboard being split enough to receive it), two others in the back, and a fourth in the end of the cork compose all the plumage this wonderful bird can boast of, but this lack of feathers is more than made up by a beautiful head, neck, body, and legs, which are gilded. [illustration: fig. 402.--the duck.] as a suggestion of what can be made in the way of water toys, =a duck= is shown in fig. 402. the body for this consists of a cork split in half, the head is cut out of a piece of cigar-box, and a small tin keel is fastened to the centre of the under side of the body. a few chicken feathers will form the tail. glue, of course, cannot be used upon the duck, as it would soften in water, so the pieces composing it will have to be fastened together by means of pins. other water toys, such as =canoes=, consisting of a cork split in half, lengthwise, with the inside scooped out by means of your knife, are made with a few minutes' work, and these can be transformed into =small sail-boats= by sticking a toothpick in the bow for a mast and rigging a tiny sail upon it. =cork furniture= is not a new idea for toys, but, inasmuch as many have never heard of them, a few examples of what can be made in this line have been introduced in this chapter. for =a chair=, such as shown in fig. 403, find a flat cork, and stick four pins in one side for legs, and five pins fairly close together in the other side for the chair-back (see illustration). when the pins have been properly placed, take some worsted and wind it around each of the four legs, crossing from one to another as shown in the drawing, thus forming the chair-rounds. also weave the worsted in and out around the pins forming the chair-back as in the drawing, so that all but the heads of the pins are covered when the operation is completed. [illustration: fig. 403.--chair.] =the sofa=, illustrated in fig. 404, is made after the same manner. split a straight cork lengthwise for the seat, placing it flat-side up, and stick pins around three edges of it upon which to wind the worsted. [illustration: fig. 404.--sofa.] =a small tabouret= is shown in fig. 405. select a straight cork for the base of this, and, after seeing that a good sharp edge is upon your knife, slice the cork lengthwise, making it hexagonal in shape. then stick six pins in the cork near the upper edge, placing one in each of the six edges (see illustration). when this has been done, weave worsted upon the pins in the same manner as the chair-back was formed. [illustration: fig. 405. tabouret.] [illustration: fig. 406.--a cork log-cabin.] =a toy log-cabin=, or slab-hut, as it would properly be called, as the building is first put up and then covered with corks split in half for slabs, is illustrated in fig. 406. a cardboard box should be procured out of which to make this little building, the proportion of which will determine the shape and size. turn the box bottom side up, and on it construct a gable-roof. cut two pieces of cardboard large enough to make a good projection over the ends of the building, and fasten them to the bottom of the box as shown in the drawing, gluing a number of linen strips to the pieces to hold them securely in place. two pieces of cardboard should be cut to fit the gable-ends, and glued in place with linen strips. cut windows in each side of the box and a door in each end. having completed the little cardboard cabin, split enough straight corks in half lengthwise to cover the walls. sharpen your knife well before commencing this work, so the corks will cut evenly and without breaking. begin gluing these half corks along the bottom of the walls, fitting them end to end as shown in the drawing, and placing one row above another. fit them neatly around the windows and door openings, and if they do not space out as evenly as shown in the illustration, cut some shorter pieces to fill in. the corks will quickly adhere to the cardboard if you press your finger against each for a second or two after placing it in position. the roof may be painted to represent boards or shingles, and a cork stuck in it as shown in the illustration will form the chimney. cover the window openings with paper. tissue-paper will admit more light than ordinary writing-paper, so probably will be the better material. hinge a piece of cardboard to the jamb of each door opening, using small pieces of linen for hinges. rule a few vertical lines upon the doors to represent the boards. all that now remains to be done to complete the cabin is the mounting, for which a seven-eighths-inch board should be procured. use linen strips to fasten the cabin upon this board, placing them upon the inside surfaces of the walls, which can be reached by running your hand through the door openings. chapter xxix definitions of terms and phrases [illustration: selection of books.] the terms and phrases used in describing the work included in this book have been arranged alphabetically in this chapter, together with their definitions. this has been done for the purpose of furnishing a boy with a handy reference, with definitions in a clear and simple form, covering only such points as apply to his particular kind of work. =abbreviations= =d= stands for "penny." e. g. 16d stands for sixteen-penny nails (see page 36). =i.e.= or =i.e.= stands for "that is." =e. g.= or =e.g.= stands for "for example." =viz.= or =viz.= stands for "namely, to wit." ="= stands for "inch" or "inches." e. g. 2" means two inches. ='= stands for "foot" or "feet." e. g. 2' means two feet. =etc.= stands for "and so forth." =abutting surface.=--next or adjoining. =animated animals.=--animals (such as those used in the back-yard circus) which are constructed and then given life. in the case of the circus animals, the boys who enclose themselves in the bodies furnish the animals with life. =bait-stick.=--a stick in a trap, upon which the bait is placed. it is also known as the trigger. =baluster.= see balustrade. =balustrade.=--a series of small spindles or posts (balusters), to the tops of which a bar (hand rail) is attached, placed along the sides of stairs and around stair openings. the hand rail is supported at either end by a post (newel post). e. g. see figs. 71 and 75. also applied to a solid wall built up the sides of a stairway and around the stair openings. =batten door.=--a door formed by joining the boards together with battens. =battens.=--strips of wood, or cleats, fastened across two or more boards to hold them together, as in making a cover or door. e. g. see figs. 15, 189, and 194. =bevel.=--formed by cutting off the sharp edge of a board or any piece of work. e. g. see fig. 28. a tool used for laying out bevels =bird's mouth.=--a notch, v-shaped, or the form of a bird's mouth, cut in a piece of work. e. g. see fig. 8. =blind-nailing.= see page 34. =brace.=--a strip, board, or heavier piece fastened across two or more pieces to strengthen and steady them; a diagonal strip. =bracket.=--a support, generally triangular in shape, screwed or nailed to a wall or object to hold up such things as shelves and cabinets. =broom-wire.=--the fine wire which is bound around brooms to hold the straw to the end of the broom-stick. =bull's-eye.=--the centre ring of a target. =butt-joint.=--when the square end of one piece of wood butts or sets against another piece, the joint formed is known as a butt-joint. the pieces are not cut into as in the case of making other joints. =casings.=--the finishing strips placed around door and window openings. e. g. see figs. 85, 88, and 89. they are also known as trim. =chair rail.=--a narrow board fastened around the walls of a room at a height equal to that of an ordinary chair-back. =chamfer.=--formed by cutting off the sharp edge of a board. it is much the same as a bevel (see fig. 28), but the term is more often applied to cases where the bevel is stopped, instead of running the entire length of the edge, and its ends rounded up to meet the square edge of the board. this form of chamfer is used for ornamental purposes, and is known as a stop chamfer. figure 29 shows a form of chamfer used in planing end-wood. =cleats.=--strips of wood fastened to others to strengthen them; or strips secured to an object for the purpose of supporting a shelf or drawers. e. g. see figs. 15 and 148; also descriptions relating to same. =clinching nails.= see page 34. =corbelled brick.=--several courses (layers) of brick so laid that each projects a little beyond, or comes a little within, the course below. e. g. see corbelled chimney for doll-house, fig. 103, chapter vi. =corner stone.=--a stone placed in the corner of a foundation. =cornucopiæ.=--the plural for cornucopia; made by rolling paper or other material into the shape of cones or funnels. =countersunk.= see screws on page 36. =cross-piece.=--a piece that crosses another; a piece fastened in a horizontal or oblique position, and extended from one piece to another. =cross section.= see section. =details.=--the parts of which a thing consists; a detailed drawing is usually a working drawing, showing all the parts of a piece of work, with dimensions marked upon them. =diagonal.=--a strip, board, or heavier piece fastened in an oblique, or slanted, position--used in bracing (see bracing of toboggan platform framework, fig. 310); also a line drawn obliquely to another line, several lines, or an object. =diagonally.=--in a diagonal direction. =diameter.=--the distance equal to a straight line passing through the centre of a circle or a circular object, terminated at both ends by the circumference, or the curved surface. =door frame.=--the wooden frame built in a door opening for the door to swing in. for definition of jambs, sill, and head, see window frame. =door-stops.=--wooden strips nailed around the jambs and head of a door frame, for the door to swing against, and to make a tight joint between the door and frame. =dovetail-joint.=--a tongue, undercut so as to make it wedge-shaped (somewhat the shape of a dove's tail), is prepared upon one piece, and a mortise, the shape and size of this tongue, is cut in the other piece for it to set into. e. g. see figs. 209 and 210, and text on page 210, chapter xv. =dowelling.=--a process of securing together two edges or faces of a piece of work with pins of wood or metal. holes are bored in the edges or faces of the pieces, and wooden pegs are cut to fit them. these pegs are coated with glue and then driven into place. the edges or faces of the pieces are also covered with glue, and if the pieces have been properly planed so as to fit together perfectly, a tight joint will be obtained when the glue has dried. the work should be clamped until the glue has dried. e. g. see fig. 54. for nails used as dowels, see fig. 357. =dowels.=--the pegs or pins used in dowelling. =dressed.=--after lumber has been planed at a mill, it is known as "dressed stuff." a board may be dressed to the proper dimensions, that is, prepared either by sawing, planing, paring, or scraping. =driving home a nail.=--the act of applying the finishing strokes of a hammer upon the head of a nail in driving it into wood (see driving nails, page 32). =drop.=--a piece of scenery hung from the gridiron above the stage. e. g. see figs. 331, 332, and 340. =elevation.=--a straight side or end view of an object. e. g. see fig. 206. =em.=--a square type. used as a unit in measuring type. the letter "m" in type originally had a square end. =en.=--a type half an "em" in width. =end-plate.=--a timber, such as a two-by-four or two-by-six, placed across the tops of the studs in the end of a framework, for the roof rafters or the floor joists above to rest upon. e. g. see fig. 184. when placed across the studs in the side of a framework it is known as a side-plate. =end-wood.=--wood which has been cut across the grain and shows the ends of the grain upon its surface. e. g. the end of a stick. =equidistant.=--equally distant. =finishing nail.=--a nail with a small head used on surfaces to be exposed, where it is desirable to make as small nail holes as possible. the finishing nail is very handy for all kinds of small work. =fishing.=--an operation where two or more pieces are joined together, end to end, by means of strips (known as fish-plates) nailed or screwed across the joints. it is also known as a fish-joint, and is a common form of splice. e. g. see fig. 183. =flange.=--a projecting rim such as the edge of a spool. =flush.=--a surface of a board is said to be flush with the surface of another when those boards are so placed together that the two surfaces are even, or extend along the same line or plane. =font.=--an assortment of type of one size and style, including a certain number of each letter in the alphabet (large and small), punctuation marks, and such characters as are necessary in printing. spaces and quads are sold separately. =foundation.=--the base upon which a building rests. usually made of stone, brick, or posts, and placed below the surface of the ground. =gable-end.=--that portion of a wall which extends into the angle formed by a gable or gambrel roof. e. g. see figs. 64, 77, 96, and 109. =gauge of tracks.=--the distance between the tracks. =grease paint.=--a paint for the purpose of making-up the face in preparation for a circus or entertainment of some sort. prepared of a composition easily removed, and free from injurious substances. =gridiron.=--the framework above the stage from which the scenery drops are suspended. the framework consists of a series of parallel bars resembling a gridiron. =groove.=--a channel or hollow cut in a piece of wood. in a tongued-and-grooved board it is the hollow in which the tongue fits. =halving.= see fig. 267; also description on page 259. this joint is also known as a halved-joint. =hand rail.= see balustrade. =hem.=--the edge of a piece of cloth doubled over and sewed, to strengthen it and prevent the threads from ravelling. =hexagonal.=--six-sided. =horizontal.=--parallel to the horizon. =hornstone.=--a variety of quartz having the appearance of flint, but more brittle. =kerf.=--the opening, or narrow slot, made in sawing. =latch-pocket.= see spring-catch. =lath.=--a strip approximately one and one-half inches wide, three-eighths of an inch thick, and four feet long. nailed across the walls and ceiling of a room upon which to place plaster. =locking-up.=--the process of tightening a form of type so as to hold it together (see description, page 136). =longitudinal section.= see section. =making-up.=--painting the face as a disguise or to show expression marks. =mitre.=--the end of a board is mitred when cut off at an angle of forty-five degrees. although applied to other angles, the term mitre is understood to mean a forty-five degree cut, unless otherwise stated (see bench-hook, fig. 11, and mitre-box, fig. 12, chapter i; also descriptions of their use). =mitred try-square.=--used for laying off mitres (see figs. 38 and 39, chapter ii). =mortise.=--a slot or cavity made in a piece of wood to receive the end of another piece. e. g. see figs. 208, 210, 211, chapter xv. bevelled mortise.--a mortise with its bottom or sides bevelled. e. g. see fig. 10, chapter i. =mould.=--something which serves to give the proper form to an object. e. g. the mould for shaping a canvas canoe, fig. 204, chapter xv. =newel post.= see balustrade. =notch.=--a hollow cut in anything; a nick; an indentation. to notch.--to cut in small hollows, as to notch a stick. e. g. see fig. 191, chapter xiv, and fig. 392, chapter xxvii. =obsidian.=--a form of lava. =on centres.=--in spacing studs or strips of any kind, they are spoken of as being placed a certain number of inches on centres. e. g. twelve inches on centres means that the distance from the centre of one piece to the centre of another is twelve inches. =out of plumb.=--not vertical; not perpendicular to the horizon. =out of square.=--askew; oblique; not true. =parallel.=--lines or objects are parallel to one another when they have the same direction, and all corresponding points are equidistant from one another. =perpendicular.=--vertical; plumb; in an upright position. =perspective.=--a perspective is a drawing showing an object in the form in which it appears to the eye. the lines converge, or approach nearer together, as they go away from the eye, until they finally meet at a point on the horizon, or a line drawn to represent the horizon. e. g. in looking down a railway track the telegraph poles and tracks appear to run together on the line of the horizon. =pica.=--the standard of measurement in printing. a name given to a size of type which measures one-sixth of an inch high (measured from the nicked side to the side opposite); and seventy-two ems (see em) measure one foot. =pie.=--a mixed assortment of type. see page 135, chapter ix. =pieing type or making pie.=--spilling or mixing up type. =pipe-straps.=--iron straps used mostly by pipe-fitters to fasten gas-piping in place. e. g. see figs. 321 and 322. =pitch.=--the pitch of a board is the degree to which it has been tilted. =plan.=--a drawing showing a view of an object, looking down upon it, either on top of it (e. g. see figs. 205 and 207), or with the upper portion sliced off (e. g. see fig. 190. this shows a plan of the log-cabin at a level of the door and windows, with the upper portion removed). =plank.=--lumber two inches or more in thickness is known as planks or planking. anything of less thickness is known as boards. =plumb.=--perpendicular; vertical; true. an instrument for determining whether or not an object is plumb (see fig. 14, chapter i). =proscenium.=--the front portion of a stage. the proscenium arch is the arch or frame extending around the front of the stage of a theatre. =pumice stone.=--a porous rock, of extreme lightness, used for polishing metals; for smoothing the surface of wood; and for smoothing the surface of a coat of paint before applying a second coat (see painting of canvas canoe, page 214). =pyrotechnics.=--the art of making fireworks; fireworks; the composition and use of fireworks. =quad.=--an abbreviation for quadrat. a block of type-metal lower than the type, used for filling out lines, and for spacing between lines. a 2-em quad is two "ems" in width, and a 3-em quad three "ems" in width. =quartz.=--glassy crystals, having the form of a six-sided prism, terminated at each end by a pyramid. it is colorless, or transparent, when pure, and more or less opaque and in various colors when impure. =quoins.=--the wedges used to tighten or lock-up a form of type. e. g. see figs. 155 and 156. =rabbet.=--a groove or hollow cut in a piece of work, generally for the purpose of joining it with some other material. e. g. the sides of the bow and stern pieces of the canvas canoe described in chapter xv are rabbeted so the ribbands and the edge of the canvas will fit in them (see figs. 200 and 202, chapter xv). =radius.=--the distance from the centre of a circle to any point upon its circumference. it equals one-half of the length of the diameter. =rasp.=--a file with coarse teeth, used for working upon wood. =recess.=--a niche in a wall; a space or opening formed by the wall setting in a little way. =reënforce.=--to strengthen; to supply additional strength with strips or braces. =ridge.=--an edge of a roof formed by the meeting of two sloping surfaces. the top edge of a peaked roof. e. g. see fig. 192, chapter xiv. =ridge-boards.=--the boards fastened along the ridge of a roof to cover the joint. e. g. see fig. 192, chapter xiv. =right angle.=--an angle of ninety degrees. at right angles.--so as to form a right angle. =rubbing down.=--bringing to a smooth surface by rubbing with sand-paper, emery-paper, or pumice stone. =rustic.=--made of limbs of trees in their natural form. =sagging.=--the bending of a body by its own weight, or by a load placed upon it. =sapling.=--a young tree. =sash.=--the frame which holds the glass of a window. also applied to the frame with the glass in place. =scraping.=--a piece of glass or the blade removed from a plane is used for scraping a piece of work to give it a smoother surface than can be obtained by using a plane upon it. =section.=--a part. =section drawing.=--a drawing made of an object, showing it as it would look if you were to cut it open or split it in two. the portions which would have to be cut through, in such an operation, are shaded in a drawing of this kind. e. g. see fig. 218, chapter xv; fig. 300, chapter xxi; and fig. 316, chapter xxii. a cross section is a section taken through the short way of an object. a longitudinal section is a section taken through the long way of an object. =selvage.=--the selvage of cloth or wire-mesh is the edge which has been so woven as to prevent ravelling. =semicircle.=--half a circle. =set of a saw's teeth.= see page 21, chapter ii. =setting nails.= see page 34, chapter ii. =shape it down.=--a term used to imply that the board or piece of work shall be gradually cut down until it approaches its finished form and size. =shooting stick.=--an iron or wooden tool with a head on one end, used to lock-up the quoins in a form of type. e. g. see fig. 155, chapter ix. =sills.=--the lowest horizontal timbers in a building of any kind on which the structure rests. see also window frame. =sleepers.=--the timbers supporting the lower floor of a building, distinguished from joists by being filled in between with cinders or concrete. e. g. see fig. 186, chapter xiii. =slip-knot.=--a noose which slips along the line or rope around which it is tied. e. g. see fig. 243, chapter xvii. =slot.=--a mortise, or hole, with sides square or nearly so. made by boring several holes, and then connecting and squaring them up with a chisel. =space.=--a thin piece of type-metal, lower than the type, used between words, and for spacing out lines. a 3-em space is a third of an "em" in width, a 4-em a quarter of an "em" in width, a 5-em a fifth of an "em," and an 8-em (known as a hair space) is an eighth of an "em." =spike.=--a twentypenny nail (four inches long) and all lengths greater. see list of sizes on page 36, chapter ii. to spike a board in place is to fasten it with spikes. =spliced.=--two pieces are spliced when joined together, generally end to end, in such a way that they are held together and act as one piece. e. g. see fig. 183, chapter xiii, and fishing. =spring-catch.=--a small lock, such as shown in figs. 96, 114, and 187. the latch is operated by a small knob, and is thrown into position by a small spring. the metal socket which is screwed in place for the latch to spring into is known as the latch-pocket. =sprint.=--a short race run at full speed. =squaring lines.=--by squaring lines across a board is meant the operation of drawing lines across a board with a try-square, the head of the try-square being placed against the tried-edge of the board so those lines will be at right angles to that tried-edge. e. g. see fig. 38, chapter ii. =staple.=--a u-shaped piece of metal, with two sharp points which are driven into wood in the same way as a nail. =stock.=--material; supplies. the brace which holds the bit for boring; the block which holds the blade of a plane (see fig. 24, chapter ii); the portion of a gun which contains the barrel and trigger. =stops.= see door-stops and window-stops. =strap-hinge.=--a hinge with long arms, or flaps, which extend over a larger area than those of an ordinary hinge, and give it the power of withstanding greater strains. =studs.=--the smaller pieces of timber used in the framework of a building, to which the siding is attached, or to which the laths are nailed. known also as studding. =stuff.=--in carpenter work this term is applied to the different sizes of lumber. e. g. seven-eighths-inch stuff means boards seven-eighths of an inch thick; two-inch-stuff is lumber two inches thick. =stunt.=--originally a slang word used to denote a trick or feat of some sort. it is now generally recognized as a legitimate word. =swivel.=--a fastening with a pivot which allows the object attached to it to revolve without twisting the cord, wire, or chain, by which that object is suspended. e. g. see fig. 258, chapter xviii; and page 249. =taper.=--to make gradually smaller in diameter toward one end; to gradually diminish toward a point. =temper.=--steel and iron tools are given their necessary degree of hardness by a process of heating and cooling, known as tempering. too much friction obtained while grinding a tool will destroy this temper, making it necessary to re-temper it. =toe-nailing.= see page 33. =tongue.=--the projecting edge of a tongued-and-grooved board. a projecting pin cut on a piece of wood to fit a mortise of the same shape cut in another piece of wood. used in making dovetail-joints. e. g. see figs. 208 and 209, chapter xv. =tongued-and-grooved boards.=--boards with a groove along one edge and a tongue along the opposite edge, so that the tongue of one board will fit in the groove of another, thus forming a fairly tight joint. these boards are known also as matched boards. =trench.=--a ditch; a long channel. =tried-edge of work.= see testing work, page 28. =trim.=--the wooden casings placed around door and window openings (see figs. 85, 88, and 89, chapter v). to dress a piece of work; to cut; to make smooth. =turnstile.=--a post upon the top of which four horizontal arms are pivoted to revolve, so as to allow but one person to pass at a time (see fig. 266, chapter xix, and description of construction on page 259). =two-by-four.=--a piece two inches thick by four inches wide used for supports and the construction of frameworks. pieces of other dimensions are also known and spoken of by their sizes in inches. e. g. two-by-sixes, two-by-eights, and two-by-tens. =typographical.=--relating or pertaining to typography. =typography.=--the art of setting type. =undercutting.=--as the term implies, the wood is undercut, or cut under, thus making it wedge-or v-shaped. e. g. see fig. 209, chapter xv; also text on page 211. =upright.=--an upright is a piece of timber which is perpendicular when in place. =valance.=--a drapery for a couch or bed. e. g. see couch in illustration of a boy's room, chapter v. =vertical.=--perpendicular to the horizon; upright; plumb; straight up and down. =wainscot.=--a lining placed upon the inside walls of a building. it was originally made of oak timbers, known as wainscot, but the term is now applied to any kind of wood, burlap, tapestry, or other material applied in the same manner. as a rule, it extends but part way up a wall, starting at the floor line. =warped.=--twisted out of shape. =washer.=--a ring placed beneath the head of a bolt to give it a broader bearing surface, and thus prevent it from cutting into the surface of the piece of work. it is also placed under a nut to prevent it from working loose. =wedge-shaped.=--v-shaped. =window frame.=--the wooden frame built in the window opening for the sash to fit into. the jambs are the sides of this frame, the sill the bottom piece upon which the jambs rest, and the head the top piece of the frame. e. g. see figs. 187 and 188, chapter xiii, and fig. 193, chapter xiv. =window-stops.=--wooden strips nailed around the jambs, head, and sill of a window frame to prevent rain and wind from entering between the sash and its frame. =wing.=--a piece of scenery placed at the side of the stage. e. g. see figs. 333, 334, 335, 341, and 342, chapter xxiv. index a advertisements for amateur paper, 152; dummy for, 152. advertisers' dummy, 152. advertising signs for circus, 271. amateur journalism, 142. amateur papers, methods of printing, 145; specimens of, 143, 146, 147, 148, 149, and group opposite 142; character of, 148; naming of, 149; frequency of publication of, 149; size of page of, 150; heading for, 150; choice of type for, 150; cover for, 151; binding, 151; advertisements for, 152; second-class rates for, 152. andirons for doll-house fire-place, 88. animals, animated, 261; cork, _see_ cork animals. animated animals, 261. archery, scoring of points in, 235; position for shooting in, 239. arrow-heads, 237; indian, 241. arrow-shafts, 237; feathering of, 238; indian, 240. arrows, shingle, 232. ash-sifter, an, 53. athletic club, organizing an, 254. athletic meets, 254. attendants, circus, 269. automatic-drill, use of an, 31. automobiles, clockwork, 343; touring-car, 343; delivery-wagon, 352. b back-saw, use of the, 24. back-yard circus, a, _see_ circus. back-yard club-house, a, _see_ club-house. back-yard toboggan-slide, _see_ toboggan-slide. bailey plane, the, 26. ballista, the ancient, 231. balustrades, doll-house, 78, 100. barrel-hoop target, 234. bath-room as a dark-room, a, 155. batten door, a, for club-house, 184. battles, mimic, with paper soldiers, 276. battleships, cardboard, 328. beams, deck, for canvas canoe, 210. bean-blower, a magazine, 282. bedroom as a dark-room, a, 154. beds, doll-house, 118; pine-bough, 198. bench-hook, how to make a, 9; use of a, 24, 29. bench-screw, iron and wooden, 5. bench-stops, 7. bench-vise, how to make the, 5. bevel, how to use the, 45. bevelling, 30. bilge-keels for canvas canoe, 215. binding of amateur papers, 151. "bird's mouth" cut, 8. bits, a rack for, 16; use of, 31. bit-stock, use of, 31; selection of, 31. blacking-case, a, 68. blind-nailing, 34. blockhouse scene, a, 319. book-shelves, 67. boring, 30. bow and arrow, the, 236. bow, length of, 236; the indian's, 240. bow piece for canvas canoe, 204. bow-string, the, 237. box trap, the, 221. boy about the house, the, 47. boy's dark-room, a, 153. boy's printing-shop, a, 126. boy's room, suggestions for a, 57; suitable furnishings for a, 57. boy's workshop, a, 3. braces, deck, for canvas canoe, 211. bread-board, how to make a, 54. broom and dust-pan rack, a handy, 50. bullets, cardboard, 233. bunks for log-cabin, 198. butt-joint, a, 59. button-locks for club-house, 184. c cabinet, a tool-, 14; a special tool-, 16; a curio-, 65. cabin, log-, _see_ log-cabin. cages for side show, 260. calking cracks, 184. camera, profitable work with a, 153. camping, pointers for, 199; utensils for, 199; other necessary articles for, 199; provisions for, 200. camp-table, a, 199. cannon, danger of store, 273; a fire-cracker, 273; another toy, 276. canoe, how to build a canvas, 201; materials for, 202; putting together framework of, 207; canvas covering for framework of, 212; painting of, 214. canvas canoe, _see_ canoe. canvas covering for canoe, 212. car for toy railway, a simple, 334; a gondola, 336; a street, 336; other cars, 340. carpenter's carrying-box, a, 17. carpenter's horses, 9. carpenter work, advantages of understanding, 3. carpets for doll-house, 106. carrying-box, a carpenter's, 17. case, a blacking-, 68; upper and lower type-, 129; scheme for laying type-, 129; the yankee job-, 130; a negative-, 167. casters for doll-house, 84. catapult, the ancient, 229. catch, spring-, for doll-house, 98; for stable, 102; for club-house, 183. chain and rattle, a wooden, 359. chairs, miniature mission, 113. chamfering, 30. chariot, a circus, 270. chase, the type, 136. _chemistry news_, the, 143, 146. chimney, doll-house, 85, 94; log-cabin, 192. chisels, racks for, 16; forms of, 28; how to use the firmer-, 28; framing-, 29; paring with, 29; grinding of, 38. cigar-boxes, preparation of, 110. cigar-box furniture, _see_ furniture. circus, a back-yard, 255; the ancient roman, 255; the modern, 255; how several boys gave a, 256; preparing a back-yard for a, 256; ideas for performance of, 256; parades, 271. classifying negatives, 165; manila envelopes for, 165. clinching nails, 34. clock, a miniature grandfather's, 117. clockwork automobiles, 343. clockwork railway, 355. clockwork tick-tack, a, 286. clothes, workshop, 18; hooks for workshop, 19. clothes-line reel, a handy, 48. clown, suit for, 268; stunts for, 269; slapper for the, 269. club, organizing an athletic, 254. club-house, a back-yard, 175; drawing plan of, 178; staking out, 179; material for, 178. coaming for cockpit, 214. cockpit, 212; coaming for, 214. colored lights for miniature theatre, 309. compass-saw, use of the, 21. composing-rule, a, 134; how to use a, 135. composing-stick, how to use the, 134. composing type, 134. coop trap, the, 224. cork animals, 363; a pig, 364; a horse, 364; the elephant, 365; the giraffe, 365; a porcupine, 366; other animals, 366. cork toys, 363; animals, 363; the korka-bird, 366; a duck, 367; boats, 367; furniture, 367; a toy log-cabin, 369. corner, how to fit up a cosey-, 58. cosey-corner, how to fit up a, 58; a doll-house, 107. couch, a, 63; covering of, 64. countersink, use of the, 37. cracks, calking, 184. cross-bar for jump standards, 250. cross-bow, the ancient, 231; new idea for a, 231. cross-cut saw, use of the, 21. cupboard, provision, 197. curio-cabinet, a, 65; finishing of, 67; catalogue for, 67. curtain, drop-, 306. curtains for doll-house, 106. curves, drawing, 204. d dark-lantern, a home-made, 163. dark-room, a boy's, 153; a bedroom as a, 154; a bath-room as a, 155; another scheme for a, 156. dead fall trap, the, 222. deck beams for canvas canoe, 210. deck braces for canvas canoe, 211. definitions of terms and phrases, 371. delivery-wagon, a clockwork automobile, 352; frame for, 352; cardboard sides for, 353; the wheels, 354; other portions of, 354; painting, 355. desk, how to make a writing-, 59; another style of, 62; finishing of, 61. disappearing rope, the, 290. distribution of type, 137. divide a board, to, 45. doll furniture, 109. doll-house, how to make a, 71; the store, 71; painting the, 90; another style of, 91; furnishing the, 105. door, batten, for club-house, 184; log-cabin, 194. doors, doll-house, 80, 84; trim for, 84; stable, 104. dowelling, 60. drawing, parallel lines, 43; enlarging by squares, 110; curves, 204. draw-knife, use of a, 30; how to grind the, 39. dresser, a doll's, 120; a cigar-box, 124. drill, an automatic-, 31. driving nails, 32. drop-curtain, 306. drops for miniature theatre, 316, 320. drying-rack, a, 161; another scheme for a, 161. duck, a cork, 367. dummy, the advertisers', 152. dust-pan and broom rack, a handy, 50. e elastic sling, an, 234. elephant, a circus, 261; tricks for the, 269; a cork, 365. elevator, a doll-house, 94; shaft for, 92; car of, 96; guide-wires for, 96; pulleys, chain, and weight for, 97. enlarging by squares, 110. enterprise, a winter, 169. equipment of workshop, 4; of printing-shop, 128; of dark-room, 154. f feathering arrow-shafts, 238. feed-hoist for stable, 104. feed-troughs for stable, 103. field scene, a, 316. figure-four trap, the, 219. filter for dark-room tank, 158. fire-cracker cannon, a, 273. fire-cracker mortar, a, 275. fire-crackers, firing, from kites, 278. fire-place, doll-house, 86; log-cabin, 190, 192. fireworks, danger and cost of making, 272; harmless and inexpensive, 273. firing roman-candles from kites, 277; fire-crackers from kites, 278; nigger-chasers with cross-bow, 278. firmer-chisels, use of, 28. fishing studs, 178. fish-plates, 178. floodlights, 308. floor, back-yard club-house, 181; mud, for log-cabin, 193. floors, doll-house, 74, 76, 91; finishing of hardwood, 106. fly-killer, a simple, 51; use of the, 52. folding-bed, a cigar-box, 123. footlights, 307. fore-plane, use of the, 25. form, locking up a, 136; overlaying the, 138; underlaying the, 138. fountain pen, a home-made, 356. fourth of july, suggestions for, 272; the first, 272. frames for scenery drops, 314. frames, picture-, for a boy's room, 59. framing-chisels, use of, 29. franklin, benjamin, 142. furniture, cork, 367; a chair, 368; the sofa, 368; a tabouret, 368. furniture, mission, 109; chairs, 113; settee, 114; tables, 114; another design for tables, 115; side-board, 115; a mirror, 117; grandfather's clock, 117; kitchen furniture, 118; beds, 118; dresser, 120; wash-stand, 121; finishing of, 121. furniture, suitable for a boy's room, 57; selection of doll-house, 107; doll-, 109; metal, 109; other cigar-box, 122; printer's metal and wooden, 136. g gable-ends, the doll-house, 79, 97; the stable, 102. gable roof for doll-house, 92; for stable, 101. galley, a home-made, 135. gambrel roof for doll-house, 79. gauge-pins, 139. gauging with rule and pencil, 43; with the marking-gauge, 43. gig-saw, use of the, 24. giraffe, a circus, 262; looping the hoop on a, 269; tricks for the, 270; a cork, 365. goblin-man, the, 286. gondola car, a, 336. gouge, use of the, 30; how to grind the, 39. grandfather's clock, a miniature, 117. _gratz park news_, the, 148. grinding, the proper method of, 37. grind-stone, use of the, 37. gun, a shot-, 234. guns, ancient, 229. gunwales for canvas canoe, 208; outside, 215. gymnasium, an outdoor, 243; location of, 243. h halloween, 281; ancient superstitions of, 281; origin of, 281. halving, 259. hammer, selection of, 32. handling of tools, the proper, 20. hatchet, paring with a, 32; how to grind a, 40. hinge-lock, the, 48. hinges, strap-, 184; wooden, 194. hook, how to make a bench-, 9. hooks, hat and coat, 19. hoop, looping the, on a giraffe, 269. horizontal bar, a, 243. horse, the circus wild, 265; the cork, 364. horses, carpenter's, 9. house, the boy about the, 47; how to make a doll-, 71; another doll-, 91; a back-yard club-, _see_ club-house. hurdles, 253. i ideas for a circus performance, 269. imposing-stone, the, 136. indian, story of a trapped, 227. inking the press, 140. ink-stand and pen-tray, an, 63. interior scene, an, 322. j jack-plane, use of the, 25. japanese lanterns, for decorating circus tent, 257; hung from kite-string, 278. jobbing, 47; outfit for, 47. jocko, 267. johnstone, mary jane, 176. jointed figures, 325; operation of, 327. journalism, amateur, 142. jump standards, a pair of, 249. justifying, 135. k keel for canvas canoe, 215; bilge-, 215. keelson for canvas canoe, 206. kerf, definition of, 25. kitchen furniture for doll-house, 118. kites, firing fireworks from, 277. knife, work to do with a, 356. knives, how to grind, 40. korka-bird, the, 366. l ladder, stable hay-loft, 103; toboggan-slide, 296. _lake high school daily_, the, 146. lantern, a home-made dark-, 163. lanterns, japanese, for circus tent, 257; hung from kite-string, 278. latch, wooden, for club-house, 184; for log-cabin, 195. laying out work, 42; tools for, 42. _ledger, the_, 149. letter, a mysterious, 176. lightning, how to imitate, 330. lock, workshop door, 19; a hinge-, 48; spring-catch for doll-house, 98; spring-catch for stable, 102; club-house, 183; button for club-house, 184; for turnstile, 259. locking up a form, 136; quoins, shooting-stick, and key for, 136. lock-joint, the, 189. log-cabin, how to build a, 186; the pioneer, 186; the modern, 186; site for, 188; design and size of, 188; material for, 188; staking out, 189; furnishings for, 197; a toy, 369. looping the hoop on a giraffe, 269. m magazine bean-blower, a, 282. magic pin-wheel, the, 357. mantel and fire-place, a doll-house, 86. mantel-shelf for log-cabin, 197. mark for broad jumping, 254. marking-gauge, a, 43; how to operate a, 44. materials, receptacles for printing, 140; cabinet for dark-room, 161. mechanical effects for miniature theatre, 329. mid-ocean scene, a, 315. mimic battles with paper soldiers, 276. miniature theatre, a, _see_ theatre. _mirror, the_, 146, 147. mirror for doll-house, 117. mission furniture, doll, _see_ furniture. mitre-box, how to make a, 10. monkey, make-up for, 267; tricks for, 270; chariot for, 270. mortar, a fire-cracker, 275. mould for canvas canoe, 207. mysterious letter, a, 176. n nail-box, how to make a, 18. nailing, toe-, 33; blind-, 34. nails, driving, 32; withdrawing, 33; clinching, 34; forms of, 35; sizes of, 36. nail-set, the, 34. negative-case, 167; finishing of, 168. nigger-chasers, firing, with cross-bow, 278. o ocean scene, an, 313. office, ticket, 257. oil-stone, selection of, 40; the washita, 40. oily rags and waste, care of, 19, 141. outdoor gymnasium, an, 243. overlaying a form, 138. p packing-cases for doll-house, 72, 91. paddle, a single, 217. papering the doll-house, 105. papers, amateur, _see_ amateur papers. parades, circus, 271. parallel bars, 245. parallel lines, to draw, 43. paring, 29. partitions, doll-house, 74, 91; stable stall, 102. pen, a home-made fountain, 356. penants, college, for cosey-corner, 58. pen-tray, an ink-stand and, 63. picture-frame, a proscenium, 303. picture-frames for a boy's room, 59. pictures, suitable, for a doll-house, 107. "pieing," 135. pig, a cork, 364. pin-wheel, the magic, 357. pistol, a toy, 233; cardboard bullets for, 233. plan, drawing, for club-house, 178. plane, use of the jack-, the fore-, and the smoothing-, 25; the stanley, 25; the bailey, 26; printer's, 137. plane-iron, how to grind a, 39; how to whet a, 41. planes, choice of, 25. planing, position for, 26; wood with crooked grain, 27; end-wood, 27. plate-lifter, a, 165. plate-rack, a, 54; staining of, 56. platform for punching-bag, 248. platform for toboggan-slide, 293. plough, a snow, 169. plumb, how to make a, 12; how to use a, 13. points, scoring of, in archery, 235. pole, a vaulting, 251. pond, for miniature theatre, 320. porcupine, a cork, 366. portieres for doll-house, 106. posters for a boy's room, 58. preserving negatives, 165; manila envelopes for, 165. press association, the national amateur, 143; the united amateur, 143; the interstate amateur, 144; the western amateur, 144; local amateur, 144; advantages of membership in a, 144. presswork, pointers for, 138. printing, 126; neatness in, 140. printing-press, starting with a small, 126; inking the, 140. printing-shop, a boy's, 126; location of, 126; the author's, 128; equipment of, 128. proofs, striking, 136; correcting, 136; disposing of waste, 141. proper handling of tools, the, 20. properties for miniature theatre, 327. proscenium, a picture-frame, 303. provision cupboard, 197. provisions for camping, 200. punching-bag platform, 248. punctures in a canvas canoe, to mend, 216. purchasing tools, advice about, 13. q quiver, 239. quoins, 136. r rabbit snare, 225. rack, steel-square, 16; a broom and dust-pan, 50; a plate-, 54; a towel-, 70; type-case, 131; a washing-, 159; a drying-, 161; another scheme for a drying-, 161. racks, bit and chisel, 16; other tool, 16. railing for toboggan-slide, 296. railway, making a toy, 331; materials for, 331; trolley-line for, 331; power for operating, 333; tracks for, 334; cars for, 334; operation of, 340; station for, 341; a clockwork, 355. rain, how to imitate, 330. reel, a clothes-line, 48. reënforcing runners of sled, 299. ribbands for canvas canoe, 208. ridge boards, 192. ridge pieces for canvas canoe, 211. ring for a back-yard circus, 256. ring master, costume for, 268; duties of the, 270. rip-saw, use of the, 21. roar of cannon, how to imitate, 330. rocks for seashore scene, 315. rollers, the proper care of printing, 140. roman candles, firing, from kites, 277. roman circus, the, 255. roof, the gambrel, 79; the gable, 92, 101; tar-paper for back-yard club-house, 181; log-cabin, 191; covering of cabin, 192. room, suggestions for a boy's, 57; suitable furnishings for a boy's, 57. rope, the disappearing, 290. rope bar for jump standards, 251. ruby lantern for dark-room, a home-made, 163. ruby-light, a, 162. rule, a composing, 134. runners for sled, 298; reënforcing, 299. running track, a, 253. running water for dark-room, 156. rustic bridges for miniature theatre, 320. rustic seats, 198, 199. s sail-boats, toy cork, 367. sand-paper block, a, 12. sash for workshop, 4; for back-yard club-house, 182; for log-cabin, 194. saw, use of cross-cut, 21; use of rip-, 21; difference in teeth of cross-cut and rip-, 21; the back-, 24; the compass-and gig-, 24. sawing, the proper manner of, 22. saws, choice of, 21; sharpening of, 41. scene, an ocean, 313; a mid-ocean, 315; a seashore, 316; a field, 316; a blockhouse, 319; a street, 320; an interior, 322. scenery, material for, 312; frames for, 314; drops, 316, 320; wings, 317, 318, 319, 321; trees, 317, 318; rustic bridges, 320; pond or lake, 320. scenery, properties, and mechanical effects, 311. scoring of points in archery, 235. scraper, a snow, 170. screw, iron and wooden bench-, 5. screw-driver, a desirable, 36. screws, forms of, 36. seashore scene, a, 316. seat, a window-, 65; rustic, 198, 199; canvas canoe, 216. seats for a back-yard circus, 257. second-class matter, 152. set-piece, a final, 280. settee, a miniature mission, 114. sharpening tools, 37. shelves, workshop, 18; book-, 67. shingle arrows, 232. shingles for log-cabin, 192. shooting in archery, position for, 239. shooting-stick, a printer's, 137. shooting-torch, a, 279. shot-gun, a, 234. shovel, a snow, 171. side-board, a miniature mission, 115. side show, the circus, 260. sieve trap, the, 224. sifter for ashes, 53. signs, advertising, for circus, 271. sink for dark-room, 158. slapper, the clown's, 269. sled, a home-made, 296; iron runners for, 298; reënforcing runners of, 299. sling, an elastic, 234. smith, collection of mr. e. h., 142. smoothing-plane, use of the, 25. snare, a rabbit, 225. snow plough, a, 169. snow scraper, a, 170. snow shovel, a, 171. soldiers for miniature theatre, 324; standards for, 324, 325; jointed, 325. specimens of amateur papers, 143, 146, 147, 148, 149, and group opposite 142. spotlights, 309. spring-board, a, 251. spring-catch, _see_ catch. sprints, method of starting, 254. stable, how to build a, 100; painting the, 104. stage, construction of, _see_ theatre. stairways, doll-house, 76, 98. stall partitions for stable, 102. standards, a pair of jump, 249. stanley plane, the, 25. station for toy railway, 341. steel-square, rack for, 16; laying out work with the, 42. steps, front, 78; rear, 79. stern piece for canvas canoe, 204. stick, composing-, 134; the shooting-, 137. stops, bench-, 7. street car, a, 336. street scene, a, 320. strop, how to make a, 12; how to use a, 41. stropping, 41. studs, fishing, 178; placing of, for club-house, 179. supplies, receptacles for workshop, 18; cabinet for dark-room, 161. swivel for punching-bag, a, 249. t table, a miniature mission, 114; another design of, 115; a camp-, 199. tank, water, for dark-room, 156. target, a barrel-hoop, 234; a simpler, 235. tar-paper for club-house roof, 181. teepee, a paper, 328. tent for back-yard circus, 257; decorating, 257. tents, paper, 328. testing work, ways of, 28. theatre, a miniature, 303; framework for, 303; the gridiron, 305; the stage floor, 305; drop-curtain, 306; setting up, 310; tickets for, 310; a war drama for, 324. thunder, how to imitate, 330. ticket office, 257. tickets for circus, 256; for miniature theatre, 310. tick-tack, a new style of, 284; a clockwork, 286. toboggan-slide, a back-yard, 291; location of, 291; length of, 293; material for, 295. toe-nailing, 33. tool-cabinet, a, 14; for special tools, 16. tools, purchasing of, 13; list from which to select, 14; proper handling of, 20; lending, 20; sharpening, 37. torch, a shooting-, 279. touring-car, a clockwork automobile, 343; frame for, 344; belt for, 346; testing the machine, 346; cardboard sides of, 348; wheels for, 349; mud-guards for, 349; lamps for, 349; steering-wheel for, 350; brake for, 350; chauffeur for, 350; painting, 351. towel-rack, a, 70. toy guns, targets, and bows and arrows, 229. toy railway, making a, _see_ railway. toys, cork, 363. track, a running, 253. tracks for toy railway, 334. trains, cardboard, 329. trap, the figure-four, 219; the box, 221; the dead fall, 222; the sieve, 224; the coop, 224; a rabbit snare, 225; a twitch-up, 226. traps, home-made, 218. trebuchets, ancient, 229. trees, 317, 318; standards for, 317; pine boughs for, 319. tried-edge, the, 28. trimmings, of doll-house, outside, 84; interior, 89; stable, 104. trolley-line for toy railway, 331. try-square, testing work with the, 28; laying out work with the, 42; a mitred-handle, 45. tumbling-mat, a, 245. turnstile, a, 259; lock for, 259. twitch-up, a, 226. tympan, the printing-press, 138. tympan-sheets, 138. type, selection of, 129; composition of, 134; pieing, 135; distribution of, 137; washing, 140. type-cases, upper and lower, 129; scheme for laying, 129; the yankee job, 130; rack for, 131. typesetting, 134. u underlaying a form, 138. utensils for camping, 199. v vaulting, pole for, 251. vise, how to make a, 5. w wagons, cardboard, 329. walls, doll-house, 74, 79, 92; stable, 101, 104; club-house, 181. wardrobe, cigar-box, 125. washing-box, a, 158; rack of, 159; box of, 160; how to use the, 161. wash-stand, a doll's, 121. waste and oily rags, care of, 19, 141. water, running, for dark-room, 156; filter for, 158. water-tank for dark-room, 156. waves for ocean scene, 314. weapons, ancient, 229. whetstone, selection of, 40; the washita, 40. whetting, the proper way of, 41. wicks, book by mr. w. s., 188. wild horse, the circus, 265. wild man of borneo, the, 265, 266. wind, how to imitate, 330. window, for workshop, 4; for back-yard club-house, 182. windows, doll-house, 80, 92; dormer, 80; glass for, 82; casement, 82; divided glass for, 84; stable, 103; log-cabin, 190, 194. window-seat, a, 65. wings for miniature theatre, 317, 318, 319, 321. winter enterprise, a, 169; contracting work for, 169. withdrawing nails, 33. wooden chain and rattle, 359. work, laying out, 42. work to do with a knife, 356. work-bench, a solid, 4. workshop, a boy's, 3; location of, 4; clothes for, 18. work-table for dark-room, 155. writing-desk, how to make a, 59; another style of, 62; finishing of, 61. y yankee job-case, the, 130. wood-working for beginners a manual for amateurs by charles g. wheeler, b.s. "know what thou canst work at and work at it like a hercules." carlyle. with over 700 illustrations g.p. putnam's sons new york and london the knickerbocker press 1900 copyright, 1899 by charles g. wheeler the knickerbocker press, new york to the youthful founders of "totlet town" without whose inspiration this book would not have been undertaken preface the aim of this book is to suggest to amateurs of all ages many things which they can profitably make of wood, and to start them in the way to work successfully. it is hoped that, in the case of boys, it may show them pleasant and useful ways to work off some of their surplus energy, and at the same time contribute toward their harmonious all-round development. it is not an attempt to teach the arts of architecture, carpentry, cabinet-making, or boat-building. although not intended primarily to impart skill in the use of tools (something which can only be acquired from experience and observation and cannot be taught by any book), still no one can go through the processes indicated without gaining at least some slight degree of manual skill as well as a fund of practical information and experience. many books which give directions for mechanical work (particularly those addressed to boys) have several serious faults, and can be grouped in three classes. some seem to be written by practical workmen, who, however well fitted to do the work themselves, lack the pedagogical training or the psychological insight necessary to lay out such work with due regard to the mental and physical capacity, experience, and development of youth, or to the amateur's lack of experience in the rudiments of the subject. others are written by teachers or amateurs who lack the trained mechanic's practical and varied knowledge and experience in serious work. others (and this last class is, perhaps, the worst of the three) seem to be made by compilers who have apparently been satisfied to sweep together, without requisite knowledge or sufficient moral purpose, whatever they may have found that would be interesting or attractive, without due regard to its real value. all these writers are constantly falling into errors and making omissions harmful alike to the moral and the manual progress of the readers.[1] effort has been made in the preparation of this book to avoid these evils, to keep in line with the advanced educational ideas of the time, and to look at the subject from the standpoints of the _teacher_, the _mechanic_, the _boy_, and the _amateur workman_. the treatment is neither general nor superficial, but _elementary_, and no claim is made that it will carry anyone very far in the various subjects; but it aims to be thorough and specific as far as it goes and to teach nothing which will have to be unlearned. great care (based upon an extended experience with boys and amateurs) has been taken to include only what can be profitably done by an intelligent boy of from ten to eighteen or by the average untrained worker of more mature years. it is hoped that from the variety of subjects treated he may find much of the information for which he may seek--if not in the exact form desired, perhaps in some typical form or something sufficiently similar to suggest to him what he needs to know. it is hoped and confidently believed that a work so comprehensive in scope and giving such a variety of designs, with detailed and practical directions for their execution, will be not merely novel, but may serve as a _vade-mecum_ and ready-reference book for the amateur of constructive tastes. charles g. wheeler. boston, june, 1899. footnote: [1] these criticisms are meant to apply to the class of manuals, compendiums, and so-called "boys' books" and "amateurs' books," in the _popular_ sense of the word, and not to the many admirable works on sloyd, manual training, and the various special branches of wood-working. contents _part i--a workshop for amateurs_ chapter page i--introductory 1 ii--tools 9 iii--wood 29 iv--working drawings, laying out the work, and estimating 49 v--the workshop 56 _part ii--articles to be made in the workshop_ vi--introductory 103 vii--a few toys 106 viii--houses for animals 126 ix--implements for outdoor sports and athletics 41 x--furniture 175 xi--a few miscellaneous operations 218 _part iii--house-building for beginners_ xii--some elementary principles 238 xiii--simple summer cottages 271 xiv--a few simple structures 291 _part iv--boat-building for beginners_ xv--a few simple boats 298 _part v--tools and operations_ xvi--the common hand-tools, and some every-day operations, alphabetically arranged for ready reference 344 appendix--matters relating to wood, suggestions about working drawings, etc. 507 index 539 introductory note it has seemed best to address parts of this book particularly to boys, because the majority of beginners are boys, because boys need more suggestions than men, and because a man can easily pick what he needs from a talk to boys (and perhaps be interested also), while it is usually unprofitable to expect a boy to take hold of a technical subject in the right spirit if it is treated in a style much in advance of his degree of maturity. it is hoped, however, that the older reader also will find enough of those fundamental principles of successful work (many of which do not readily occur to the untrained amateur except as the result of much costly experience) to be a material help to him. "it is not strength, but art obtains the prize, and to be swift is less than to be wise; 'tis more by art, than force of numerous strokes." homer, _iliad_. wood-working for beginners part i _a workshop for amateurs_ chapter i introductory when one has made up his mind to make something, he usually wants to begin work at once; so, as i wish you to read this chapter, i will make it quite short. there is a great deal in getting started right, and there are some things to bear in mind if you wish to do good work, as of course you do. one thing is not to be in too much of a hurry to begin the actual sawing and pounding. the old latin phrase, "_festina lente_" (make haste slowly), is a capital motto for the beginner. do not wait until your enthusiasm has oozed away, of course, but do stop long enough to think how you are going to make a thing before you begin to saw. the workman who thinks first and acts afterwards is the one who usually turns out good work, while the one who begins to work without any reflection (as boys, and even men, have been known to do) is apt to spend much of his time in undoing his work, and usually does not get through till after the one who laid it out properly in the first place.[2] if homer, in the quotation at the head of this chapter, had been writing about the way boys' work is sometimes done, he might, perhaps, have reversed the positions of some of the words and made "swiftness" and "numerous strokes" the subjects of his emphasis. he has expressed well enough, however, the way that your work should be done, and it is one aim of this book to give you useful hints to that end. do not spend your time in working out a lot of set exercises, like joints and odd pieces that do not belong to anything in particular, merely for practice. you will be much more apt to put the right spirit into your work when you make complete and useful articles, and you will get the same practice and experience in the end. there is no need, however, to go through a deal of toilsome experience just to learn a number of simple little things that you might just as well be told in the first place. begin the process of learning by experience after you have learned what you can from the experience of others. begin, so far as you can, where others have left off. before you begin work it may be interesting to look for a moment at the way boys did their work from fifty to one hundred years ago. have you read the books by elijah kellogg? the reason for speaking of these old-fashioned books is because of the picture they give of the time, not so very long ago, when boys and their elders made all sorts of things which they buy to-day, and also because of the good idea they give of how boys got along generally when they had to shift more for themselves than they do nowadays. the majority of the boys of that time, not merely on casco bay, where mr. kellogg places the scenes of his stories, but in hundreds of other places, had to make many things themselves or go without. of course there was a smaller number in the cities and larger towns who had no good opportunity to make things and were obliged to buy what they could afford (out of what we should call a quite limited variety), or to get the carpenter or other mechanic to make what they needed. but the majority of the boys of that time made things well and had a good time making them. the life they led made them capital "all-round" boys. they could turn their hands, and their heads too, to almost any kind of work, and do it pretty well. boys did a good deal of whittling then. this habit, as you doubtless know, still clung to them after they grew up, and opening a jack-knife and beginning to whittle was a common diversion whenever the men rested, whether at the country-store or in the barn or dooryard or at their own firesides. you can see the same habit to-day in some places. the boys whittled splint-brooms of birch in colonial days in almost every household.[3] among some of the minor articles made by boys and young men were axe-helves and handles of all sorts, wooden rakes, wooden troughs for bread and for pigs, trays, trenchers, flails, rounds for ladders, bobbins, reels, cheese-boxes, butter-spats or -paddles, wooden traps, and dozens of other articles, not to speak of their handiwork in other materials than wood. for that matter much of the same life can be found to-day in the remoter regions, and i have known young men brought up to this kind of life, who (within my recollection) have, as a matter of course, done all the farm work of good-sized cultivated farms with live stock, cut and hauled wood from their wood-lots, done a good deal of sea-fishing and salting down and drying of fish, tended and mended their fish-nets, weirs, and lobster-traps, and sailed or rowed twenty-five miles to market with their produce and back again with their supplies. they also built their sheds, barns, and houses, and part of their furniture, their dories, big scows, and capital sailboats; made their own oars and rigged their boats; made many of their farm tools and implements; built their waggons and "ironed" them, their ox-sleds and small sleds, and shod them; made some of their tools; did their own blacksmithing, mason-work, brick-laying, and painting; made their own shoes, and did i do not know how many other odd jobs--all with but a limited supply of common hand-tools. this work did not interfere with their going to school through the winter months until they were twenty-one years old, and they still found time for the usual recreations of the period. now a young man must have been pretty well developed after going through all that, even if he did not know much about greek or calculus or was lacking in superficial polish. and it is only the truth to say that quite a number used to tackle the higher branches of study too, with success made all the more assured by their development in other ways, and many, in addition to all this, paid their way through college by teaching or other work. how did they do so much? partly, i suppose, because their life was so much simpler and less complex than ours. they did not have so many wants and there were not so many interests to distract their minds. partly because when they wanted something they knew they must make it or go without. they did not draw so much as we do now, but they did a great deal of observing. they examined things like what they were to make and asked questions, and, knowing that where they had so much to do they could not afford to keep trying things again and again, they learned from their relatives and neighbours what was considered the best way to do their work, and having thought it out carefully they went at it with great energy. to-day we have only to go to a large factory to see a man standing before some machine and doing some simple piece of work, requiring but little thought--the same thing over and over again, hour after hour, day after day, year after year, until he seems to become almost a part of the machine itself, and is not fitted for doing much else. that is the other extreme. of course we get things cheaper (even if they do not last so long) because of the factory; but how about the workman? which of these two types is the better-developed man? first you want to be well-developed all-round boys, so that you will not become machines or badly one-sided men. after that--each to his special bent, of course. now because we no longer cut down trees ourselves, haul them to the mill to be sawed, or rive or saw or hew them ourselves, leave the wood to season, and then laboriously work it up into whatever we have to make--because we no longer do that, but go instead to a lumber-yard and a mill and have a large part of the work done for us--it is a good thing for us to pause a moment before we begin our work to take in the fact that _all_ the advantage is not with us now, and to think what a capital gymnasium that former life was for strengthening a boy's muscle and mind, not to speak of his morals. you could not go back to those days now if you wished to, of course (except, perhaps, when you go to some of the remoter regions in vacation), and you are doubtless better off for all the advantages you have now and for all our time-saving contrivances, but the advantage depends partly on _how you use_ the time saved from their laborious tasks, does it not? you can, however, get inspiration from the example of those older boys and from some of their methods, and can put their self-reliant, manly zeal, grit, and perseverance into your work, and have a capital time making the things and more sport and satisfaction afterwards for having made them. this book does not try to show you a royal road or a short cut to proficiency in architecture, carpentry, cabinet-making, boat-building, toy-making, or any other art or science. it does not aim to cram you with facts, but merely to start you in the right way. it is for those of you who want to take off your coats, roll up your sleeves, and really make things, rather than sit down in the house and be amused and perhaps deluded by reading enthusiastic accounts of all the wonders you can easily do--or which somebody thinks you would like to be told that you can do. it is for those of you who do not wish to have your ardour dampened by finding that things will not come out as the book said they would, or that the very things you do not know and cannot be expected to know are left out. it does not aim to stir up your enthusiasm at first and then perhaps leave you in the lurch at the most important points. i take it for granted that if you have any mechanical bent or interest in making things, as most boys have, and are any kind of a real live boy, you have the enthusiasm to start with without stirring up. in fact, i have even known boys, and possibly you may have, who, strange as it may seem, have had so much enthusiasm to make something or other that they have actually had to be held back lest they should spoil all the lumber within reach in the effort to get started! what you want is to be told how to go to work in the right way--how to make things successfully and like a workman--is it not? then, if you mean business, as i feel sure you do, and really want to make things, read the whole book through carefully, even if it is not bristling with interesting yarns and paragraphs of no practical application to your work. you will not find everything in it, but you cannot help learning something, and i hope you will find that it attends strictly to the business in hand and will give you a start in the right direction,--which is half the battle. "man is a tool-using animal.... he can use tools, can devise tools; with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him; he kneads glowing iron as if it were soft paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire his unwearying steeds. nowhere do you find him without tools; without tools he is nothing--with tools he is all."--carlyle, _sartor resartus_. footnotes: [2] an old gentleman whose help, on account of his accurate workmanship, i once frequently obtained when "rushed," was an extreme example of this systematic way of doing work. i would give him perhaps three hours' work, which he would agree to have done at the end of that time. looking in after an hour or so i would find the work apparently untouched, which was a little provoking, of course, as the average workman would have had it perhaps one third done. but instead, this old gentleman would be apparently only "puttering around," touching up his saws, fixing his planes, whetting his chisels, looking over the wood, and not getting ahead a bit. going off in disgust (until i got acquainted with his ways, i mean), i would return at the end of the three hours, to find that the work had been ready some time and done to perfection. while he was at first apparently accomplishing nothing he was really getting everything in perfect shape to do the work and laying out in his mind every detail of the whole process, so that when he began the actual work it almost did itself, and he forged right ahead of the average workman, who would either have been behind time or slighted the work in order to get it done, and in most cases have made some mistake to be corrected in some part of the process. i never knew that man to make a mistake. why? not because his ability was extraordinary, but because he concentrated his mind on the work and thought it out clear through before he began. now i know the average boy too well to expect him to have the patience to do just as this workman did. it would be unreasonable. but it is the true way to do good work, so try to think it all out as far as you can and to get ready before you begin. the work will go ever so much more quickly and easily. [3] "it has been said that the snow-shoe and canoe as made by the indians could never be improved. to these might be added the split birch broom, or splinter broom, also the invention of the indians, but made in every country household in new england in colonial days. the branch of a large birch tree was cut eight feet long. an inch-wide band of the bark was left about eighteen inches from one end, and the shorter and lower end was cut in fine pliable slivers up to the restraining bark band. a row of slivers was cut from the upper end downward, turned down over the band, and tied firmly down. then the remainder of the stick was smoothed into a handle. these brooms were pliable, cleanly, and enduring, and as broom-corn was not grown here until the latter part of the past century, they were, in fact, the only brooms of those days. they were made by boys on new england farms for six cents apiece, and bought by the country storekeepers in large numbers for the cities' use."--_the chautauquan._ chapter ii tools you can do a great deal with very few tools. the bearing of this observation lies in "the application on it," as jack bunsby would say. look at the complicated and ingenious curiosities whittled with a jack-knife by sailors, prisoners, and other people who have time to kill in that way! have you ever seen the chinese artisans turning out their wonderful work with only a few of the most primitive tools? but of course we cannot spend time so lavishly on our work as they do, even if we had their machine-like patience and deftness acquired through so many generations. we cannot hold work with our feet and draw saws towards us or do turning out on the lawn with a few sticks and a bit of rope for a lathe; carve a set of wonderful open-work hollow spheres, each within the other, out of one solid ball of ivory; and the rest of the queer things the orientals do: but it is merely a matter of national individuality--the training of hundreds of generations. we could learn to do such things after a long time doubtless, but with no such wonderful adaptability as the japanese, for instance, are showing, in learning our ways in one generation. examine some of the exquisite work which the orientals sell so cheaply and think whether you know anyone with skill enough to do it if he had a whole hardware-shop full of tools, and then see with what few simple and rude tools (like those shown in the following illustrations, or the simple drill, fig. 1, still in use) the work has been done. mr. holtzapffel describes the primitive apparatus in use among the natives of india as follows[4]: [illustration fig. 1.] "when any portion of household furniture has to be turned, the wood-turner is sent for; he comes with all his outfit and establishes himself for the occasion at the very door of his employer. he commences by digging two holes in the ground at a distance suitable to the length of the work, and in these he fixes two short wooden posts, securing them as strongly as he can by ramming the earth and driving in wedges and stones around them. the centres, scarcely more than round nails or spikes, are driven through the posts at about eight inches from the ground, and a wooden rod, for the support of the tools, is either nailed to the posts or tied to them by a piece of coir or cocoanut rope. the bar, if long, is additionally supported, as represented, by being tied to one or two vertical sticks driven into the ground. during most of his mechanical operations the indian workman is seated on the ground, hence the small elevation of the axes of his lathe. the boy who gives motion to the work sits or kneels on the other side of it, holding the ends of the cord wrapped around it in his hands, pulling them alternately; the cutting being restricted to one half of the motion, that of the work towards the tool. the turning tools of the indian are almost confined to the chisel and gouge, and their handles are long enough to suit his distant position, while he guides their cutting edges by his toes. he grasps the bar or tool-rest with the smaller toes and places the tool between the large toe and its neighbour, generally out of contact with the bar. the indian and all other turners using the eastern method attain a high degree of prehensile power with the toes, and when seated at their work not only always use them to guide the tool, but will select indifferently the hand or the foot, whichever may happen to be the nearer, to pick up or replace any small tool or other object. the limited supply of tools the indian uses for working in wood is also remarkable; they are of the most simple kind and hardly exceed those represented in fig. 2; the most essential in constructing and setting up his lathe being the small, single-handed adze, the bassoolah. with this he shapes his posts and digs the holes; it serves on all occasions as a hammer and also as an anvil when the edge is for a time fixed in a block of wood. the outer side of the cutting edge is perfectly flat, and with it the workman will square or face a beam or board with almost as much precision as if it had been planed; in using the bassoolah for this latter purpose the work is generally placed in the forked stem of a tree, driven into the ground as shown in the illustration." [illustration fig. 2.] if we are inclined to feel proud of the kind of wood-work turned out by the average wood-worker of this country or england with his great variety of tools and appliances and facilities, we might compare his work with that done by the orientals without our appliances. read what professor morse tells us of the japanese carpenter[5]: "his trade, as well as other trades, has been perpetuated through generations of families. the little children have been brought up amidst the odour of fragrant shavings,--have with childish hands performed the duties of an adjustable vise or clamp; and with the same tools which when children they have handed to their fathers, they have in later days earned their daily rice. when i see one of our carpenters' ponderous tool-chests, made of polished woods, inlaid with brass decorations, and filled to repletion with several hundred dollars' worth of highly polished and elaborate machine-made implements, and contemplate the work often done with them,--with everything binding that should go loose, and everything rattling that should be tight, and much work that has to be done twice over, with an indication everywhere of a poverty of ideas,--and then recall the japanese carpenter with his ridiculously light and flimsy tool-box containing a meagre assortment of rude and primitive tools,--considering the carpentry of the two people, i am forced to the conviction that civilisation and modern appliances count as nothing unless accompanied with a moiety of brains and some little taste and wit.... after having seen the good and serviceable carpentry, the perfect joints and complex mortises, done by good japanese workmen, one is astonished to find that they do their work without the aid of certain appliances considered indispensable by similar craftsmen in our country. they have no bench, no vise, no spirit-level, and no bit-stock; and as for labour-saving machinery, they have absolutely nothing. with many places which could be utilised for water-power, the old country sawmill has not occurred to them. their tools appear to be roughly made and of primitive design, though evidently of the best-tempered steel. the only substitute for the carpenter's bench is a plank on the floor, or on two horses; a square, firm, upright post is the nearest approach to a bench and vise, for to this beam a block of wood to be sawed into pieces is firmly held (fig. 3). a big wooden wedge is bound firmly to the post with a stout rope, and this driven down with vigorous blows till it pinches the block which is to be cut into the desired proportions. [illustration fig.3.--a japanese carpenter's vise. from morse's _japanese homes_.] [illustration fig. 4.--carpenters' tools in common use. from morse's _japanese homes_.] "in using many of the tools, the japanese carpenter handles them quite differently from our workman; for instance, he draws the plane towards him instead of pushing it from him. the planes are very rude-looking implements. their bodies, instead of being thick blocks of wood, are quite wide and thin (fig. 4, d, e), and the blades are inclined at a greater angle than the blade in our plane. in some planes, however, the blade stands vertical; this is used in lieu of the steel scrapers in giving wood a smooth finish, and might be used with advantage by our carpenters as a substitute for the piece of glass or thin plate of steel with which they usually scrape the surface of the wood. a huge plane is often seen, five or six feet long. this plane, however, is fixed in an inclined position, upside down; that is, with the blade uppermost. the board, or piece to be planed, is moved back and forth upon it. draw-shaves are in common use. the saws are of various kinds, with teeth much longer than those of our saws, and cut in different ways.... some saws have teeth on the back as well as on the front, one edge being used as a cross-cut saw (fig. 4, b, c). the hand-saw, instead of having the curious loop-shaped handle made to accommodate only one hand, as with us, has a simple straight cylindrical handle as long as the saw itself, and sometimes longer. our carpenters engage one hand in holding the stick to be sawed while driving the saw with the other hand; the japanese carpenter, on the contrary, holds the piece with his foot, and stooping over, with his two hands drives the saw by quick and rapid cuts through the wood. this style of working and doing many other things could never be adopted in this country without an importation of japanese backs.... the adze is provided with a rough handle bending considerably at the lower end, not unlike a hockey-stick (fig. 4, a).... for drilling holes a very long-handled awl is used. the carpenter seizing the handle at the end, between the palms of his hands, and moving his hands rapidly back and forth, pushing down at the same time, the awl is made rapidly to rotate back and forth; as his hands gradually slip down on the handle he quickly seizes it at the upper end again, continuing the motion as before. one is astonished to see how rapidly holes are drilled in this simple yet effective way. for large holes, augers similar to ours are used." when you are obliged to work some day with few and insufficient tools (as most workmen are at times), you will quickly realise how much you can do with very few in case of necessity, and will more fully appreciate the skill of those eastern people who do so much with so little. we do not need so many hand-tools for wood-work as our grandfathers and our great-grandfathers, although we make a greater variety of things, because machinery now does so much of the work for us. wood-workers of fifty years ago had, for instance, dozens of planes for cutting all sorts of grooves, mouldings, and the like, which are now worked by machine at the nearest mill. =suggestions about buying.=--do not start in by buying a chest of tools, certainly not one of the small cheap sets. they are not necessarily poor, but are very apt to be. get a few tools at a time as you need them. in that way you will get all you need in the most satisfactory way. besides the fact that you _can_ do good work with few tools there are various reasons which make it _better_ to begin with but few. you will probably take better care of a few than of many. if you have thirty chisels on the rack before you and you make a nick in the end of the one you are using, there is a strong chance that instead of stopping to sharpen it you will lay it aside and take one of the remaining twenty-nine that will answer your purpose, and before you realise it have a whole rack full of dull tools. if you have but few chisels, you will be _compelled_ to sharpen them, and so get into the habit of taking proper care of them--not to speak of the time which is often wasted in putting away one tool and selecting another unnecessarily. the longer you work the more you will get to _rely_ on a small number of tools only, however many you may have at hand for occasional use. after you have worked for some time you will be very likely to have your favourite tools, and find that certain tools do better work in your hands than certain others which perhaps someone else would use for the purpose, and you will naturally favour the use of those particular implements, which is another less important reason for not starting in with too great a variety. i do not mean that you will imagine you can do better with one tool than another, but that you really can do so. that is where individuality comes in--the "personal equation." watch a skilful carver at a piece of ordinary work. see how few tools he spreads before him, and how much he does with the one in his hand before he lays it down for another. you would think it would take twenty-five tools, perhaps, to cut such a design, but the carver may have only about half a dozen before him. he gets right into the _spirit_ of what he is doing, and somehow or other he does ever so many things with the tool in his hand in less time and carries out his idea better than if he kept breaking off to select others. this shows that confidence in the use of a tool goes a long way toward the execution of good work, which is one reason for learning to use a few tools well and making them serve for all the uses to which they can advantageously be put. in short, if you have but few tools at first you get the most you can out of each tool and in the way best for yourself. now i do not mean by all this that it is not a good thing to have a large kit of tools, or that you should not have the proper tools for the various operations, and use them. i mean that you should get your tools gradually as you find that you need them to do your work as it should be done, and not get a lot in advance of needing them just because they seem to be fine things to have, or because some carpenter has them in his chest. do not place too much reliance on the lists of tools which you find in books and magazines--the "tools necessary for beginners," "a list of tools for boys," etc. such lists are necessarily arbitrary. to make a short list that would be thoroughly satisfactory for such varied work as a boy or amateur may turn his hand to is about as impracticable as the attempts you sometimes see to name the twenty-five greatest or best men or the one hundred best books. when you can find half a dozen independent lists which agree it will be time enough to begin to pin your faith to them. the most experienced or learned people cannot agree exactly in such matters. it depends somewhat, for one thing, on what kind of work you begin with, and, of course, somewhat upon yourself also. now while, as we have seen, most wonderful work can be done with the most primitive tools, the fact remains that you are neither chinese nor japanese, but americans and english, and you cannot work to the best advantage without certain tools. "well, what are they? why don't you give us a list to begin with? that's what we are looking for." simply because a quite varied experience has taught me to think it better to give you suggestions to help you make the selection for yourselves. just as the great majority of boys would agree upon _robinson crusoe_, for instance, as belonging in the front rank of boys' books, but would make very different selections of second-rate or third-rate books, so there are a few "universal" tools, upon the importance of which all agree, such as the saw, hammer, hatchet or axe, and a few others; but beyond these few you can have as many "lists" as you can find people to make them, up to the point of including all you are likely to want. so let your list make itself as you go along, according to your own needs. it is safe to say, however, that if your work is to be at all varied, such as is given in this book, for instance, you cannot get along to good advantage for any length of time without a _rule_, a _try-square_, a _straight-edge_, a _knife_, two or three _chisels_, a _hatchet_, a _gouge_, a _smoothing-plane_, a _spoke-shave_, a _panel-saw_, a _hammer_ and _nail-set_, a _bit-brace_ and three or four _bits_ (_twist-drills_ are good for the smaller sizes), a _countersink_, a few _bradawls_ and _gimlets_, a _screw-driver_, a _rasp_ and _half-round file_ for wood, a _three-cornered file_ for metal, an _oil-stone_, a _glue-pot_. an excellent and cheap combination tool for such work as you will do can be bought almost anywhere under the name of "_odd jobs_." of course you will need nails, screws, sandpaper, glue, oil, and such supplies, which you can buy as you need them. a section (18 inches or 20 inches high) from the trunk of a tree is very useful for a chopping-block, or any big junk of timber can be used. you will, however, quickly feel the need of a few more tools to do your work to better advantage, and according to the kind of work you are doing you will add some of the following: a _fore-plane_, a _splitting-saw_, a _mallet_, a _back-saw_, _compasses_, one or more _firmer chisels_, one or more _framing-chisels_, a _block-plane_, _pincers_, a _gauge_ or two, one or more _gouges_, a _steel square_, a _draw-knife_, a large _screw-driver_, a _scraper_, a few _hand-screws_ (or _iron clamps_), a few more _bits_, _gimlets_, _bradawls_, or _drills_, _cutting-pliers_ or _nippers_, a _bevel_, a _jointer_ (plane), a _wrench_. an iron _mitre-box_ is useful but rather expensive, and you can get along with the wooden one described further on. a _grindstone_ is, of course, essential when you get to the point of sharpening your tools yourself, but you can have your tools ground or get the use of a stone without having to buy one for a long time. the following list makes a fair outfit for nearly and sometimes all the work the average amateur is likely to do, excepting the bench appliances and such contrivances as you will make yourselves and the occasional addition of a bit or chisel or gouge or file, etc., of some other size or shape when needed. this is not a list to start with, of course, unless you can afford it, for you can get along for a good while with only a part, nor is it a complete list, but merely one with which a great amount of useful work can be done to good advantage. you can always add to it for special purposes. for further remarks about these tools and others and their uses, see part v., where they will be found alphabetically arranged. 1 two-foot rule. 1 try-square (metal-bound). 1 pair of wing compasses. 1 marking-gauge. 1 mortise-gauge. 1 steel square (carpenter's framing-square). 1 bevel. 1 "odd jobs." 1 chalk-line and chalk. 1 knife. 5 firmer chisels (1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 7/8", 1-1/4"). 2 framing-or mortising-chisels (1", 1-1/2"). 3 gouges (1/4", 1/2", 1"). 1 iron spoke-shave (adjustable). 1 draw-knife. 1 hatchet. 1 block-plane. 1 smoothing-plane. 1 long fore-plane (or a jointer). 1 jack-plane. 1 rabbet-plane (3/4" or 7/8" square). 1 cutting-off saw (panel-saw, 24"). 1 splitting-saw (26"). 1 back-saw (12"). 1 turning-saw (14"). 1 compass and keyhole saw (combined). 1 bit-brace. 3 auger-bits (1/2", 3/4", 1"). 3 twist-drills (1/8", 3/16", 1/4"). a few bradawls and gimlets. 1 screw-driver for bit-brace. 1 countersink. 1 hammer and 2 nail-sets. 2 screw-drivers (different sizes). files of several kinds (flat, three-cornered, and round for metal, and half-round and round for wood). 1 large half-round rasp. 1 cabinet scraper and burnisher. 1 mallet. 1 pair cutting-pliers. 1 pair of pincers. 1 wrench. 1 oil-stone and oiler. 2 or 3 oil-stone slips (different shapes). 1 glue-pot. 2 or more iron clamps. 2 or more wooden hand-screws. 2 or more cabinet clamps (2' to 4'). an adjustable iron mitre-box will be a valuable addition to this list, and a grindstone is of use even when you get most of your grinding done. a few carver's tools are also convenient at times if you can afford them, as a skew-chisel (1/2"), a parting-tool (1/4"), and a small veining-tool. general supplies, such as nails, screws, glue, etc., specified in part v., will of course be required. * * * * * there are still more tools than those given above, as you doubtless know, but by the time you have become workman enough to need more you will know what you need. ploughs, matching-planes, and all such implements are omitted, because it is better and usually as cheap to get such work as they do done by machine at a mill. i also assume that all your heavy sawing and planing will be done at some mill. it is not worth while for the amateur to undertake the sawing and planing of large pieces, the hewing and splitting of the rougher branches of wood-work, for such work can be done almost anywhere by machine at very slight expense, and stock can be bought already got out and planed for but a trifle more than the cost of the wood alone.[6] be sure to get good tools. there is a saying that a good workman is known by his tools, and another that a poor workman is always complaining of his tools, that is, excusing his own incompetence by throwing the blame upon his tools. there is also another saying to the effect that a good workman can work with poor tools; but it is simply because he is a skilled and ingenious workman that he can if necessary often do good work _in spite_ of inferior tools, and of course he could do the same work more easily and quickly, if not better, with good ones. so do not think that because you sometimes see a skilled workman making shift with poor tools that you are justified in beginning in that way, for a beginner should use only good tools and in good condition or he may never become a good workman at all, so make your tools and their care a matter of pride. if your tools are of good quality, and proper care is taken of them, they will last a lifetime and longer; so good tools prove the cheapest in the end.[7] there are some cases, however, in which it is as well not to buy the most expensive tools at first, as a cheap rule will do as well as an expensive one, considering how likely you are to break or lose it, and a cheap gauge will answer quite well for a good while; but this does not affect the truth of the general statement that you should get only the best tools. there are also quite a number of tools, appliances, and makeshifts which you can make for yourselves, some of which will be described. i advise you not to pick up tools at second-hand shops, auctions, or junk shops, except with the assistance of some competent workman. =care of tools.=--keep your tools in good order. you cannot do nice, fine, clean work with a dull tool. a sharp tool will make a clean cut, but a dull edge will tear or crush the fibres and not leave a clean-cut surface. you can work so much more easily and quickly as well as satisfactorily with sharp tools that the time it takes to keep them in order is much less than you lose in working with dull ones, not to speak of the waste of strength and temper. i assume that you will not attempt to sharpen your tools yourselves until you have had considerable experience in using them; for sharpening tools (particularly saws and planes) is very hard for boys and amateurs, and not easy to learn from a book. so, until then, be sure to have them sharpened whenever they become dull. the expense is but slight, and it is much better to have fewer tools kept sharp than to spend the money for more tools and have them dull. when you get to the point of sharpening your tools, one lesson from a practical workman or even a little time spent in watching the operations (which you can do easily) will help you more than reading many pages from any book. so i advise you to get instruction in sharpening from some practical workman,--not at first, but after you have got quite handy with the tools. you can easily do this at little or no expense. for further points, see _sharpening_, in part v. it is a good plan to soak tool handles, mallets, and wooden planes, when new, for a week or so in raw linseed oil and then rub them with a soft rag every day or two for a while. if you use wooden planes give them a good soaking. they will absorb much oil and work more freely and smoothly. you can save tool handles from being split by pounding, by sawing the ends off square and fastening on two round disks of sole-leather in the way adopted by shoe-makers. if there is any tendency to dampness in your shop the steel and iron parts of the tools should be greased with a little fat,--tallow, lard, wax, vaseline,--or some anti-rust preparation. =use of tools.=--it is very important to get started right in using tools. if your first idea of what the tool is for and how it should be used is correct you will get along nicely afterwards, but if you start with a wrong impression you will have to unlearn, which is always hard, and start afresh. if you can go to a good wood-working school you will of course learn much, and if you know a good-natured carpenter or cabinet-maker or any wood-worker of the _old-fashioned_ kind, cultivate his acquaintance. if he is willing to let you watch his work and to answer your questions you can add much to your knowledge of the uses of the different tools. in fact, so far as instruction goes that is about all the teaching the average apprentice gets. he learns by observing and by practice. do not be afraid or ashamed to ask questions. very few men will refuse to answer an amateur's questions unless they are unreasonably frequent. there will be problems enough to exercise all the ingenuity you have after you have learned what you can from others. but the day for the all-round workman seems to be rapidly passing away and the tendency nowadays is for each workman, instead of spending years in learning the various branches and details of his trade, to be expert in only one very limited branch--or, as sometimes happens, a general botch in all the branches; so unless you find a real mechanic for a friend (such as an old or middle-aged village carpenter, or cabinet-maker, or wheelwright, or boat-builder, or carver), be a little guarded about believing all he tells or shows you; and beware of relying implicitly on the teachings of the man who "knows it all" and whom a season's work at nailing up studding and boarding has turned into a full-fledged "carpenter." if you can learn to use your tools with either hand you will often find it a decided advantage, as in getting out crooked work, or particularly in carving, where you have such an endless variety of cuts to be made in almost every possible direction, but "that is another story." a bad habit and one to guard against is that of carrying with you the tool you may be using whenever you leave your work temporarily, instead of laying it down where you are working. edge-tools are dangerous things to carry around in the hand and there is also much chance of their being mislaid. for directions for using the different tools see part v. =edge-tools.=--bear in mind that all cutting tools work more or less on the principle of the wedge. so far as the mere cutting is concerned a keen edge is all that is required and your knife or other cutting tool might be as thin as a sheet of paper. but of course such a tool would break, so it must be made thicker for strength and wedge-shaped so that it may be pushed through the wood as easily as possible. you know that you can safely use a very thin knife to cut butter because the butter yields so easily that there is not much strain on the blade, but that when you cut wood the blade must be thicker to stand the strain of being pushed through. soft wood cuts more easily than hard, because it is more easily pushed aside or compressed by the wedge-shaped tool, and it does not matter how keen the edge may be if the resistance of the wood is so great that you cannot force the thicker part of the tool through it. you will understand from all this that the more acute the angle of the cutting edge the more easily it will do its work, provided always that the angle is obtuse or blunt enough to give the proper strength to the end of the tool; and also that as the end of the tool encounters more resistance in hard than soft wood, the angle should be more obtuse or blunter for the former than for the latter. theoretically, therefore, the angle of the cutting edge, to obtain the greatest possible advantage, would need to be changed with every piece of wood and every kind of cut, but practically all that can be done is to have a longer bevel on the tools for soft wood than for hard. experience and observation will teach these angles. see _sharpening_ in part v. when you cut off a stout stick, as the branch of a tree, you do not try to force your knife straight across with one cut. you cut a small notch and then widen and deepen it by cutting first on one side and then on the other (fig. 5). the wood yields easily to the wedge on the side towards the notch, so that the edge can easily cut deeper, and thus the notch is gradually cut through the stick. the same principle is seen in cutting down a tree with an axe. you have only to look at the structure of a piece of wood when magnified, as roughly indicated in fig. 6, to see why it is easier to cut with the grain than across it. [illustration fig. 5.] [illustration fig. 6.] [illustration fig. 7.] you can often cut better with a _draw-stroke_, _i.e._, not merely pushing the tool straight ahead, but drawing it across sideways at the same time (fig. 7). you can press the sharp edge of a knife or razor against your hand without cutting, but draw the edge across and you will be cut at once. even a blade of grass will cut if you draw the edge quickly through your hand, as you doubtless know. if you try to push a saw down into a piece of wood, as you push a knife down through a lump of butter, or as in chopping with a hatchet, that is, without pushing and pulling the saw back and forth, it will not enter the wood to any extent, but when you begin to work it back and forth it cuts (or tears) its way into the wood at once. you know how much better you can cut a slice of fresh bread when you saw the knife back and forth than when you merely push it straight down through the loaf. you may have noticed (and you may not) how much better your knife will cut, and that the cut will be cleaner, in doing some kinds of whittling, when you _draw it through the wood from handle to point_ (fig. 7), instead of pushing it straight through in the common way, and you will discover, if you try cutting various substances, that as a general rule the softer the material the greater the advantage in the draw-stroke. now put the sharpest edge-tool you can find under a powerful microscope, and you will see that the edge, instead of being so very smooth, is really quite ragged,--a sort of saw-like edge. then look at the structure of a piece of wood as roughly indicated in fig. 6, and you will understand at once just what we do when we cut wood with an edge-tool. you see the microscopically small sticks or tubes or bundles of woody fibre of which the big stick is composed, and you also see the microscopically fine saw to cut them. now if the edge of the tool is fine you can often do the work satisfactorily by simply pushing the tool straight through the wood, but do you not see that if you can draw or slide the tool either back or forth the edge, being saw-like, will do its work better? this stroke cannot be used of course in chopping with the axe or hatchet, splitting kindling-wood, or splitting a stick _with_ the grain with a knife or chisel. in these operations the main principle is that of the wedge, pure and simple, driven through by force, the keen edge merely starting the cut, after which the wedge does the rest of the work by bearing so hard against the wood at the sides of the cut that it forces it to split _in advance_ of the cutting edge, as in riving a log by the use first of an axe, then of an iron wedge, and finally a large wooden wedge (fig. 8). [illustration fig. 8.] practical directions and suggestions about the different _tools and their uses_ and the various _operations_ will be found alphabetically arranged in part v. footnotes: [4] quoted, by kind permission, from _turning and mechanical manipulation_. [5] quoted, by kind permission, from the valuable and entertaining work on _japanese homes and their surroundings_ (copyright. 1885), by edward s. morse. [6] if you are so situated, as possibly a few of you may be, that you cannot get the benefit of modern methods, but must do all the rough work that your grandfathers did, you will require a few additional tools, but these you can readily select from the descriptions given farther on. [7] there are many reliable makers of tools. among them the following can be named, and their tools can be obtained almost anywhere: saws--henry disston. chisels and gouges--moulson bros.; buck bros. planes--stanley; moulson bros. (plane-irons); wm. butcher (do.); buck bros. (do.) files--p. s. stubs. rules and squares, levels, gauges, spoke-shaves, etc.--stanley rule & level co. braces--barber. bits--jennings. knives (sloid)--taylor. carving tools--addis; buck; taylor. chapter iii wood before you can make anything successfully, you must have not merely wood, but the _right kind_ of wood for the purpose. there are, also, "choice cuts" in lumber, as the butcher says of meat, and judicious selection of the stock often makes all the difference between a good job and a poor one; so let us examine a log and follow it through the sawmill. you have, of course, seen the rings, or circular lines, on the ends of pieces of wood (fig. 9). these are called the _annual rings_,[8] and each ring marks a new layer of wood added to the tree, for, as perhaps you may have learned, the trees we use for wood-working grow by adding new layers of wood on the outside. examine the ends of pieces of wood of various kinds. in some pieces these rings will be very plain. in others they will be quite indistinct. [illustration fig. 9.] notice that the wood nearest the bark, known as the _sapwood_, usually looks different from the inner wood, which is called the _heart_ (fig. 9). in some trees you will see rays, or lines, radiating from the centre, and known as the _medullary rays_ (figs. 9 and 10), because they spring from the pith (latin _medulla_). sometimes these lines are too fine to be noticed. you will see from fig. 10 that the layers of wood are also shown in the lines of what we call the "grain" on the surface of a piece of wood cut lengthways, and that the lines of the grain are continuations of the annual rings. you will also notice at the ends of timber, after the seasoning has begun, cracks radiating from the centre, showing the natural lines of cleavage or separation. [illustration fig. 10.] [illustration fig. 11.] the way the log is sawed is important, though you might naturally think that the only thing is to saw it any way that will give pieces of the required size and shape. why is green wood heavier and softer than dry wood, and the sapwood of green timber softer than the heart? because of the sap or water contained. the amount of water is sometimes even as much as fifty per cent. of the weight of the wood, but the quantity depends upon the kind of tree, the season, etc. now the more water the green log contains, the more it will shrink. it begins to dry and shrink as soon as the tree has been cut down. the sapwood shrinks more than the heart because it contains more water, and faster because, being on the outside, it is more exposed. the log shrinks most in the line of the annual rings, that is, _around_ the tree. it shrinks much less in the line of the medullary rays, that is, _across_ the tree. shrinkage lengthways is too slight to be considered[9] (fig. 11). the result of all this unequal shrinking is that the log tends to split, or crack open, at the circumference (fig. 12), the cracks running in toward the centre, in the line of the medullary rays. if the log is halved or quartered, so that the inner parts are exposed, the drying goes on more uniformly throughout, the cracking is not so bad, and the parts of the log will shrink somewhat as shown in figs. 13 and 14. [illustration fig. 12.] [illustration fig. 13.] the beams, joists, planks, or boards cut from a log have the same tendency to shrink unevenly that is found in the log itself. this causes them to be irregular in shape and to curl or warp more or less, according to the part of the log from which they are taken. a piece cut from the centre of a log will thus hold its shape better than if cut from one side (fig. 15). [illustration fig. 14.] [illustration fig. 15.] [illustration fig. 16.] when a log is sawed into boards or planks (fig. 16) the middle board shrinks but little in width and in thickness at the centre, but becomes thinner towards the edges. it does not curl, because it is cut through the centre of the log and has no more tendency to curl one way than the other. the outside board shrinks least in thickness and most in width, and all, except the middle one, shrink differently on one side from the other. they become convex toward the pith, or heart, and concave toward the outside. different kinds of wood shrink and warp to different degrees. you can learn something about these matters by examining the stock in any lumber-yard. now to come to the practical application of our brief study of the log and the sawing process: if you merely wish to get the most that you can from a log in the form of boards or plank, have the pieces sliced off in the simple way just shown (fig. 17). this is the usual way of sawing for ordinary purposes. boarding for the outside of a house, for instance, cut in this way answers every purpose. by this process the central boards will be good and the outer ones inferior,[10] as just shown (fig. 16), but for common work all can generally be used. [illustration fig. 17.] [illustration fig. 18.] [illustration fig. 19.] if you wish the highly figured grain[11] often seen in oak, ash, chestnut, etc., you can get it by sawing the log as just shown in fig. 17. the figure of the grain will be most marked in the outer boards (fig. 18), because the annual rings are cut more obliquely in them than in the boards at or near the centre. these boards (fig. 17) will tend to change their shape, as just shown (fig. 19), but if they are to be firmly fastened in some way, or confined (as in a panel), handsome grain effects can be obtained. [illustration fig. 20.] [illustration fig. 21.] [illustration fig. 22.] if you wish the beautiful figure formed when the medullary rays show on the surface of the board, as in "quartered" oak, the log should be cut in the direction of the radii, that is, along the lines of the medullary rays (fig. 20). the more exactly the side of a board is cut on the radial line the more richly the figure of the medullary rays will be shown, as in fig. 21. this method of sawing is more expensive than the first way, of course, as it requires more labour and wastes more of the wood. the wide board shown in fig. 21 and either of those in fig. 22 are examples. if you wish boards that will shrink the least in width and remain as true as possible, then the log should be sawed on the radial lines as just shown, so that all the boards will be from the middle of the log. wood shrinks but little in the direction of the radii, as just shown, and middle boards will be alike on both sides as regards heartand sapwood, etc., and, therefore, have the least tendency to change of shape. the middle board by the method of fig. 17 will be a good board in these respects. [illustration fig. 23.] [illustration fig. 24.] [illustration fig. 25.] various methods of radial sawing, or in which part of the boards are so cut, are shown in figs. 20 and 26, figs. 23, 24, 25, and 26 showing the log quartered and various ways of sawing into boards. thus we see that the middle boards, those passing through or near the centre, are the best for most purposes. [illustration fig. 26.] [illustration fig. 27.] split or rift stock is stronger than sawed. if you wish a piece especially tough and durable, as for an axe handle or a stout pin, it should be split out rather than sawed, unless the wood is very straight-grained, because the splitting is sure to be in the line of the fibres, thus avoiding "cross-grain," which cannot well be entirely prevented in sawing. if the grain is straight, there may be no practical difference in the result between sawing and splitting, as in the so-called rift flooring, which is really sawed, but with crooked-grained pieces the difference is marked in such cases as the block shown in fig. 27, from which four pins can be sawed, while but one can be split out. that one will be straight-grained, however, and stronger than the sawed ones, which will be cross-grained. try your best to get well-seasoned wood for your nice work. if it is not dry before you use it, it must of course dry afterwards, which is likely to cause cracks, warping, opened joints, and often the entire ruin of the article you have made. you will have to trust the dealer, or some friend, until you have had enough experience to judge for yourself, for it is no easy matter for an amateur to decide, except in case of very green stock, which is of course wet and soggy. there are two ways of drying wood in common use. one is the old-fashioned way (commonly known as _seasoning_, _weather-drying_, or _air-drying_) in which the wood is gradually seasoned by the natural process of exposure to the air (but protected from the weather), that is, letting it dry of itself. * * * * * do not believe the statements so common in books that it "takes lumber" some definite time, as one year or two years, "to season." it all depends on the kind of wood, its shape and size, the condition of the atmosphere, and various circumstances. for some rough work (a pig-pen, for instance) there is no advantage in seasoning at all, because the stock can just as well dry after the work is done as before. for many kinds of common work one or two years is sufficient for some kinds and sizes of wood; for a nicer grade of work two or three years is none too much, while for very nice indoor work four years or more is not too long for the stock to season. there is very little danger of its being kept too long. it never will get perfectly dry (see appendix). whether it is dry _enough_ or not depends on what you want it for. * * * * * to save time and money the artificial way (known as _kiln-drying_) of shutting it up in a room and drying it quickly by steam or other heat is now used, and, so far as drying the wood is concerned, this process can do the work well and much more quickly than the old way--sometimes too quickly. it is no exaggeration to say that in factories where cheap furniture and other common articles are made nowadays, a standing tree is felled on monday, the log rolled into one end of the factory, and before saturday night the finished articles made from it, all varnished and complete, are sent out from the other end of the shop--and some articles are turned out even quicker. in the natural process of air-drying the moisture gradually and slowly works out to the surface and evaporates, until the wood is _seasoned_, though never absolutely dry, and the stock is firmer, more elastic, and less affected by heat and cold, moisture and dryness, than if kiln-dried. the latter process tends to dry the outside and ends of the lumber too fast for the inside. it certainly lessens the elasticity of the wood and weakens it. making it so unnaturally dry (as if baked), as is often done, only makes it more susceptible to the atmosphere when taken from the kiln, and, unless it is at once protected from the air in some way, it will reabsorb moisture until it gets into a more natural condition; but that will not fully restore the loss of elasticity (see appendix). the deterioration in the quality of the wood can be plainly seen by any wood-worker, and is often a subject of remark in regard to oak. the kiln-drying "takes the life out of the wood," as workmen express it, but just why this is so is not easy to explain, for the structure and properties of wood are very complex. i have seen too many illustrations in my own experience and that of others to have any doubt of the fact, however, and lumber left for years to season naturally, "stands," as the expression is, better than if kiln-dried--a fact which is, i think, generally conceded by wood-workers who have had experience with both kinds. the gain by kiln-drying, in time and money, is, therefore, more or less offset by impairment of the quality of the wood, so if you can find stock that you know has been seasoning for years by the natural process, buy it by all means for your nice work, even if you have to pay more, regardless of what the dealers in kiln-dried stock or the makers of articles for sale may tell you about the advantages of kiln-dried wood. on the other hand, if a dealer brags of his new patent "chain-lightning" dryer that will make green wood "dry as a bone" in two or three days, go elsewhere to buy your stock, for wood dried in a few days is not the kind to use for good work. you will probably have to use kiln-dried stock for most, or, perhaps, all of your work, but get it from a slow-drying kiln and keep it for further seasoning as long as you can. even if wood has been well seasoned, it is best, before putting it into nice work, to cut it up and dress it approximately to shape and leave it in a dry place for some time for a final seasoning, particularly in the case of thick stock. do this with kiln-dried stock fresh from the dry-house. let it have a little time to get into harmony with the atmosphere. whenever wood has been exposed to damp air, as in a wet shed or cellar, let it stand in the warm shop a while before using it for nice work. the stock is arranged for seasoning so as to allow the air to circulate around and between the pieces. a common way is simply to arrange them in piles, each piece being separated from those above and below by strips or sticks laid across (fig. 28). these sticks should be placed directly over one another, and so that the lumber will lie straight, else the weight of the pile, which should tend to make the pieces dry straight, will have the opposite effect and make them permanently crooked. there are other ways of arranging wood for drying, but this method is common and illustrates the most important principles. stock is sometimes stacked upright, and small pieces are occasionally hung up for such nice work as billiard cues and bows. [illustration fig. 28.] seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green, dryer to the touch, usually has a different odour, cuts differently when you whittle it (and the piece you whittle off breaks differently), and it shows a difference when you saw it. it is impossible to define these differences and you will have to learn them by actual work. it is not always easy even for an experienced person to tell with certainty about some pieces until he has "worked" them, so much do the characteristics of different pieces vary. one test is to rap the boards sharply with a hammer. a green board and a dry one of the same kind will "rap" differently,--that is, will have a different vibration and give out a different sound. of course this cannot be described, but you can judge quite well in this way. it is one of the many things you can learn only by experience. you can ascertain much about the character and condition of lumber by sawing or planing or whittling a piece. this is a good test for dryness, toughness, and elasticity (which you can tell about by breaking the shavings). weather-dried timber is usually somewhat darkened from exposure, but kiln-drying lightens the colour of some woods. stock with a bright lustrous appearance and of dark hue is generally superior to that of a lighter colour and duller appearance, but such characteristics depend much upon the kind of wood. green wood is tougher than seasoned wood, but the latter is more elastic. to subject seasoned wood to moisture and heat brings it back, to a certain extent, to its original condition, and renders it for the time being tougher, hence the process of bending wood by the application of steam or hot water (see _bending_ in part v.). reject "wany" lumber, or that of which the edges or corners have not been squared (fig. 18), and also boards and planks which have not been sawed to a uniform thickness. it is not uncommon for a board to be considerably thinner than it should be in some part of its length, due to irregularity in sawing. for plain work avoid "cross-grained" stock, as well as that having knots (which are sometimes "tight" and sometimes "loose"), as it is harder to work and to smooth, is not as strong, and does not hold its shape as well, as a rule. sometimes it is desirable, however, on account of the beautiful figure of the grain shown in many crooked-grained pieces, as in mahogany for furniture (see appendix). bear in mind that when especial strength is required rift stock is best. reject wood which smells musty, or has rusty-looking spots, which are signs of decay, or of the attack of fungi, which may spread and under favourable conditions attack other pieces which are sound (see appendix). [illustration fig. 29.] [illustration fig. 30.] reject crooked stock. the worst form is _winding_ or twisting. of course no one would take such an extreme case as fig. 29, unless for some very rough work, but even a _very slight_ winding may make much trouble in your nice work. so look particularly for this defect, which you can often detect at once by the eye, but if your eye is not well trained use winding-sticks (see part v.). _warped_ or curled stock, with the surface rounded or hollowed (fig. 19), is also bad, but you will need no instructions to detect this defect by the eye or any straight stick. when boards are rounding on one side and hollowing on the other, it is due either to the way the log was sawed, as we have seen, or to one side having been more exposed and so having dried faster and shrunk faster than the other, causing that side to be concave, while the other became convex. stock is sometimes crooked lengthways,--either a simple bending in a curve or at an angle, or wavy (fig. 30), or both,--often due to careless "sticking" (fig. 28) while the wood was green. sighting lengthways will of course show these defects. reject stock badly checked at the ends, or cracked. there is apt to be more or less of this in most lumber. in seasoning, the pieces dry faster on the outside than in the middle, which causes checks or cracks, usually worse at the ends of the pieces, where the drying takes place most rapidly. the ends of valuable boards and planks are sometimes painted or cleated, which in a measure prevents this result. occasionally, when the cleat is removed a crack will suddenly extend and even split the board. do not take a cracked or partly split board, thinking that you can use the sound end from the point where the crack _appears_ to stop. possibly you can, but oftentimes and in some kinds of wood it is impossible to tell before the stock is cut where the cracks end. in mahogany, for example, they sometimes are found to extend, or develop, several feet beyond where they appear to stop. sometimes you can buy wood with such defects at a discount. unless you are _sure_, however, that there is enough sound, clear wood outside of the cracks or knots, and unless the discount is pretty large, it will usually be better to buy clear, sound stock for nice work, as the waste is very apt to offset the saving, not to speak of the extra time and labour it takes to work up such material. (see _shakes_ in appendix.) reject sapwood as far as possible, because it is usually inferior to the heartwood. * * * * * in the case of elm and young ash the sapwood is, however, superior to the heart. the heartwood is usually harder and more durable than the sapwood, heavier, of better texture, and commonly of better colour. "the sapwood is, as a rule, darker in the whitewood class than the heartwood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in colour in most hardwood trees which have had time to season. in some of the white, or softer woods, when fresh cut, the difference is scarcely perceptible; but exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish tinge, due to a species of mould fungi which attack them."--laslett and ward. (see also appendix.) * * * * * when buying, do not take boards just as they happen to come from the pile. select them yourself. most good-natured dealers will let you do this if you do not expect them to unstack a whole pile just for one or two boards. it is better to do this for nice work even if a slight charge should be made for the privilege. when you come to pick out boards you will see the application of what has been said about the ways of cutting the log, and you can tell by the annual rings at the ends of the boards, by the sapwood (when visible), the grain, etc., from what part of the log the pieces were sawed. use good, clear stock for everything but rough work. of course in rough or temporary work you can save expense by using wood from packing-cases, boxes, old fence-rails, or anything that will serve the purpose, but as a rule avoid trying to make nice, new things of wood taken from old work or boxes. the quality of the wood used for boxes nowadays is apt to be poor and hard to work. the wood taken from old cabinet-work is, however, often better than you are likely to buy, but you need to be very cautious about working over old material, for the dirt which has been ground into it is apt to dull your tools, and, moreover, the presence of concealed nails, etc. (which it is sometimes almost impossible to detect), will often injure your tools so much as to more than offset what you save in expense. do not buy thick stock with the idea of sawing it into thinner pieces (unless necessary). of course it can be sawed into thinner or smaller pieces, but you cannot always be sure that these will be as true as the original stock. suddenly exposing the middle of a piece of wood to the air in this way sometimes plays queer pranks with the shape of the pieces (see appendix). if you want to use boards for good work buy those which have seasoned as boards, instead of splitting up thicker lumber; and always try to treat both sides of a board alike so far as you can. bear this in mind: if you take an inch board to the mill to be planed down to three eighths of an inch, for instance, have it planed equally, as nearly as may be, from both sides. ignorant hands often simply smooth off, or "surface," one side, and then plane the board down on the other side, when it will sometimes warp badly at once and be useless, perhaps, for the purpose intended. if you carefully pile and "stick" the stock you have bought (fig. 28), it will tend to keep the pieces straight and true. never lay good boards down flat directly upon one another unless they are _thoroughly_ seasoned. it is the best of all ways, however, to _keep_ a pile of thoroughly seasoned stock, but not the way to season it. the top board will warp. never lay a single board of nice stock flat on its side. keep short pieces of nice stock standing on end where they will be equally exposed on both sides to heat and cold, moisture and dryness. the best way to learn about any kind of wood is from the wood itself. it is a capital idea to make a collection of specimens of as many kinds as you can.[12] you will be surprised to see how varied, interesting, and handsome a collection you can make at little or no expense. (see appendix.) the kinds of wood which you are likely to use are commonly known as either _hard_ or _soft_, the former class from trees with broad leaves, as the oak, the latter from the coniferous or needle-leaved trees, as the white pine. this distinction between hard and soft wood you may find somewhat puzzling at first, for the common whitewood of the hardwood class you will find softer and easier to work than hard pine of the softwood class, but the distinction is based on botanical reasons. the hard woods are usually more durable as well as stronger than the soft. for various woods see appendix. * * * * * _timber._--the word timber is applied in a general way to the log and to the material itself, and to the standing trees. it is also applied more specifically to the larger squared pieces, or "dimension" stock, such as sills, beams, etc. _lumber._--as the term is used in the united states, lumber consists, according to webster, of "timber sawed or split for use, as beams, joists, boards, planks, staves, hoops, and the like." * * * * * lumber may be either _undressed_ or _dressed_, that is, rough (as it comes from the saw) or planed. it is usually sawed in regular thicknesses, and for stock which is in steady demand, such as joists, floor timbers, etc., in regular widths, as 2" x 4", 4" x 6", etc. it is commonly sold in lengths varying from 10 feet to 20 feet. twelve feet is a common length for boards. planing (by machine) rough or undressed boards on both sides will usually reduce the thickness of an inch board to about seven eighths of an inch. other thicknesses will of course be reduced correspondingly. bear this in mind. the terms 1" board, 2" plank, etc., apply, as a rule, to the stock in the rough state as it comes from the saw. when you buy planed or dressed lumber it will be thinner--that is, the "inch board" that you wish to get for a shelf will not be one inch thick (unless you get it unplaned), but seven eighths of an inch. * * * * * you must make allowance for this when you figure on _dressed_ lumber. if for example the board must be one inch thick when planed, you will have to get a thin plank and have it planed down, or pull over the pile until you find a board which happens to be sawed as thick as one inch and one eighth. you can sometimes find boards planed one inch thick, but as a rule you will find the thickness seven eighths of an inch. a similar statement will apply to the various thicknesses of planks also. the sawing is often very irregular, however, and frequently some boards or planks will run thick enough in sawing to give the required thickness when planed, so it is well to look for such when you need pieces a little thicker than planed stock usually runs. [illustration fig. 31.] * * * * * for such work as you are likely to do you will chiefly need boards, planks, and joists. other forms will be referred to farther on. * * * * * _boards._--these are one inch thick or less. _matched-boards_, or "sheathing," have a groove on one edge and a corresponding tongue on the other (fig. 31.) any number of boards can thus be joined to make a wide surface. the edges of these boards were formerly tongued and grooved by hand with "matching-planes," but now this is done by machine, usually with some form of bead or moulding at one edge (and sometimes in the middle) to render the joint less noticeable. _planks._--these are _thick_ boards,--more than one inch in thickness. both planks and boards can be of any width or length, the distinction being merely in thickness. _joists._--these are the same as narrow planks, but of some fixed width, as 2" by 3", which is the same as a 3" strip sawed from the edge of a 2" plank. * * * * * [illustration fig. 32.] [illustration fig. 33.] most of the lumber you will require is sold by the square foot, at so much an m (1000 feet), or so much a foot. the square foot has an area of 144 square inches and is one inch thick, or contains 144 cubic inches, regardless of the shape or size of the piece. that is, figs. 32, 33, and 34 each equal one square foot by board measure. [illustration fig. 34.] * * * * * thus a board 12' long, 12" wide, and 1" thick, contains 12 feet, board measure. a board 12' long, 6" wide, and 1" thick, contains 6 feet. a plank 12' long, 12" wide, and 2" thick, contains 24 feet. a plank 12' long, 6" wide, and 2" thick, contains 12 feet, or the same as the board first mentioned. you can bear in mind that in case of boards 12' long the contents in feet is indicated by the width in inches, as you will see from the examples just given. a board 12' long and 7" wide contains 7 square feet. so all you have to do to measure 12' stock is to find the width in inches. if the board tapers in width, measure at the middle. the same is true of planks, only the width in inches must be multiplied by the thickness of the plank. a plank 12' long, 7" wide, and 3" thick, contains 21 square feet. of course this principle can be quickly applied to pieces whose length is any convenient multiple or fraction of twelve. thus a board 18' long, 8" wide, and 1" thick, contains 1-1/2 times as many square feet as one 12' long, or 12 feet. a plank 9' long, 6" wide, and 2" thick, contains 3/4 as many square feet as if 12' long, or 9 square feet. * * * * * boards less than one inch thick are usually sold by the square foot of surface, regardless of thickness--the price varying according to the thickness, except in cases where an inch board is planed down, when, of course, inch thickness is charged for. there is no distinction made in _measuring_ between a rough board 1" thick and a planed board 7/8" as, of course, they represent the same amount of lumber. the cost by the foot of the planed board is greater because of the expense of planing. in cities, and sometimes in the larger towns, you can find thin boards (1/2", 3/8", 3/16", 1/8" thick) already planed, and even scraped, for nice work. * * * * * some of the rarer and less commonly used woods are often sold by the pound, as ebony, leopard wood, tulip wood, etc. pieces turned out in quantities for special uses, as strips, mouldings, etc., are often sold by the "running foot," meaning simply the length, the price varying according to the amount of lumber and labour required. certain regular sizes and shapes of lumber are sold by the hundred or by the piece. shingles, clapboards, laths, and the like, are sold in bunches or bundles. * * * * * for other matters relating to wood, see appendix. footnotes: [8] so called because in the common trees of temperate climes one layer is added each year. [9] although the shrinkage lengthways is not usually noticeable as affecting the length of a board, it shows slightly by its effect in causing the pieces to spring, or become bowed lengthwise, as you will see in many boards which have been left free to spring while seasoning. [10] in addition to the curling, the outer boards will be poorer because they contain a greater proportion of sapwood, which is usually inferior to the heartwood. [11] by this is not meant the figure or flashes shown by the medullary rays, or "silver grain," seen in _quartered_ oak and some other woods, but the figure of the grain without the medullary rays, as seen in _plain_ oak, etc. [12] the forests of north america, exclusive of mexico, are now believed, according to sargent, to contain four hundred and twenty-two species of plants, besides numerous varieties, which can fairly be considered trees. chapter iv working drawings, laying out the work, and estimating =working drawings.=--a simple drawing will often give you a better idea of an object than you can get from any description in words, for drawing is not only a very ancient form of language but one readily understood by people of all countries and all times. it is one of the chief tools of a workman in these days, so of course the quicker you become familiar with it the better, for the day for "rule-of-thumb" work and feeling one's way along step by step is fast giving way to the guidance of the working drawing, which shows one not only exactly what is to be made but exactly how to make it. when you wish to make some particular thing, you should begin by making rough sketches to express your idea, and from them an accurate working drawing in which every detail and measurement is clearly given. make all your working drawings carefully to scale (see appendix), and whenever you can, make them _full size_. do not guess at the height, width, and length, but measure, and measure very carefully. never mind if it takes time. learn first to do it right, and practice will soon teach you to do it more quickly. the time to make changes in your plans is when you are making the drawings--particularly the rough preparatory sketches. making the drawings will, if you make them complete and accurate, show you what you know and what you do not know about the subject. _the working drawing should be complete and final._ begin the making of sketches and detailed drawings with the first article you make, no matter how simple it may be. you can go about the work with confidence, which goes a long way toward success, when you know that you have thought it out to the end and have it all done on paper. for practical suggestions about working drawings, see appendix. =laying out the work.=--try to get the measurements and lines exact, and do not be satisfied with coming within an eighth of an inch. you cannot do good work unless it is laid out right, and cutting exactly to a line will do no good if the line is in the wrong place. it makes no difference how accurately you saw off a board if you have marked it half an inch too short, nor how nicely you make the two parts of a joint if you have laid them out so that they can not fit together. the work is spoiled in either case. go over all your measurements a second time. it is a good plan to check them by measuring back in the opposite direction, just as you prove your addition of a column of figures downward by adding again upward. nothing is easier than to make mistakes in measuring. no amount of experience will prevent the chance of it. it takes but little time to measure twice, much less time than to correct mistakes--as you will discover when you cut off a mahogany board five inches too short and have to go half a mile to the mill and pay a dollar or two for a new piece. in getting out stock for nice work it is best to make plenty of allowance for the pranks which expansion and contraction may play with the pieces (see appendix). how to arrange the various parts of your work with regard to this swelling and shrinking, warping and winding, is a matter of practical importance, for a piece of wood can no more keep still than an active boy can, and, although its movements do not cause so widespread havoc as the motions of some boys, you will have to keep a careful eye on its actions if you wish to turn out good work. this applies not merely to the way green wood shrinks, as we have already seen, but particularly to the way _seasoned_ wood acts. many people think it is only green wood that causes trouble with wood-work, but there is much difficulty with dry wood--that is, what we _call_ dry wood. it never is really absolutely dry, except when it is baked, and kept baked (see appendix). the moment you take it out of the kiln or oven, it begins to take up some of the moisture from the air, as we have seen, and swells. if the air becomes more damp, the wood sucks in more moisture and swells more. if the air becomes dryer, it sucks some moisture from the wood, and the wood becomes dryer and shrinks. it is thus continually swelling and shrinking, except in situations where the amount of moisture in the air does not change, or when the wood is completely water-logged. "what does such a little thing as that swelling and shrinking amount to? use more nails or screws or glue and hold it so tight it cannot move." well, it amounts to a good deal sometimes when you cannot open the drawer where your ball is, or a door or a window, without breaking something. * * * * * in the days of high-backed church pews with tall doors to every pew, each pew door would swell in damp weather, of course, and in continued dampness the doors of a certain church fitted quite snugly. there was usually no special trouble, however, for, many of the doors being open, the pew frames would give way a little so that the closed doors would open with a slight pull; but if all the doors were shut the whole line would be so tightly pressed together that it would take the utmost strength of a man to start a door. some boys one day catching on to this idea (though they were not studying wood-work), got into the church one sunday morning before service and by using their combined strength succeeded in closing every door. they then climbed over the top into their own pew, where they awaited developments, as one after another sedate churchgoer, after a protracted struggle, finally burst open his pew door with a ripping squeak or a bang. you will understand that those boys always remembered the expanding power of wood. i feel sure that i am not putting any boys up to improper mischief in telling this story, because pews are not so often made in that way now, and there is slight danger of their having any chance to try it. * * * * * did you ever see stone-workers split big rocks by drilling a row of holes and driving dry wedges into them and then wetting the wedges, when the stone will split?[13] do you think nails or screws or glue will stop a force which will do that? you cannot prevent the swelling and the shrinking any more than you can repress a boy's animal spirits. you may be able to crush the wood, but so long as it remains a sound, natural board it must swell and shrink. what shall you do then? why just the same as with the boy; give it a reasonable amount of play, and a proper amount of guidance, and there will be no trouble. you must put your work together so as to allow for the expansion and contraction which you cannot prevent. you will find abundant examples, in almost every house, of work which has split or come apart or warped because proper allowance was not made for this swelling and shrinking. so try to avoid these errors so common even among workmen who should know better. [illustration fig. 35.] for instance, if you were to put cleats on one side of a drawing-board three feet wide, and were to firmly glue the cleats for their whole length (fig. 35),--you sometimes see such things done,--you would probably not have to wait many weeks before you would hear a report like a toy pistol, and the cleats would be loosened for at least part of their length, because of the expansion or contraction of the board. similar cases are continually occurring. in such cases the cleats should be screwed, the screws having play enough in their holes to allow for the changes in the board (see appendix). you must also make plenty of allowance for planing down edges and surfaces and for the wood wasted by sawing. no rule can be set for these allowances. if you do not leave enough spare wood, the pieces will finally come out too small. if you leave too much you will increase the amount of planing or shaping to be done, but of the two extremes it is better to err on the side of allowing too much. a rod (any straight stick), say six feet long, and another ten or twelve feet long, with feet and inches marked, are very handy to have when laying out work roughly, or for measuring outdoor work approximately. lay out your work from only one edge or one surface of a piece of lumber unless you are _sure_ the edges or surfaces are exactly parallel. having selected the best edge for a "working edge" and the best surface for the "face," mark them with an x or other mark to avoid mistakes (fig. 36). this is quite important in laying out a number of pieces, as before the stock is accurately worked into shape you cannot usually rely on the edges being parallel. one mark like a v as shown in fig. 36 will indicate both the working edge and the face. [illustration fig. 36.] =estimating.=--you must, of course, learn to make your estimates yourself, often a very important preliminary. prices vary, and you cannot always rely on other people's estimates for your own work. it is a matter of simple arithmetic and of making correct allowance for waste and incidentals. you can always get the prices easily. figure the amount of wood required, the number of square feet (see page 47) of each kind, or running feet, as the case may be, and multiply by the price a foot; but after this comes the allowance for waste, etc., which cannot usually be figured exactly, but must be estimated. * * * * * for instance, if you wish to make a double-runner, with a seat ten feet long, the board from which to make it will very likely be twelve feet long, in which case you must, of course, buy the whole board. perhaps you can use the two feet left over somewhere else on the sled, perhaps part may be checked or injured. there is almost always some defective wood (worthless, except for fuel); some pieces are too short or small to be of use; and very often some quite good-sized pieces are left over, which, so far as the particular job is concerned, are waste,--that is, you must buy them in order to get enough. such pieces can be used on other work, and are not really wasted in the end. just how much to add to the number of feet to cover waste varies, of course, with every job. some people add a fixed per cent. to their measurements or calculations, which, although not exactly correct for any one job, strikes an average for a good many. it would not be easy to state any such per cent. for the varied work you will do, but the main thing to bear in mind is that you must make a liberal allowance. just so with the other materials. remember to allow for waste and for unforeseen extras. even with experienced people things are very apt to cost more than the estimate. make a neat schedule to take to the lumber-yard or mill, specifying the kinds and dimensions of the stock required. footnotes: [13] the peculiarity of the wood is that the water is not simply drawn in to fill up what we call the pores, as in chalk or any ordinary porous inorganic substance, but enters into the very fibre of the body, forcing apart the minute solid particles with an extraordinary force which does not seem to be fully understood. chapter v the workshop if you have a place where you can build a workshop you will find one described in part iii. if not, try to find a well-lighted shop, both on account of your eyes and your work; one that is dry, or your tools will rust and your work be injured; and one that can be heated, for there will be no time you will wish to use it more than on cold, stormy days. as a rule, an outbuilding is better than a basement or attic, other things being equal, because a basement is liable to be damp and dark, and an attic is bad about carrying materials and finished work upand down-stairs. noise in the top story of a house is usually more disturbing to the occupants than noise in the basement; but all these conditions vary in different places. have a lock on the door of your workshop, partly to keep small children from getting cut if they should come in without leave, and partly to prevent your work being interfered with in your absence and the edge-tools used for various domestic purposes by your feminine relatives, who might, in their innocence, mistake your best gouge for a tack-puller or the quarter-inch chisel for a screw-driver. of course you will have overalls and jumper or a work-man's apron made of denim, ticking, or some strong cloth. if you use an apron, have a pocket in it. a small slip of a pocket on the outside seam of your overalls above the right knee is also useful for holding a rule. when you have a long job of dirty work before you, a good way is to change your clothes for any "old duds" that you may have. this saves your clothes, and in warm weather is more comfortable and healthful than to wear overalls. [illustration fig. 37.] your shop can be all fitted up for you by a carpenter, but it will be better, and better fun, to do it yourself. after the workshop itself is ready the first important thing is the work-bench. =the work-bench.=--a very simple one (fig. 37) will answer your purpose for a long time. when you become a pretty good workman and feel the need of something better (for a first-class bench with the best attachments is really a great help toward doing good work), you will still find this first simple affair very useful in some part of your shop.[14] there is no need of a bench being made of stock of exactly the dimensions given, so if you have a pile of boards and joists to draw from without buying, you can, of course, substitute other-sized pieces, provided you use stock heavy enough to make a firm bench. heavier legs and top (front board) would be better, and in fact _there is little danger of making a bench too solid_. * * * * * before beginning to work read carefully _marking_, _square_, _rule_, _saw_, in part v., and look up any other references. the design is for a small bench, 5' 10" long, 2' wide, and 2' 6" high. a larger one can be made on the same principle.[15] you will require for stock: 1 piece of 3" x 4" joist 10' long. 1 board, 7/8" thick, planed, 12" wide, 12' long. 1 " " " " 10" " 12' " 1 " " " " 10" " 6' " 1 plank, 1-1/2" or 2" thick, planed, 5" or 6" wide, 2' 9" long. 1 strip, 1/2" to 7/8" thick, 3" or 4" wide, 15" long. pine is good, and almost any cheap wood can be used. hemlock is not very suitable, unless for the legs. spruce is cheaper than pine or whitewood, and can be used for economy, but is prone to warp and twist and should be thoroughly nailed. first make the legs and fasten them together. to do this, take the joist and lay it on two boxes or old chairs (fig. 38), which you can use temporarily for horses, until you make a pair. see whether either end is cut off squarely. if neither is, mark a line by the square a short distance (perhaps half an inch, according to the condition of the end of the joist) from one end, on one side of the joist. carry this line around the joist by applying the square to each side successively, and saw off the waste end with the cross-cutting saw. having one end square, measure from that end 2' 5" and mark a line around the joist as before. saw this piece off, and using it as a measure (but not as a square), mark and saw off three more pieces. these are for the legs. [illustration fig. 38.] [illustration fig. 39.] next, from the short 10" board, mark and cut off two pieces 1' 10-1/4" long in the same manner (fig. 39), seeing first that the end from which you begin to measure is square. you do not need to mark the under side of the boards, but only the top and the edges. now square a line 1" from each end of each of these short boards, and start three nails on each of the lines by driving them nearly through the board (fig. 40). (see _nailing_.) next, place the end of one of these boards on the narrow side of one of the legs, and, holding it firmly in position, nail it securely to the leg. you must take pains to keep the leg and the cross-piece "square." nail only one nail first and then adjust, testing with the try-square before driving the other nails (fig. 41). then nail the other end to another leg, and repeat the process with the other board and the remaining legs. this will give two frames like fig. 42. [illustration fig. 40.] [illustration fig. 41.] [illustration fig. 42.] [illustration fig. 43.] [illustration fig. 44.] [illustration fig. 45.] next, fasten the sides to the legs. take the 10" board and mark and saw off two pieces 5' 10" long in the same way as before (fig. 43). at distances of 7" and 12" from each end of each board, mark lines across the side with the square and start nails between these lines (fig. 44). then, fitting these lines at the outside edges of the legs, nail the sides securely to the legs, as shown in fig. 45. but drive only one nail through into each leg at first, until you are sure that the frame is coming together square and true throughout. test the angles with the square. stand the frame on as level a surface as you can find and sight across the top endways and crossways to see if either corner sticks up or down. if the top is not true, twist the frame enough to make it so, which you can easily do if you have but one nail in each corner. when the top is true and the legs at right angles, drive in the rest of the nails (fig. 45). be sure to test the top for winding, as just said (see part v.), rather than to trust to the way the legs stand on the floor. floors are often uneven, and the legs may not be cut exactly the same length. make the top true and the legs can easily be made to fit the floor afterwards. the piece of 10" board left over you can fit to slip in between the sides, as in fig. 45. if you nail through the sides and top into this piece, it will stiffen the bench. in making a long bench after this pattern, it is well to insert a few pieces of plank or joist between the sides in this manner. [illustration fig. 46.] [illustration fig. 47.] [illustration fig. 48.] next, put on the top. cut two lengths of 5' 10" from the 12" board. lay them in position, square lines across as guides for the nails (as before), and nail them down to the legs and cross-boards. also drive carefully a few nails at the edge down into the sides of the bench. sink all the nail-heads well below the surface (as much as 1/8") with the nail-set (see _nail-set_). * * * * * a better bench can be made by using a plank (say a 2" plank, planed) for the front of the top (figs. 46, 47, 48). this bench with plank front is much better than the common carpenter's bench just described, and the difference in expense is but slight. it is easier to do good work on, as it is stiffer, steadier, and much better to pound on. * * * * * of course a thicker plank can be used if available. hard wood is best. maple is excellent for a bench-top. take particular care to select a good sound plank, from the centre of the tree if you can (see chapter iii.), as straight and free from winding as possible, and have it planed so as to be straight and true. this can easily be done at any properly equipped planing-mill. to make this bench with a plank in front, you can proceed exactly as with the bench just described, except that the front legs should be as much shorter than those at the back as the plank you have is thicker than the 7/8" board used for the top of the bench just described. that is, if your plank is 1-7/8" thick the front legs should be 1" shorter than the back ones. pieces must be cut out of the cross-boards in order that the top may be even (fig. 46). the simplest way, however, is to make the bench just like the preceding one until you come to the top. then, after putting on the front plank, raise the back top-board to be flush with the plank, instead of lowering the plank to be flush with the board. you can do this by putting small pieces of board of the required thickness under the back part of the top (fig. 47). some workmen prefer having the back board of the bench top lower than the front by an inch or so, with a strip fastened on the back, and sometimes at each end, so as to be level with the top of the front plank, thus forming a sort of tray (fig. 48) where tools, nails, small bits of work, etc., can remain when in use, keeping the front plank clear for the actual operations. the work, if large, can be rested on the back strip as well as the front part, both being on a level. the bench can be all filled up underneath with shelves, drawers, cupboards, compartments, or in any way that you wish, but at first, and for a simple bench like this, it is as well to have only one shelf, as shown in the frontispiece. you can easily put this shelf in after the bench is put together. you can tell better whether you want drawers and compartments after you have worked for some time and wish to make a more complete bench. * * * * * a nice bench should, of course, be built independently of the shop,--that is, be complete in itself, so that it can be readily moved. but a common bench can sometimes be best built against the wall, using the side of the building to support the back. sometimes one or both of the ends of the bench can be advantageously carried to the walls of the room, thus requiring legs only in the middle or at one end. but such arrangements are not to be advised if you are likely to wish to move the bench before you have used it enough to pay for making it. [illustration fig. 49.] * * * * * figure 49 is merely suggestive. the process of construction is the same as already shown, except that you omit some of the legs and the back side-board, a saving sufficient to allow you to use a plank for the front of the top. as the floor is likely to be uneven, you can first saw the posts a little too long, stand them in line, stretch a cord or a chalk-line (see _chalk-line_) along the line of the front edge of the bench at the proper height for the tops of the posts, cut the posts off where this line crosses them, nail on one end of the cross-boards at right angles, and then fasten the other end to the wall-studding, sighting and testing to have the top straight and true, as in the case of the bench already described. if instead of vertical studding the joists of the wall run horizontally (as is often the case), you can easily nail cleats on the wall if there is no horizontal timber at the right height to nail to. * * * * * [illustration fig. 50.] =bench-vise.=--the kinds shown in figs. 50, 56, 57, though not as good as some more improved forms, are in common use by carpenters, and will answer your purpose very well for ordinary work--until you get to the point of building a first-class bench. * * * * * at a distance of about 14" from the end of the bench and in the middle of the side board mark the point _a_ (fig. 45). bore a hole at this point (see _boring_) if you have a bit a trifle larger than the screw of the vise. if not, using this point as a centre, describe a circle (see _compasses_) with a diameter a trifle greater than that of the vise screw, and remove the wood within the circle (see _boring_ and _paring_.) now take the piece of 1-1/2" or 2" plank which is to make the movable jaw of the vise, and mark a line lengthways along the centre of each side (fig. 51). at a distance of about 8" from one end mark a point upon this centre line and make a hole for the vise screw as before. the nut for the screw must now be fastened in position on the inner side of the bench, the vise screw passed through the movable jaw and the side board, and the handle plate fastened upon the face of the jaw. [illustration fig. 51.] [illustration fig. 52.] you can now open and close the vise by the screw, but the movable jaw needs to be made steady and the end projects above the top of the bench. screw the vise tight together and slide the movable jaw around until it is in the position shown in fig. 52, when the centre line on the back side of the jaw will cross the edge of the leg a few inches from the floor, according to the width of the jaw and the degree of slant given it. when the jaw is in this position, mark from the back side the lines indicated in fig. 52, and saw off the projecting ends of the jaw by these lines, which will give the shape shown in figs. 37 and 50. next take the small strip, and marking points upon its side as shown in fig. 53, bore holes with a 3/8" or 1/2" bit. screw the end of the strip to the edge of the movable jaw (being careful to get it at right angles with the vertical edge of the jaw), as shown in figs. 50 and 53 (see _screws_). just above and below where this strip crosses the post of the bench nail small blocks (a trifle thicker than the strip) so that it will pass easily between them. cover these with a longer piece, making a slot, as shown in fig. 53, through which the strip can slide freely. if the two blocks are no thicker than the strip, you can put pieces of paste-board between them and the post to make the slot wide enough to let the strip slide through freely. fit a pin or piece of dowel to the holes in the strip. the use of these holes and the pin is to keep the face of the jaw approximately parallel to the side of the bench. contrivances for this purpose can be bought. after the jaw is all fitted, bevel or round the edge on the face side at the top (see _bevelling_), and you can also bevel or round all the front edges if you wish. the vise is now in working order.[16] [illustration fig. 53.] [illustration fig. 54. right.] [illustration fig. 55. wrong.] [illustration fig. 56.] the important point with this vise (and in fact with any vise) is to have the inside surface of the jaw parallel with the surface of the side of the bench, so that the wood will be pressed equally at all points, else it will slip just when you wish it to be securely held. be sure that the vise is not open more at the top than at the bottom (see figs. 54 and 55). [illustration fig. 57.] [illustration fig. 58.] [illustration fig. 59.] the holes bored in the side of the bench are to support the end of a long board (fig. 50). if you cannot afford to buy a vise, or have to work where there is none, there are a number of makeshifts with which you can get along quite well, though not as rapidly or conveniently. carpenters often nail a piece on the side of the bench (fig. 60), which holds boards for planing fairly well, for common work, but tends to bruise the ends of the boards a little against the cleat, and requires a knife, or something, driven in at the other end of the boards to hold them with any degree of security. another cheap substitute is shown in fig. 61. this holds boards of regular sizes quite well. thin pieces can be held tighter by wedging, as shown. [illustration fig. 60.] [illustration fig. 61.] [illustration fig. 62.] [illustration fig. 63.] another simple contrivance, and more of a vise, is easily made by boring a couple of holes in a board, say 6" wide and 12" long, and screwing it loosely to the side of the bench (fig. 62), making the holes in the board larger than the diameter of the screws so that it will be free to play. by inserting the piece to be held in the end and double wedging the opposite end (fig. 63) the piece will be held fairly well (see _wedges_). for thin boards, blocks can be inserted to make the jaw parallel with the side of the bench. an upright vise made on this principle is often used to hold saws for filing. if you can find an old wooden hand-screw, you can use one jaw (sawing off the ends if necessary) for the nut to go inside of the bench, leaving the other for the movable jaw, using one screw to tighten or loosen the vise and the other to keep the jaw parallel with the side of the bench. you will require no description to contrive something of this sort. vises on somewhat this principle can be bought, attachable and detachable at will. [illustration fig. 64.] [illustration fig. 65.] the jaw in fig. 64 can be hinged upon the strip at the bottom and the latter fastened to the side of the bench. the jaw can then be tightened or loosened by the screw. this gives a square grip only when the jaw is vertical (fig. 65). you can put in blocks, however. the longer the jaw the less objectionable the slanting grip becomes, of course. always try to devise some such expedients, which you can think up for yourself, when you are without the regular appliances, for even a poor vise is better than to hold pieces in the hand or to push them against chairs or tables or the wall. * * * * * for nice work by far the _best vise of moderate cost_ is that shown in fig. 143, which has been in use for a long time by wood-workers of the better class. * * * * * there are a number of excellent iron vises (some with jaws of wood, and also with an "instantaneous grip"). some of them are admirable, but quite costly compared with the common screw. you can work quite well with a good-sized common iron vise by fitting wooden blocks or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws, to save marring your wood-work, though a regular vise for wood is much to be preferred. * * * * * bear in mind when doing work that requires to be held at unusual angles, or in fashioning odd-shaped pieces, that you can usually get the angle or position required by a combination of hand-screws or clamps with the bench-vise as suggested in figs. 66 and 67. [illustration fig. 66.] [illustration fig. 67.] [illustration fig. 68.] [illustration fig. 69.] [illustration fig. 70.] =bench-stop.=--you must have something on the forward end of the bench-top to push your work against for planing and other operations. a simple and good way is to use one or two stout screws (fig. 68). these can be screwed in so as to project about a quarter of an inch, which will answer for the greater part of your work, and the height can be changed when necessary with the screw-driver. the heads of the screws will be sharp enough to hold the work, and a stop of this kind will answer your purpose very well for common work. the wooden stop (fig. 69) has the advantage of not making any nicks in the end of the wood, which is important in nice work, such as furniture, but for common work screws are just as good, except that, as they are left permanently sticking from the bench, you may dull your tools against them or scar your work. this applies to a common bench. of course for a really nice bench with a tail-screw the regular stops should be used (fig. 143). * * * * * carpenters sometimes nail a small piece of board, with a v-shaped notch at one end, to the top of the bench to hold boards or joist for planing on the edge (fig. 70). simply nailing a strip across the end of the bench (fig. 71), and setting the nails well in, will do to push boards against for planing for common work. [illustration fig. 71.] [illustration fig. 72.] [illustration fig. 73.] iron contrivances (which can be raised or lowered) can be bought for a small sum and are convenient for common work, especially for thin pieces. sink them deeply enough in the bench-top so that when lowered nothing will project to injure the tools or the work. the old-fashioned bench-stop shown in fig. 69 consists merely of a square stick of hard wood, one or two inches square, fitted quite tightly to a hole in the top of the bench, so that it will slide up or down by a blow from the mallet or hammer. this stop will not damage the work or the tools. to make the mortise for this bench-stop, see _mortising_. take care to keep within the lines, so as not to make the hole too big. you can easily make it larger if too small. the stop should fit tightly and should be set with a very slight slant toward the work (fig. 72),--that is, the mortise should be cut slightly slanting. the stop should be of hard wood, such as maple. if the top of the bench is only of board thickness, screw cleats of hard wood on the under side to give more bearing surface (fig. 73), or the continued pushing against the stop will be liable to get the hole out of shape so that the stop will slant the wrong way, when the work will be apt to slip or, in case of a thin board, jump over the stop (fig. 74). if the stop wears loose in the hole, a saw kerf is sometimes made lengthways in one side and a bent piece of springy wire inserted, or a flat spring fastened on the side (fig. 75). a loose stop can easily be wedged (preferably from underneath), and it is sometimes made loose on purpose, the wedging tightening the stop and at the same time giving the required slant (fig. 72). an iron plate with teeth can be screwed on top of a wooden stop (fig. 76), or a screw can be inserted (fig. 77). [illustration fig. 74.] [illustration fig. 75.] [illustration fig. 76.] [illustration fig. 77.] two strips, like fig. 78, can be nailed or screwed on the top of the bench so as to separate v-fashion (fig. 79). two wedges, like fig. 80, can then be made of such a taper that when fitted between the strips their inner faces will be parallel. by tapping in the wedges on each side of the work to be held (fig. 79), it will be securely fastened without injury. if the inside edges of the strips and the outside edges of the wedges are slightly bevelled, which you can do with a plane or a knife, the wedges cannot jump out of place. the best way to fit this contrivance is to make the wedges first, place them in position on the bench with the square sides inside (facing each other), and then fasten the fixed strips outside of them. pushing the work tends to tighten this vise. this is much better for permanent use than the notched board shown in fig. 70. if you have a good vise you will not often have occasion to use such contrivances, but they are sometimes useful as makeshifts. [illustration fig. 78.] [illustration fig. 79.] * * * * * the top of a good bench should be as true and as smooth as possible (see _plane_ and _scraper_). rub it with linseed oil, wipe it off with a rag, and after a few days give it a couple of coats of shellac (see _finishing_). [illustration fig. 80.] you should place your bench so that when you stand at it you will face the light and not have it come from behind you. if it can come from the forward end of the bench and also from behind the bench, as shown in the frontispiece, it will be best, for a cross-light is often very useful, not merely that you may have light enough, but also that when testing your work with the try-square, straight-edge, and the like, any inaccuracy may be detected by the light passing through the crack between the testing tool and the work, and also when sighting by the eye alone. fasten the bench firmly to the floor (and wall if you can) with screws, cleats, or l irons.[17] avoid chopping on the bench top or whittling it or boring holes or marring it by saw-cuts or chisel-marks. do not use paint, varnish, or glue at the bench if you can help it. if necessary to do so, clean the bench-top carefully when you get through. lumps of hardened glue will hinder you and deface your work. [illustration fig. 81.] =filing-bench.=--you cannot do much of such varied wood-work as you will undertake without having to do a good deal of metal work. it is a poor plan to do such work at the vise you use for your wood-work, or even at the same bench. it scars and defaces the wooden vise and the bench, and the particles of metal are bad for your wood-work and for the tools. it is much better to have another bench--if nothing more than a wide shelf or a box--for such work (fig. 81). you will find suggestions in the illustrations. an _iron_ vise is the proper thing for holding metal. there are many different kinds at various prices, but one of the simple patterns will probably answer every purpose. if you have room for only one bench this vise can be put at the back part of one end. [illustration fig. 82.] [illustration fig. 83.] [illustration fig. 84.] a small vise can be made of a hand-screw, the hand-screw itself being held in any desired position in the large bench-vise, but metal jaws are better for working on metal. you can make a rough sort of vise for metal-work with a piece of stout board or plank (fig. 82). find a couple of pieces of iron with screw holes, as you can probably do in a pile of waste iron junk, and screw them on the board and the bench to form metal jaws. the vise can be tightened or loosened by means of a big screw or bolt; or the board can be loosely fastened in the middle and tightened by wedging below (fig. 83). a screw with a handle to turn it by and a nut for the thread is better, of course. another form, such as you will find in use by leather-workers, can be easily made (fig. 84), and works with the foot, the connection between the jaw and the treadle being made by a strap or rope. you can make a vise in some of these ways that will answer quite well for most of the metal-work you will have to do for some time, although such contrivances are less reliable and less convenient than a regular iron vise. an _anvil_ is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise. it should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering rounded (conical) point. an old flat-iron does quite well. you can easily find some way to keep it in position on the filing-bench. you should have some sort of anvil, even if nothing better than a junk of old iron (which you can of course find somewhere), for you will be continually wanting to straighten nails, bend wire, and pound pieces of metal. try to find a flat plate of thick sheet iron--1/4" thick if you can--to fasten on the top of the filing-bench (fig. 81). it is very handy for many anvil uses, straightening metal and nails, and for much pounding. =finishing-bench.=--have also a finishing-bench (fig. 91) if possible,--if nothing more than a shelf or box,--to keep the regular work-bench neat and clean for its proper uses, for even a skilful workman can hardly avoid making a mess when it comes to using paint and varnish. * * * * * now, while there are many of you who can afford either singly or by two or three clubbing together to fix up a shop in first-rate style, there are also many who cannot afford even so cheap a bench as that just described. what can you do in such a case? only one thing--patch up a bench out of whatever old stuff you can find. patched-up makeshifts are not to be recommended, except in case of necessity, but when it comes to the pinch, and a matter of having a bench made of whatever old materials you can find or having no bench at all, by all means make one of boxes and anything that can be worked in. for of course the boats, skis, squirrel-houses, and so on, _must_ be made! but, whatever you patch up, make it solid and strong. do not try to work at a rickety, shackly apology for a bench that shakes and jumps and sidles all over the room every time you saw or pound or plane. you can probably get all you need in the way of boxes, packing-cases, and such material, at very little or no expense. the illustrations (figs. 85 and 86) are merely suggestions, for you must use your own ingenuity, according to the materials you can find. most experienced workmen have often been obliged to work at much worse benches than these, frequently with no bench at all. [illustration fig. 85.] [illustration fig. 86.] * * * * * those of the boxes which you do not use whole you should take apart carefully (see _withdrawing nails_). this will add to your supply of nails. use nails freely in fastening the boxes and boards together and to the wall or floor wherever allowable. a few screws will add much strength. the bench shown in fig. 86 calls for one good board for the front of the top. * * * * * some of you live in the crowded parts of the city, in flats or small houses where there is no possible chance for a shop of any kind. whatever wood-work you can do must be carried on in the kitchen, or some other living-room, where even a small bench may be out of the question. still you would like to make such small work--model boats, for instance--as can be carried on in such limited quarters. if you are forced to use the kitchen table for a bench, try, for the first thing, to brace or block or screw it to make it steady, for unsteadiness is the greatest hindrance to doing good work at such a bench. [illustration fig. 87.] [illustration fig. 88.] * * * * * you can fit a good board to the table-top with cleats, and a stop to hold the work (fig. 87). if you can now get a common iron vise, you can get along quite well for small work, and the board and attachments can be quickly taken off and put away when the table is needed for domestic purposes. you can easily contrive some way to attach wooden pieces or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws of the vise, to save marring your wood-work. a fairly good bench can often be made from an old table (as a kitchen table) by screwing a plank on top and a board on the front side, and bracing the legs (fig. 88). the plank should be screwed on from underneath. if you can get hold of an old bureau or chest of drawers you can arrange a serviceable and compact little "parlour shop" for small work. if you cannot fasten permanent attachments to the bureau, you can fit a removable board (fig. 87), and you will be equipped for such work as can be suitably done under such circumstances--and that includes quite a long list of small things. the drawers can be fitted with compartments and trays, according to what you have to keep in them and your own ingenuity, but make the arrangement _simple_. figs. 89 and 90 are merely suggestions. [illustration fig. 89.] [illustration fig. 90.] * * * * * the best way to arrange your tools and supplies depends somewhat upon the circumstances, but the main point is to have the _most convenient_ place for each thing and always to _keep_ it in that place when not in use. the first part of this proposition is almost as important as the last. it is nearly as bad as being disorderly to keep the glue-pot in one corner of the shop, the glue in another corner, the glue-brush in the third corner, and the water in the fourth,--which is no exaggeration of the way some very orderly people stow away things, and is about equal to the arrangement of the person, of whom you may have heard, who always kept everything in its place and that place the floor! the workshop interior shown in the frontispiece and in figs. 91 and 92, and the various other illustrations, furnish suggestions which may help you in the arrangement of your shop. [illustration fig. 91.] have everything where you can lay your hand on it in the least possible time, the tools used the most the nearest to you, tools that go together, as bit-brace and bits, kept near together. have all the common tools right within reach, and not put away in chests and out-of-the-way drawers, just because you have seen somebody pack away his tools in a highly polished chest, inlaid with forty kinds of wood, and containing ninety-three separate compartments and trays and seven secret drawers, the whole cornered and strapped and decorated with shining nickel plate! do not be dazzled by that sort of thing, which is not an evidence of true system and orderliness, but merely shows poor taste and a great lack of appreciation of the value and importance of time. time may not be exactly money in your case, but it may be even more valuable, and can be spent much better than in running around after tools and supplies, and making ingenious tool-chests. to be practical, five minutes a day saved by having things convenient and in place means about _twenty-five hours_ in a year--which means a boat, a sled, or a lot of christmas presents. so study out the best arrangement for your particular shop and then keep things in order. when working keep only the tools in actual use lying around on the bench. as soon as you are done with a tool for the operations actually in hand, put it back in place, and so avoid the confused litter seen in so many shops. [illustration fig. 92.] hang _saws_ against the wall on pegs, or nails, or at the end of the bench. hang all tools which you put on the wall well above the bench, to be out of the way. lay _planes_ on their sides or ends, for obvious reasons, or arrange a little block to raise one end of the plane slightly from the surface of the bench or shelf. the last way is usually more convenient than to lay the plane on its side or end. keep planes either at the back of the bench or against the wall, or on a shelf under the front of the bench. such tools as _squares_, _bit-braces_, and the like are usually most accessible on the wall, in some such arrangement as shown in the frontispiece. a convenient way to arrange such tools as _chisels_, _gouges_, and the like, is to keep them in racks either against the wall or fastened to the back edge of the bench, according to circumstances. keep each tool in a particular place in the rack and you will soon learn to reach for it instinctively without any waste of time. [illustration fig. 93.] _bits_ can be kept in a drawer or box, care being taken to arrange them in racks or between partitions, or they can be stuck on end in the racks at the back of the bench. a good way is to stick each bit point downwards in a hole bored by itself. various forms of _tool-racks_, which you can easily arrange for yourself, are suggested in fig. 93. [illustration fig. 94.] * * * * * fig. 94 shows a rack to fit on the back of the bench, an excellent way, in common use with movable benches. get a board, say 3" or 4" wide and the length of the bench, a strip from 1/4" to 1/2" thick, perhaps 1" wide, and the length of the bench, and a strip 1/2" thick, perhaps 1" wide, and perhaps two thirds of the length of the bench. saw from this last strip a number of blocks from 1" to 2" long. arrange these along the top edge of the board, according to the kinds and sizes of the tools, as shown in fig. 95. then lay the long strip on them (fig. 96) and nail it through each block with wire nails long enough to reach perhaps two thirds through the large strip. you can put this rack together by first nailing at each end. then all the intermediate blocks can easily be fitted in place and nailed one at a time. the whole can then be screwed to the back of the bench so that the tools will be at the back (fig. 94). you can make part of this rack solid and bore small holes of various sizes for bits, gimlets, nail-sets, and such tools, which would drop through the larger spaces. good metal tool-racks and holders can be bought, but the home-made ones answer every purpose. [illustration fig. 95.] [illustration fig. 96.] [illustration fig. 97.] [illustration fig. 98.] * * * * * the large _steel square_ can be hung very well with nails or small blocks of wood bevelled toward the wall (fig. 97). for the _try-square_ nail a rectangular block against the wall (fig. 98). a smaller block nailed in front will hold another smaller square. slanting saw-kerfs in another block will hold _scrapers_ (fig. 99). always keep your _oil-stones_ in shallow boxes for protection from dirt. you can easily make one, or cut a depression in a block to fit the stone, with another for a cover. fasten one end of your _strop_ to a strip of thin board (fig. 100) with a hole by which to hang it. you can then use the strop lying flat on the board or loose in your hand for curved edges. [illustration fig. 99.] [illustration fig. 100.] do not keep _nails_ and _screws_ after the usual domestic fashion,--all sizes, shapes, and kinds mixed up promiscuously with a lot of metal rubbish and carpet tacks in some old box or pail. you will waste twice as much time trying to find what you want as it takes to keep them in separate boxes, or trays with divisions. a good way is to use either small open boxes or flat open boxes with divisions, so that they can be reached as conveniently as possible. tin boxes or canisters or pails (of various sizes), such as cocoa, coffee, lard, and such substances come in, are good. put labels on them and arrange them neatly in some accessible place, as on a shelf over or at the end of your bench, or in a cupboard or a drawer. keep scrap boxes for old pieces of metal (iron, brass, etc., in separate boxes), so that you will know just where to look for what you want. keep a brush for cleaning off the bench and the work, a broom for the floor, and a box for shavings, sawdust, and chips. any workman is liable to cut or pound his fingers, so have a small box in a handy place with some neatly rolled bandages of cloth, some surgeon's plaster, and a bottle of witch-hazel (_hamamelis_) or some other preparation for cuts or bruises. in case of a bruise, or if you pound your nail, put your finger at once in as hot water as you can bear. do not, as is often done, put glue on a cut, because of danger of infection, for the glue is made, as you know, from animal refuse and is not always in a pure state. do not leave oily rags lying around in your shop to get wadded into a pile in some corner and catch fire by spontaneous combustion. either put them in the stove at once, or, if you want to keep a few, put them in a stone jar or covered tin box. matches should always be kept in a covered metal box in a wood-working shop. lay in a supply of strips, waste junks, and odd pieces of wood, which you can usually get at any shop at little or no expense. they will be very useful until you accumulate a stock from your own work. =chopping-block.=--a good solid chopping-block is a great convenience, so watch for a chance to get a section of a tree, which you can often do when one is felled. =straight-edge.=--you should have at least one; two are very useful--one two or three feet long and another five or six feet long. making them is simply a matter of skill in planing. when you can plane well enough make some yourself of well seasoned, straight-grained white pine or mahogany, or other wood which holds its shape well. until you can do it _accurately_, however, get some good workman to make one, for a straight-edge that cannot be relied on is really worse than none at all. (see _straight-edge._) =bench-hook.=--the bench-hook (fig. 101) is very useful to hold work firmly for sawing, planing, etc., and also saves some marring of the bench-top. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, and _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 101.] [illustration fig. 102.] [illustration fig. 103.] take a board, say 15" long x 6" wide, of some good wood like white pine, making both ends square. the surface should be planed true (see _truing surfaces_). with the square mark the line _a b_ (fig. 102) accurately, say 2" (or the width of any blocks you may already have for the end cleats) from each end, but on opposite sides. the cleats _c_ (fig. 101) must be true and the edges square. bore the holes in the cleats with a bit a little _larger_ than the screws (see _boring_). hold the cleats exactly in place at the cross-line _a b_ and start holes in the board with a gimlet or bit a little _smaller_ than the screws. countersink the holes (see _countersink_). use screws long enough to get a good hold on the board but not long enough to go through it. if board and cleat are each 7/8" thick, 1-1/2" screws will be suitable. screw _one_ of the middle screws in each cleat firmly to a bearing (see _screws_), keeping the cleat as nearly on the line as possible. adjust each cleat exactly in place, in case it has slipped, hold it firmly, and drive the remaining screws. before screwing on one of the cleats mark a line around it in the middle with the square, as shown in fig. 103, marking first across the edge _o_ (against which the work is to be pressed), from that line squaring across the top, and then across the outer edge. after this cleat is screwed on, carefully saw it in two exactly on the line. by letting the saw run in the kerf thus made, you can cut pieces off square. sometimes one cleat is made shorter, so that you can saw clear through a piece without damage to the bench (fig. 104). see _mitre-board_, page 92. two bench-hooks are useful for long work. [illustration fig. 104.] * * * * * =horses or trestles.=--these are to lay stock on for marking and sawing, to put large work together on, and are convenient for various uses (fig. 105). [illustration fig. 105.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, and _saw_, in part v., and look up any other references. the proper height for your horses, as for the bench, depends somewhat on your own height, and may be anywhere from 18" to 2' 3". experiment with boxes to find the most convenient height. if too low, you will have to stoop over too much. if too high, it will be awkward to rest your knee on a board, to saw, and to fit work together. [illustration fig. 106.] if you have a piece of fairly good joist, from 1-1/2" ã� 3" to 3" ã� 6", you can use it for the tops of your horses. saw off two pieces from 2' to 3' long. mark the best sides for the top. mark each end like fig. 106 (showing top and bottom) with the pencil, measuring carefully so that the bevel or slant will be the same for both legs (see _bevel_). holding the work in the vise, with saw alone or saw and chisel remove the pieces marked, so that the end will have the shape shown in fig. 107. if you use the chisel, look out for the direction of the grain at each corner and cut well outside of the line, until you find which way to push the tool in each case (see _paring_, etc.). trim these cuts as accurately to the lines as you can. get out eight pieces for legs, of such a length that the horses will be of the height decided on. first make them all of a width, then saw one piece off the right length and mark the others by it--not each new piece by the one last marked. nail or screw these legs in place with 2" nails or 1-3/4" screws, keeping the inner edges of the tops of the legs even with the tops of the horses (fig. 108). see _nailing_ and _screws_, and look out for splitting. get out the cross-braces of board and saw the ends at a bevel to correspond with the slant intended for the legs. see that the ends of these cross-braces are cut at the same bevel. use the bevel if you have one. if not, first square each end with the square and pencil, and then measure carefully equal distances on one edge before drawing the slanting lines (fig. 109). nail or screw these on (fig. 110), adjusting the legs to the bevels just cut. saw or plane off the projecting ends of the legs on top. if you plane, do so both ways to avoid splintering (see _plane_). [illustration fig. 107.] [illustration fig. 108.] [illustration fig. 109.] [illustration fig. 110.] [illustration fig. 111.] now stand the horses on their legs (fig. 111). if they _should_ happen to stand firmly and evenly, see first if it is not due to unevenness of the floor. if the floor is true, and they stand steadily in different positions, you can throw up your caps, for you will have beaten the average workman. to make them stand evenly, see _scribing_, _winding-sticks_, etc., in part v. make the tops of the horses as smooth as you can. scrape them and _keep_ them scraped (see _scraper_), for you will be continually dropping glue or varnish on them, to harden and deface your nice, smooth work. wipe them off as carefully as the bench-top. these easily made horses will answer your purpose for a long time.[18] [illustration fig. 112.] [illustration fig. 113.] [illustration fig. 114.] [illustration fig. 115.] * * * * * =mitre-box.=--great care is necessary to make an accurate wooden mitre-box (fig. 116), although the process is simple. do not make it of spruce or any wood liable to warp or twist. pine or mahogany is good. use stock from a middle board if you can (see chapter iii.). a mitre-box can be of any desired size. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, and _plane_, and look up any other references. a good size is from 1' to 2' long and from 3" to 6" square (inside), according to the work for which it is to be used, and of stock 7/8" thick. the pieces must be prepared with care, so that the edges shall be square and the surfaces true, particularly on the inside, for when the box is put together the sides must be parallel and square throughout with the bottom, on the _inside_. test each piece with the square. use care in screwing the sides to the bottom to keep them exactly in place (see _screws_). nails can be used, but screws are better. lay out the lines for the sawing from the _inside_, with the steel square if you have one, or with the end of the tongue of the try-square. mark the line _a_ on the inside of the side _x_ (fig. 117), squaring from the bottom. mark the point _b_ at a distance from _a_ just equal to the distance between the sides. square a line at this point from the bottom, on the inside as before. carry this line across to the side _y_, squaring from the inner surface of the side _x_, and mark the point _c_ on the inner side of the side _y_. also from the point _c_ draw a vertical line on the inside of _y_ corresponding to the line _a_. carefully mark the line _g h_, which will give the mitre. the lines should be laid out from the inside, because it is against the inside surfaces that the pieces to be cut in the mitre-box will bear. [illustration fig. 116.] [illustration fig. 117.] [illustration fig. 118.] another way is to square a line _m n_ (fig. 118) across the top side of the bottom piece, before putting together, and to lay off from one end of this line a point _o_ on the edge, at a distance equal to the width of the bottom, thus fixing the points _m_, _n_, and _o_. next fasten on the sides, square upright lines on the inside of one side from the point _m_ and on the inside of the other side from the point _o_. the diagonal line _pq_ (fig. 119) will represent the mitre. [illustration fig. 119.] [illustration fig. 120.] the cuts for the saw to run in should be made with a back-saw or a panel-saw. in a similar manner square on the inside two upright lines opposite each other, draw a line across the tops of the sides to meet these lines (squaring from the inside as before), and make a saw-cut, as shown by the middle line in fig. 116. this will be very useful to saw strips squarely across. you can put buttons on the outside near the lower edge to catch against the front edge of the bench-top if you wish, or use the mitre-box on the bench-hooks when necessary to hold it firmly. [illustration fig. 121.] a very useful _mitre-board_ for sawing strips, mouldings, and the like, can be made with two short boards, one wider than the other, being sure that the surfaces and edges are true and square (fig. 120). this can be of any size. a good size is from 1' to 2' long, 6" wide (in all), and of stock 7/8" thick, but it is better to make the narrow piece thicker, perhaps 1-1/4" or 1-3/4". mark the lines first on the bottom of the narrow piece, then on the edges, and lastly on the top, as with the mitre-box just shown, to ensure the lines being at the correct angles with the surfaces against which the wood to be sawed will rest. an excellent plan is to make saw-kerfs for mitres in the cleat of a bench-hook (fig. 121), in the way just shown. [illustration fig. 122.] [illustration fig. 123.] * * * * * =shooting-board.=--this is useful for squaring edges and small surfaces and ends with the plane, and for jointing edges, the plane being pushed forward on its side (see _shooting-board_, in part v.). it can be of any wood which holds its shape well. clear white pine or mahogany is good. if carelessly made it will be of but little use. the stock must be planed free from winding. several forms are shown in figs. 122, 123, and 124. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is plain (fig. 122). approximate dimensions are given, fig. 122 being made of 7/8" stock, fig. 123 of 1/2" and 1/4" stock, and fig. 124 of 7/8" stock. screw the pieces together from the under side (see _screws_). see that the stop or cleat _a_ is put on at right angles to the edge _b_. mark the lines for this accurately with knife or chisel. a groove is sometimes cut for this stop, but this is a refinement that is not at all necessary if you do your work well. this board must have a rabbet or groove cut out of the upper piece, as shown, to give room for shavings. in fig. 123 the top board overlaps the ends of the cleats a trifle, which (with the spaces between the cleats) allows the escape of the shavings. arrange some way to hold the board firmly on the bench. care is necessary in using the shooting-board not to plane slices from your left hand. guides, to attach to the plane to ensure square edges, can be bought and used instead of the shooting-board. some of them are serviceable, particularly those adjustable at various angles. [illustration fig. 124.] [illustration fig. 125.] a _mitre shooting-board_ (fig. 125) is also useful. it requires to be made with even more care than the board just given, but on the same principle. the angular stop or stops must be fitted to make the angles exactly 45â°. a sawed mitre holds glue better than a planed mitre, but sawed mitres often require trimming with the plane to get a perfect fit. =form for rounding sticks.=--you will be continually wanting to make sticks eight-sided or round. a form to hold the pieces for planing is a great convenience. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _gauge_, _plane_, and _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 126.] [illustration fig. 127.] [illustration fig. 128.] [illustration fig. 129.] take two strips and plane off (or even chisel or whittle) one corner of each, first gauging lines equidistant from the corner for a guide. then nail the two strips together, with the bevels facing each other, to make a trough as shown in fig. 126. put a screw in one end to push the work against, push the form against the bench-stop or screw it in the vise, put the piece to be "cornered" or rounded in the v-shaped trough, and it will be firmly held with the angle upward. two or three of these for larger and smaller pieces will be very useful. they are quickly made of waste strips. if you think 2' the right length for one of these forms, for instance, make it a foot or so longer, and after it is made saw off the extra length in one or two pieces, which will serve as an extension for holding a long stick (fig. 127). if your bench has wooden bench-stops you can make some stops with notches in the top (fig. 128) for this purpose. for making pieces tapering, as well as eight-sided or rounding, you have only to modify this idea by planing off the corners in a tapering way (fig. 129). see _rounding sticks_. =level and plumb.=--before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _gauge_, _saw_, and _plane_, in part v. to make a plumb like fig. 130, take a piece of straight wood from 3" to 5" wide and 4' or 5' long with the edges straight and parallel. gauge a line down the middle of the side, exactly parallel to the edges, and cut the notch shown at the bottom. make a saw-kerf at the upper end of the line and another beside it in which to catch the end of the line, or fasten the line around a nail. (see _plumb_.) [illustration fig. 130.] [illustration fig. 131.] to make the level shown in fig. 131, it is essential that the bottom board _c d_ be straight on the lower edge. the two braces _a c_ and _a d_ should be of the same length. the strut _a b_ should be nailed across at the middle of _c d_ and at right angles to it. the essential thing is to have the line _a b_ exactly at right angles to _c d_, the object of the braces _a c_ and _a d_ being to stiffen the board _c d_, and to keep the lines _a b_ and _c d_ at right angles to each other. the plumb-line is hung and used as in the case just given, the board _c d_ being used for horizontal work. (see _level_.) =cabinets, etc., for tools and supplies.=--a tool-chest, though a very convenient (and in fact necessary) thing for a workman who is moving around from place to place or who needs a safe receptacle in which to lock his tools in a factory, is not at all necessary in a private shop, nor half as convenient as to have the tools where they can be more readily reached. it is quite a piece of work to make a good one, and it will be better to defer such a job until you feel the need. an old case of drawers, or bureau, or cupboard, or some such receptacle, if you can find one, will be useful in your shop. a bureau, in fact, makes a good tool-cabinet or substitute for a tool-chest, but if you keep tools in drawers make compartments, trays, or divisions, else the edge-tools may be damaged, not to speak of the inevitable confusion. you do not need a tool-cabinet for half a dozen tools, but when they begin to accumulate it is a good thing to have and a good thing to make, if there is occasion to keep your tools locked up or if you have limited room. otherwise it is just as well to keep the common tools as already shown. a cabinet is fully as useful for miscellaneous articles like brads, hinges, etc., as for tools. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, and _screws_, and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 132.] perhaps you can find a good box, wide and shallow, all made, or if deep you can saw off part to make it shallow (fig. 132). this will answer perfectly for a shop. for the house you would of course make a cupboard of new wood. the size must depend on circumstances. get two boards for doors that will just cover the open side of the box, unless the box cover will do, which is unlikely. if the edges are not good you must allow extra width for jointing. lay these boards in position and mark the lengths (on the side next the box) by the box itself, not with the square, for the box may not be square. from the lines just made mark the edges with the square, and, with the straight-edge, connect these edge marks by lines on the face sides. saw off by these lines. mark the box and each door in some way (fig. 133), as "top," and "r" (for right) and "l" (for left), or by marks, as x, o, #, etc., to prevent finally putting them on wrong side out or wrong end up, as is very likely to happen if you neglect to mark them. [illustration fig. 133.] [illustration fig. 134.] [illustration fig. 135.] [illustration fig. 136.] now for hinges. the best thing, on account of the weight to be hung on the doors and the poor quality of the wood generally used for boxes, will be iron strap-hinges made for work of this sort, screwed on the outside (fig. 134). two will do for each door. next to this come the common iron hinges. if the sides of the box are thick and firm, three of the common long and narrow kind (fig. 135) will do for each door. if the sides are thin and flimsy, nail or screw a strip inside of each edge and use wider and shorter hinges (fig. 136). to fit the hinges, see _hinges_. the doors being hung, take them off while fitting up the case. gauge a pencil line around the outer edge and each end of the inside surface of each door, where it fits against the edge of the box, as a limit beyond which racks or tools must not project or the door will not shut (fig. 137). [illustration fig. 137.] the fitting up of the cupboard must depend on its size and what and how many tools or supplies are to be kept in it. shelves you can simply make of the right size and nail into place from the outside, using the rule and square to get them in the right positions. the illustrations are merely suggestions which you can alter or improve upon to suit your particular case. fig. 138 shows another form, and fig. 139 a small cabinet with one door, with suggestions for the arrangement of the tools, but the matter of fitting up you must, of course, contrive for yourselves, according to the circumstances. do not attempt to put full-width drawers into these wide, shallow cabinets, as is often done. it takes an expert to fit drawers that are wide and short (from front to back) and they are not always satisfactory even then. if you wish drawers, either put in a row of narrow ones, or use the simple device described below (figs. 141 and 142), and shown in fig. 139. (see _drawers_ in part v.) [illustration fig. 138.] [illustration fig. 139.] to fasten the doors you can hook one on the inside and put a button (which you can whittle out) on the outside to hold the other. if you wish to lock, hook one door inside and lock the other to it (see _locks_). a padlock with staples and iron strap is easier to put on. to make a cupboard of boards instead of using a box, you simply make a box yourself (see _box-making_ in part ii.) and then proceed as above. [illustration fig. 140.] fig. 140 shows a good form of cabinet. make a tight box, perhaps 2' ã� 3' ã� 6" to 9", the sides and ends of 7/8" stock, and the top and bottom (_i.e._, the front and back of the cabinet) of 1/2" stock. saw it open carefully on the line _a b c_ about 2" or 3" from the top or face, according to the thickness of the box, first marking the ends or the sides so that you can finally put them together again in the same positions. when nailing the box together omit all nails which could interfere with the sawing. they can easily be put in afterwards. (see _box-making_, in part ii.) carefully smooth the edges after the saw. reckless and hasty planing will spoil the joint. fit two strap-hinges, or three of the common kind. fit up inside as you wish, and fasten with hasp, padlock, or a lock working on the principle of a chest lock. all these cabinets must be firmly fastened to the wall, for they will be very heavy when filled. do not trust to a couple of nails or screws, the way amateurs so often put up shelves and cabinets in the house. a ledge of some sort below is a great help (fig. 140) to relieve the screws or nails of the weight. if the back is not very strong, do not trust wholly to it, but add cleats outside or inside. if in the house, stout screw-eyes of heavy wire in the sides of the cabinet, through which you can screw to the wall, are good (fig. 140). good shelves can be made by arranging empty boxes one on top of another, or by taking a wide, thin (flat) box and fitting shelves across it, like a bookcase, and then fastening the whole to the wall. a small drawer can be fixed under a shelf, anywhere in your shop, on the principle often used in sewing-machine tables and the like, by taking a small box of suitable shape, strengthening one corner if necessary (fig. 141), and pivoting it with a screw at that corner (fig. 142). [illustration fig. 141.] [illustration fig. 142.] * * * * * =first-class bench.=--you can do all the work you will be equal to for a long time on such a bench as has been shown, but some day you will want a first-class bench, such as fig. 143. do not attempt anything of the sort at first, however, though if you can afford it, such a bench is good to begin with. a few details are given in the appendix. [illustration fig. 143.] =other appliances.=--a number of other appliances and contrivances will be found, under their respective headings, in part v. a few essentials to successful work _do one thing at a time. finish one job before you start two or three others._ _first learn to work well, then ability to work quickly will come of itself._ _plan your work to the end before beginning to use your tools._ _make drawings carefully to scale before beginning any but the simplest work._ _lay out the work carefully on the wood with sharp, accurate lines, according to the drawings, measuring everything with exactness at least twice._ _cut the work accurately with sharp tools to the lines you have laid out._ _keep testing the accuracy of the work with the square, straight-edge, rule, level, or plumb._ _keep your tools sharp and in good order._ _have the most convenient place for each tool and always keep it in that place when not in use._ _do your work thoroughly and strongly. do not half make it. do not half fasten it together. the only time you will regret thorough work is when you have to take it apart again._ footnotes: [14] if you can afford to buy one ready made, you cannot do better than to begin with such as are sold for sloyd or manual-training schools, but do not get a very small one unless you are only going to do very small work. get one as large as you can afford. a second-hand bench can often be bought for a small sum, but be sure that it is firm and steady. [15] the reason for making this bench 5' 10" long, instead of cutting a 12' board into two lengths of 6' each, is that it is hard to get boards sound and square at the ends, and so it is best to allow a few inches for waste. of course your bench can be of any desired length. six or eight feet is suitable for ordinary work, but there is no objection to making it as much longer as your space and material will admit. the height should bear a proper relation to the height of the workman. no definite height can be given. try moving a plane back and forth. if your right elbow, when holding the plane, is slightly bent and your back about straight, the height will be not far from right. do a little simple work at a table, trying different heights, and you can soon tell what will be satisfactory. if the bench is too low, you cannot manage your work well and your back will get tired from bending over, not to speak of becoming round-shouldered. if the bench is too high, it will be hard to manage your work, you cannot plane well, and your arms will be tired from holding them up unnaturally high. a bench for heavy work like carpentry is usually rather lower than one for cabinetor pattern-making, while a carver's bench is usually higher. [16] this vise is fitted slanting, so that the slide at the bottom comes on the outside of the leg and at the same time in the centre line of the movable jaw in line with the screw. a common form has the movable jaw upright, the sliding bar being mortised into it and sliding through a mortise cut in the leg, as shown in figs. 56 and 57. if you wish to make this kind, study _mortising_, in part v., and lay out and cut the mortise in the leg before nailing the cross-board to it (figs. 41 and 42). this is the most difficult part of the bench to make nicely, and you can spend a good deal of pains upon it. if you have not yet the proper tools to make this mortise you can mark it out and have it cut for a very small sum at a wood-working mill or shop. when nailing the cross-board upon the legs, bear in mind to put this leg in the right place. fig. 58 shows a simple arrangement with an additional post, or two posts can be put together and one half the notching done in each (fig. 59). [17] in case your bench is in the house and you wish to deaden the sound and vibration from your work you can put rubber cushions under the legs. [18] fig. 112 shows a nicer pair of horses. take two pieces of pine, or any wood not likely to warp, 2" ã� 3" (or 4") ã� 2-1/2' or 3', mark with rule, square, and gauge (see _gauge_), and cut with saw and chisel the shallow gains (fig. 113) for the legs. make them the same depth at the top as at the bottom (fig. 114), and clean them out as accurately to the lines as you can. get out eight legs, and regulate their length as before. saw the upper ends on a bevel (fig. 114) corresponding to the slant they are to have. nail or screw them in place. you can glue the joints for additional strength. fit on cross-pieces and finish the work as described above. if you ever need horses for very heavy work you can make the legs of plank or joist with the tops cut like fig. 115. "the labor is small, the pastime is great."--goethe. part ii chapter vi articles to be made in the workshop even if you are able to use tools quite well, you may still not know how to go to work to make some particular thing, so it is quite important to know how to lay out, put together, and finish different kinds of work. the number of things you _can_ make is legion. the number it is _worth while_ for you to make is much smaller. amateurs often say that the work they do themselves costs more (even counting their own labour as nothing) than to hire the work done, and it is one aim of this book to prevent that undesirable result, in some cases at least. the number of things which you can make more cheaply than you can buy grows smaller every year. many things can now be bought ready-made for less than you would have to pay for the materials. it is foolish to take the time and money to make many of the games and toys, for instance, sold so cheaply nowadays. a wheelbarrow is in itself a good thing to make, but it can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while to make one. it is true that some of these things you can make _better_, although not cheaper, than you can easily buy (a sled perhaps); but, as a rule, your time can be better spent than upon this class of objects, and you will find but few such given here. things like whistles, pea-shooters, and clappers, which are so familiar to every boy and require no more instruction to make than is handed down and around from boy to boy, are not given here, as a rule. a few other things which you might perhaps look for, such as tennis rackets and snow-shoes, are omitted, because they require more special knowledge and skill than most beginners can be expected to have. it is easy enough to see how to make a tennis racket, for instance, so far as the general idea is concerned; but simply bending a loop, fastening it to a stick, and lacing the loop, does not make a tennis racket. the holes for the stringing must be made in a particular way, the stringing must be done properly, and the whole affair must balance or "hang" right, or be of little use. it is better to buy such things. you boys, and many of your elders, like to try all the new-fangled ideas as fast as they come out, and it is well that you do, but you (as a class) accept them "for keeps" only after they have stood the test of many trials. a large book could be filled with descriptions of the novelties which have appeared within my remembrance, but out of this number i can count on my fingers all that have come to stay. you will find all the novelties you can attend to (and more) in the magazines, etc., so i have been rather conservative in my selection, knowing that you will permanently accept but the best of the new ideas and come back in the end, year after year, to the same old things, with only such additions as have stood the test of actual use. the objects included embrace a sufficient variety of types to form a basis of experience and practice, in different kinds of work and in various details, from which you can launch out into any of these new plans, or any experiments of your own which you may wish to try, and thus supply for yourselves the information lacking in many of the popular descriptions. before you make anything bulky measure your shop door or window to see that you can get it out after you have made it. this may seem a superfluous caution, but there have been many cases where people have spent much time in making things which could not be taken from the room in which they were made without tearing out the door or window casing. even robinson crusoe, you know, built a boat so far from the water that he could not launch her. do not be deceived by all the complicated, new-fangled variations of familiar things which abound in the popular publications. try to make everything as _simple_ as you can. look askance on contrivances that are all tangled up with springs, and levers, and complicated mechanism, and study them well before you begin to make them. first figure the cost of the object you intend to make. this book is not to do your work for you, but to put you on the right track to do it yourselves, so read _estimating_, page 54, and the whole of part i had best be read before you begin to make the things described hereafter. chapter vii a few toys [illustration fig. 144.] =wooden swords, knives, and daggers.=--before beginning work, read _marking_, _knife_, _whittling_, _paring_, _rounding sticks_, _rasp_, _file_, and _sandpaper_, and look upany other references. the construction of those shown in fig. 144 is too obvious to require special description. first cut the general outline as shown, then round or pare or shave to the thickness required. if you have a bow-saw or scroll-saw, it will save much time in shaping the outlines, or you can have them sawed at the mill. if you stain these weapons with various colours, as red, black, yellow, etc., and in various patterns, and shellac them neatly (see _finishing_), you can turn out quite a formidable array of awe-inspiring weapons. they should be made of some straight-grained and easily whittled wood. nothing is better than white pine. * * * * * [illustration fig. 145.] to make a sword like that shown in fig. 145, first select a piece of straight-grained wood (ash or any strong wood) about 2-1/2' in length, 3/16" thick, and 1" wide. about 4" from one end make a mark. from this mark taper the edges to the other end. do not taper the stick too gradually. then draw a line along the centre of each side and taper from this centre line to the edges, leaving the edges about 1/16" thick. next get out two pieces of wood 1/8" thick and 4" long (some dark-coloured wood can be used for contrast). nail one of these pieces with brads on each side of the 4" space left for the handle. next get a piece 4" long, 1/4" thick, and 3/4" wide (see fig. 145). mark it as shown, making the marks for the holes (3/16") so the outside edge of one will be just 1" from the outside edge of the other. then bore these holes carefully (see _boring_) and cut out the wood between them with a knife or chisel (being careful about splitting) and shape the outside as marked. slip the blade through the hole in the guard you have just made up to the handle and nail the guard to the blade. * * * * * =wooden snake.=--this imitation reptile (fig. 146) if well made will (when grasped at the middle) by a slight movement of the hand undulate and writhe in a very lifelike manner, as you may know, so do not be eager to terrify your feminine relatives, or those of other boys, too much. [illustration fig. 146.] * * * * * [illustration fig. 147.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _knife_, _saw_, and _rounding sticks_. the snake can be of any size--say from 2' to 6' long and from 1" to 2" in diam. select a piece of straight-grained wood,--white pine or any wood easy to work. first see that the stick is square, then make it hexagonal (six-sided), then taper it to the general shape of the snake, and finally round and smooth it (fig. 147). remember not to use sandpaper in the smoothing, as the grit will dull the tools yet to be used. the head you must whittle or carve according to your ingenuity and skill. the mouth can be cut with a fine saw. the snake having been shaped, mark pencil lines lengthways along the middle of the top and bottom (except at the head), and cut with a knife a little slit or groove merely wide enough to hold a fine cord (like fish-line). this can be done with a fine saw (as a back-saw), using the teeth only at one end of the saw blade, but much care is required and the stick must be firmly clamped or held in the vise. you will probably do it more easily with the knife. mark equal spaces (fig. 148) of 1/2" to 2", according to the diameter of the snake, from the neck to within a short distance of the end of the tail. if you make these marks as near together as 3/4", the snake will look more natural, as the notches will not have to be so wide, but you will have to cut more of them. number these sections so that you can finally put them together again in the right order. with the knife or chisel notch in to the centre from each side at each of the marks, or use the saw and knife or chisel, until the body of the snake is cut into sections (fig. 148). put the sections together again by sinking a fine strong cord in the longitudinal grooves in the top and bottom. set the cord in place with glue (see _gluing_), and fasten with little staples (which you can make of bent pins), or something of the sort, at the end of each section. [illustration fig. 148.] set beads in the head for eyes. sandpaper the whole with fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). paint in imitation of whatever kind of snake you prefer (see _painting_), using red for the inside of the mouth. * * * * * =windmills.=--these are made in a great variety of forms. a few patterns which can be readily constructed of wood are given below. bear in mind to make them strong, as they are under very great strain in a violent wind, and, also, that the larger they are the stronger they must be; for little models, you know, are much stronger in proportion than large structures made after the same designs. dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the principles of construction. the windmills will work just as well if made larger or smaller, within any reasonable limits. they should be made of _straight-grained_ white pine, whitewood, or some wood easy to work.[19] * * * * * [illustration fig. 149.] [illustration fig. 150.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _knife_, and _paring_, and look up any other references. in case of using heavy stock, see also _draw-knife_, _spokeshave_, and _plane_. to make a very simple form (fig. 149), take two sticks, say 8" x 1" x 1", and halve or notch (see _halving_) each piece at the centre (fig. 150), so that when put together they will form a cross with arms of equal length. bore a hole through both pieces at the centre to loosely fit the pin upon which the vanes are to turn (see _boring_). upon the ends of each stick mark diagonal lines (fig. 150) slanting in opposite directions, or so that, if you revolve the cross edgeways and look in turn upon each of the four ends, the lines will all slant the same way. this is essential, for the next operation is to shave each of the sticks down towards these lines until perhaps 1/8" thick (fig. 150), and you can readily see that if these vanes are not turned the same way the windmill will not revolve. when this shaping is done fasten the sticks together with brads (see _nailing_). the remaining part is very simple (fig. 151), perhaps 1' long and 1/2" thick, with the broad vane made thin, as the only object of this is to act as a weather-vane to keep the windmill headed toward the wind, and if made thick and heavy the whole affair will not balance well. [illustration fig. 151.] the revolving cross you can now fasten with a nail or screw upon the end of the part last made (fig. 151) so that it will revolve freely. find the point at which the whole windmill will balance over your finger or a stick, and bore a vertical hole through the horizontal stick at this point. through this hole loosely screw or nail the windmill on the end of a stick, slightly rounded to prevent friction (fig. 151). sandpaper the whole with rather fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). you can paint in one or more colours, if you wish (see _painting_). the vanes can be painted in light and dark bands crossways, causing an appearance, when revolving, of concentric rings (like a target). by having two axles or spindles (fig. 152) two sets of vanes can revolve at once, and, by slanting the vanes of the two sets in opposite ways, the two will revolve in contrary directions. [illustration fig. 152.] [illustration fig. 153.] the weather-vane can be made of two pieces (fig. 153). a more elaborate affair (fig. 154) is made on similar principles, but requires more care. the construction is obvious. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _knife_, _spokeshave_, _drawshave_, _rounding sticks_, and look up any other references. the general dimensions of the one illustrated are: length of main frame (in which spindle turns) 9", height of one end 4-1/2", height of the other end 2-1/2"; length of weather-vane (from main frame) 10", width at end 4-1/2"; length of revolving fans 1', width at ends 2". the spindle is held in the main frame on a slant (fig. 155) to lessen any tendency to slip out, so the hole through which it passes should have a corresponding slant (see _boring_). the revolving fans or vanes are reduced to round pins at the small ends and fitted tightly into holes bored in the head of the spindle, all the vanes being turned to have the same slant. care will be required to bore these holes so that the vanes will be equidistant and revolve in the same line. [illustration fig. 154.] [illustration fig. 155.] the weather-vane is set in a slanting groove cut in the bottom of the main frame (fig. 155), and fastened with a couple of nails or screws. you can cut this groove by making two saw-kerfs and paring out the wood between with a chisel. the bent nail or wire shown on the top of the spindle in fig. 154 is to keep the latter from jumping out of the frame from a sudden change of wind. the vanes should all be shaved down until they are quite thin at the ends. set up and finish this windmill like the one just described. [illustration fig. 156.] a form which is good practice in whittling, and upon which you can also exercise your artistic faculties, is the "happy jack" shown in fig. 156. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _knife_, _rasp_, and _file_, and look up any other references. fourteen inches is a good height for the figure itself. the outline of body and head can be sawed from a 3/4" board and the edges trimmed and rounded and the details cut with a knife, or rasp and file can be used for the edges. the arms are made of separate pieces. bore holes in the outer ends of the arms to hold the paddles (see _boring_). also bore holes lengthways into the arms, from the ends next the body, and into these holes tightly drive the ends of a stiff metal rod long enough to also pass through the body at the shoulders (fig. 156). before actually driving this rod into both arms you must bore the hole through the body. the holes in the arms should be smaller than the rod, so that it may drive in tightly without danger of getting loose, but the hole in the body must be larger than the rod, that the latter may revolve easily in it. bore in from the centre of each shoulder as carefully as you can, until the holes meet, rather than attempt to bore clear through from one side. put in the rod and drive on the arms, but not quite up to the shoulders. in driving on the arms be sure to keep the holes for the paddles in the right positions, so that the paddles will be in line as shown--that is, so that when one points directly upwards the other will point directly downwards. also bore a hole upwards between the legs for the rod upon which the figure turns, and screw or nail a piece of metal (fig. 157), with a hole for this rod, on the bottom of the legs (fig. 156). fig. 158 shows a way to put on the hat. the paddles can be made from a shingle, which will save the labour of tapering the thickness towards the ends. the paddles must be set obliquely, or turned part way around, as in the case of any windmill. when set at the proper angles the man will spin around while the paddles are revolving. sandpaper the whole (see _sandpaper_), and paint in various colours (see _painting_). [illustration fig. 157.] [illustration fig. 158.] a set of boats to sail around in a circle is not hard to make (fig. 159). before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, and look up any other references. take two sticks from 2' to 4' in length, and from 3/4" to 1-1/4" square, of any fairly strong wood. halve these sticks at the middle (see _halving_) and fasten them together in the form of a cross, strengthening the joint (weakened by the halving) by nailing or screwing on a piece of board above or below, as shown in fig. 159. [illustration fig. 159.] the boats can be whittled from a piece of board on edge and fastened to the ends of the sticks by halving (fig. 160), as well as nails or screws, or they can simply be flat pieces of board shaped as in fig. 161 and screwed or nailed on top of the sticks. in the first case the halving had best be done before the sticks are fastened together. one mast with a simple leg-of-mutton sail will answer for each boat. a little experimenting will show you how much to haul in the sheet. each boat must, of course, "come about" and "jibe" once in every rotation of the apparatus. sandpaper with rather fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_), and paint as you wish (see _painting_). the whole affair is balanced and pivoted on top of a pole in the same manner as the windmills just described, which see. [illustration fig. 160.] [illustration fig. 161.] [illustration fig. 162.] [illustration fig. 163.] [illustration fig. 164.] a steamer with screw propeller can be made from a piece of board on edge, shaped as shown in fig. 162, a small windmill with short and broad fans (fig. 163), serving for the screw. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _knife_, _spokeshave_, and look up any other references. this boat must be made of a board so as to give a thin section (fig. 164), in order that the screw may not be shielded from the wind, for this vessel must always head to windward or the screw will not revolve. to ensure this the fore and aft sail must always be kept set and the sheet close-hauled. this sail answers the purpose of the weather-vanes of the windmills just described. it can be made of tin or any sheet metal, or even of thin wood. the rest of the rigging and the smokestack you can arrange as you wish. the bottom of the rudder can be supported by a little strip extending aft from the keel. for the other details of the work, see the windmills already described. * * * * * =water-wheels.=--an undershot wheel, turned by the water passing beneath (fig. 165), can be easily made. it can be of any desired size, and of any wood readily worked. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 165.] [illustration fig. 166.] [illustration fig. 167.] one like fig. 166 can be made by simply nailing a set of small boards or paddles in a radial arrangement between two disks of wood. a dowel or broomstick will do for the shaft and should be fitted tightly in the hole bored through the wheel (see _boring_), but should turn freely in the bearings at the side. it will make a rather neater job to shape the paddles as in fig. 167, so that when put together the wheel will look like fig. 166, but this is not at all necessary, and it will work just as well to make plain rectangular paddles and simply nail the disks on the outside edges (see _nailing_). if you have no saw with which to get out the disks you can have them sawed at the mill, or you can work them out by describing the required circles and sawing a hexagon outside of the line with a common saw, when the circle can be finished with shave, hatchet, chisel, or knife (see _paring_). divide the circumference of each disk into as many parts as there are paddles and draw lines on the side to the centre, by which to nail the paddles in the right position. start the nails on these lines and drive them nearly through before placing the paddles in position. then nail one disk to the paddles, turn the wheel over and nail on the other disk. it is essential to a neat job that the paddles should all be of the same width. first make one edge straight. from this edge gauge the desired width on all the pieces (see _gauge_) and saw or plane or trim, with knife, chisel, or shave, exactly to the line. if you make the paddles as shown in the cut, first square lines across at equal distances from one end (fig. 167), and with a gauge set at a point equal to the thickness of the disks make lines parallel to each edge, and with the saw or saw and chisel, or even a knife, remove the pieces marked (see _paring_). [illustration fig. 168.] [illustration fig. 169.] * * * * * the overshot wheel (fig. 168) is harder to make, but is a livelier wheel. it is put together upon the same principle as the wheel just shown, except that the paddles, which do not project beyond the circumference of the disks, are not placed radially, but so that, with the addition of another set inserted to connect them, they form buckets. * * * * * to lay off the lines for the buckets, divide the circumference of each disk as before, and from the centre describe a small circle, as shown in fig. 169. from the points on the circumference draw lines tangent to the small circle. these lines will give the positions for the bottoms of the buckets. to complete the buckets mark from the circumference equal distances on these lines, and from these last points draw lines as _ab_ to the next points on the circumference. first, nail together with only the bottoms of the buckets (on the lines _ca_). then fit in the other pieces, to complete the buckets, on the lines _ab_. the ends of these last pieces should properly be bevelled (see _bevelling_) to make a fairly tight joint. the rest of the work is the same as for the undershot wheel. a larger form (but harder to make) is suggested in fig. 170. see note under _windmills_, above. [illustration fig. 170.] * * * * * [illustration totlet town.] =play village.=--it is capital fun for several young people to design and build a miniature village, and it is certainly an instructive and quite inexpensive pastime. such a village, planned and made recently by a family group of half a dozen youngsters, and facetiously named "totlet town," was constructed entirely of old boxes and packing-cases of all sizes up to three feet long, waste pieces of board, shingles, etc.; but when painted and arranged in a corner of the lawn, with dirt roads, and paths, small evergreen shade trees and hedges, well-sweeps, miniature fences, and other accessories, it made so pretty a picture as to be the admiration of all who saw it. if you have as good a time in making such a village as these young people did, the experiment will be a success. you can easily think up many additions to the suggestions here given. [illustration fig. 171.] the buildings were made by selecting boxes of the desired proportions, sawing out spaces for the doors, adding the roofs and any other alterations. the chimneys were made of blocks painted red. the doors were made of pieces of board and hinged with leather. bay-windows and the like were made of blocks of the required shape nailed to the boxes. the windows and blinds were represented by painting. some of the roofs were shingled with pieces of shingles. a suggestion for a light-house is shown in fig. 171. considerable care in the use of the tools is called for to make these buildings neatly. much of the effect depends, also, upon the care with which the painting is done (see _painting_), and the taste used in the selection of the colours. brighter colours are suitable for a little village of this sort than would be in good taste for real houses. white with green blinds is good, of course; or yellow can be used. the roofs should be painted. red roofs are very effective. before beginning work, read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _withdrawing nails_, etc. [illustration fig. 172.] =dolls' house.=--the house shown in fig. 172 is quite easily made, and a shallow affair like this has the advantage of being more convenient than a deep one about arranging the contents. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, and look up any other references. pine and whitewood are suitable, or any wood can be used that is not hard to work. it can be made of any desired size. three or four feet wide and a little higher in the middle will probably be suitable for ordinary cases, and twelve or fifteen inches will be a good depth (from front to back). the construction is plain. the roof and sides are to be cut from dressed stock of uniform width, and from 1/2" to 7/8" in thickness. carefully true one edge, if it is not already true, and get out the bottom board, then the upright sides, and then the roof. the bevels at the highest point of the roof and where the roof joins the sides you must mark with the bevel (taking the slant from your drawing), or you can find it by arranging two strips to cross at the desired angle and marking the bevel by them (see _bevelling_). to saw these bevels requires much care. draw lines by the square on both sides, as well as the angle on the edge, and putting each board in the vise saw carefully and steadily. the three floors should be narrower than the outside of the house by just the thickness of the stock to be used for the back, and rectangular openings must be sawed from one of the back corners at the head of the stairs to allow the dolls to pass from one story to another. if the sides of the house are 14" wide, make these floors 13-1/2" wide, and use 1/2" or 3/8" stock for the back. also mark and saw out the windows. to do this, first bore a series of holes inside of the line (see _boring_) and cut out whatever wood may be necessary until you make a slot in which to start the saw. any roughness left from the holes can be trimmed with knife, chisel, or file (see _paring_). nail these parts together, just as in making a box, carefully sighting across the face to see that the front and back do not wind, or use _winding-sticks_ (_q. v._). also test with the square to see that the sides are at right angles with the bottom. get out stock for the back carefully (with the boards running up and down) so that the boards will be square at the bottom, and when these pieces are fitted in place to form the back they will ensure the house being square. the slant by which to cut the top of the back can be laid off by measurement from your working drawing or the back can be put in place and the lines marked directly from the under side of the roof. when fitted, nail the back securely in place, first cutting the windows as before. then fit in the upright partitions, first cutting the doorways. the staircase can be made easily if you have, or can saw from the corner of a larger piece, a triangular strip which can be cut in short sections to use for the steps. nail these to a thin strip of board (from the under side) and fasten the whole in position (fig. 173). the chimney can be made of a block with a notch sawed to fit the roof, or it can be made of four pieces, box-fashion. glass for the windows can be held in place by gluing strips of cloth or paper around the edges, or thin strips can be nailed around with fine brads. thin strips can be nailed around the window openings on the outside, if you wish. [illustration fig. 173.] all the pieces should be neatly planed and scraped before putting together, and, when entirely put together, the whole should be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper. the parts coming on the inside had best be sandpapered before putting together, however, but be sure not to do this until all cutting with the tools has been done. set all the nails carefully (see _nail-set_). the whole can be painted in one or more colours (see _painting_), and portieres, window drapery, etc., can be added according to your taste and the materials at command. the inside can be papered, if preferred. a more thoroughly workmanlike way is to groove the bottom into the sides, the upright partitions into the floor boards, and to cut rabbets around on the back edge of the sides, roof, and bottom, into which to set the backboards. this involves a good deal more work and care in laying out the work (see _grooving_). if you have the pieces got out at a mill it can be easily done, however. [illustration fig. 174.] it may be a convenience to screw castors on the bottom. a door (with a door-bell or knocker) can be added to the front of the hall, if thought best. a house which can be closed is shown in fig. 174. the construction is quite similar to the preceding. a strip must be fastened above and below the large doors, as shown, that they may open without striking either the roof or the floor on which the house stands. the little door, representing the entrance to the house when closed and shown in the closed half, can be made to open independently and can have a bell or knocker. if this house is made quite deep (from front to back) it can easily be divided lengthways by a partition and made into a double house, the back side being made to open in the same way as the side here shown. footnotes: [19] you can attach your windmill to a building or set it up on a pole, or you can easily make a small trestle-work tower, built of small sticks, on the top of which you can place the windmill, with a small keg (to represent a hogshead or tank), and thus have a very good imitation of the large mills used for pumping water. small windmills, if you wish to go further into the subject than comes within the scope of this book, can be used to do any light or "play" work by having them turn a bent shaft (or any eccentric movement), connecting with a piston-rod or revolving drum; or various other attachments can be applied, according to your ingenuity. chapter viii houses for animals the sizes and shapes of these houses and cages will depend upon the animals for which they are built and the places you have to put them. frequently they can be built to advantage against the side of a building, or a fence, or in a corner, and boxes can be utilised in various ways. make the houses, cages, and runways as large as you can afford, for there is much more danger of the pets being cramped and crowded than of their having too much room. wire netting or wire cloth (held in place by staples) should be freely used, as ventilation is very important for the health and comfort of the animals. special openings should always be made for cleaning the houses or cages in case all parts cannot be conveniently reached from the doors, for cleanliness is of the utmost importance in all such structures. the floors of the larger houses should always slant or have holes provided for drainage. covering the floors with sheets of zinc will promote cleanliness. in the smaller cages removable pans or trays can often be used (fig. 190). houses and cages with wooden floors should always be raised from the ground on posts, blocks, or stones, to avoid dampness. clean sand scattered over the floor and frequently renewed will contribute much to the cleanliness of the cages. the bedding should also be changed frequently. in the case of those animals which use their teeth for gnawing, the corners and angles can be protected by tacking on strips of wire cloth, tin, or zinc, but there is no need to do this over the flat surfaces. in the case of cages or houses (and the runways) which have the ground for the floor and are to be inhabited by animals that will burrow or dig their way out, the wire netting should be continued underground to a considerable depth, or it can be carried down a little way and then bent to lie horizontally, forming a sort of wire floor, over which the dirt can be replaced, and the animals will be unable to tunnel their way out; but in all such cases care must be taken to proportion the mesh of the netting and the size of the wire to the strength and escaping powers of the animals. houses for animals often look pretty when made in imitation of real houses, but when you do this choose simple types of good proportions, and do not try to copy all the little details of the large houses. avoid "gingerbread" work, and do not cover your houses with meaningless jig-sawed scroll work and rows of towers and pinnacles, and do not use all the colours of the rainbow in painting them. for houses, hutches, boxes, cages, etc., which are to be kept out of doors or in some outbuilding, ordinary machine-planed stock of fair quality is sufficiently good, and planing and smoothing by hand is usually a waste of labour; but if you wish to make a small cage or box to be kept in the house, and to be nicely finished or painted, good clear stock should be used, and the final smoothing done by hand. in case you wish to make several cages or boxes of the same pattern, as, for example, like fig. 178, it is much less work to go through the process with two or more at a time than to make each separately. a house for pets should not be built, as is sometimes done, on a platform or base projecting beyond the base of the house, as this tends to collect and retain moisture and dampness, but should be clear of any platform, like an ordinary dwelling-house, so that the rain will be shed directly upon the ground. when two or more boards are required for each side of the roof it is usually better to lay them up and down, as in fig. 187, rather than horizontally or lengthways, because a roof laid in this way is better about shedding the water, which tends to collect in the cracks if the boards are laid horizontally. for the rougher structures the hinges can be screwed flat upon the outside (as shown in fig. 179), but for nice work they should be fitted in the usual way. (see _hinges_.) * * * * * before beginning work upon these cages and houses, read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 175.] [illustration fig. 176.] cheap and serviceable cages and houses can be built by simply driving posts or stakes into the ground and fastening wire cloth or netting to them, much as you would build a fence. this wire-fenced enclosure can be covered with a wooden roof if desired. a runway and playground can easily be made in this way. a more portable arrangement can be made by putting together wooden frames covered with wire. very simple forms are shown in fig. 175. by putting together four or more of such frames a cage can readily be made which can be covered with a wooden roof or with wire (fig. 176). if these frames are fastened with screws or screw-eyes and hooks, the whole can quickly be taken apart if desired. a very simple cage can be easily made, on the principle of the common chicken coop, with a few boards or slats and a little wire netting (fig. 177), but a house of this sort is not especially desirable except for economy of materials and labour. the construction is too simple to require description. [illustration fig. 177.] [illustration fig. 178.] [illustration fig. 179.] a much better form is that with upright sides, or with one slanting side. figs. 178 and 179 show an excellent arrangement, easily made. it can be made any desired size or proportions and is suitable for quite a variety of animals. if small, 1/2" stock will be thick enough, but if large, 7/8" stock should be used. the construction is similar to that of a common box (see _box-making_, page 219). one corner of each end should be sawed off slantingly (fig. 178), and a rectangular piece cut from the opposite corner, as shown, before the box is nailed together. the bevelling of the edges of the top and front boards can be done after the box is put together (see _bevelling_). for making the door, see _doors_, in part v. the hinged board at the bottom gives access for cleaning. if for indoors, and to be finished or painted, clear stock should be selected and the outside carefully smoothed. (see _plane_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_, _finishing_, and _painting_.) [illustration fig. 180.] for something more like a house, the design shown in fig. 180 is good and of simple construction. this can be made of any size from that of a small box to a small house. for the latter, see _part iii. (house-building for beginners)_. to make a little house of this pattern first get out the bottom of the required dimensions, and then the ends, which are alike and to be nailed to the ends of the bottom. take pains to be accurate in getting out the pieces, or the house will be askew when put together. the construction of the sides is plain. the door can be made as in fig. 180 (see _doors_), or the sides can be entirely of wire and the door placed at the end (fig. 181). the roof is simply nailed down in place, one side being got out as much wider than the other as the thickness of the stock, so that one will lap over the edge of the other at the ridge. if the angle formed at the top is not a right angle, however, the edge of the narrower roof-board must be bevelled according to the angle (see _bevelling_). [illustration fig. 181.] a house of this sort can be made with one end closed, while the other remains open (fig. 182). this is a good arrangement for many animals. first get out the floor, then the pieces for the closed end, cutting out the doorway and a window, if one is desired. these openings can be cut as shown on page 122. next get out the framework for the open end and fasten it in position. a door can be fitted wherever desired and the roof put on, as just shown. [illustration fig. 182.] [illustration fig. 183.] a house or cage, chiefly open-work, with two sleeping-boxes or nests (fig. 183) is similar in general construction. this is suitable for indoors (as in an outbuilding). if to be left exposed to the weather, a solid roof can be added, or it can be covered with canvas or something of the sort when necessary. the construction is similar to that of those already described. this cage can be used for pigeons and other pets, and can be made of any size, according to circumstances. for the door, see _doors_ and _hinges_, in part v. the box attachments can best be made at the same time, just alike (see _box-making_, page 219), and fastened to the sides of the house, the doorways having been cut in the sides before the house was put together. if these boxes or nests cannot be readily reached for cleaning, they should be hinged to the main house, or have special openings with lids or doors, so that they can be kept clean. the ridge-pole is simply a strip of board placed horizontally between the upper ends of the rafters. * * * * * =rabbit hutch.=--a simple rabbit-house, or hutch, can be made by putting together a good-sized box, partitioning off one end, to be closed by a door, and leaving the rest open, except for the necessary wire sides (fig. 184). [illustration fig. 184.] * * * * * this is made just like a box (see _box-making_, page 219), the other details being similar to those already shown. a sliding-door (fig. 185) can be inserted, if desired, to cover the hole between the closed and open parts. the hutch should be raised from the ground to avoid dampness, and proper arrangements for cleanliness made, as referred to above. [illustration fig. 185.] * * * * * a more elaborate hutch (fig. 186) can be constructed in a similar manner to the houses already shown. access to the open part can be had by means of the doors or lids on top. for the doors, see _doors_ and _hinges_. the slides for the door at the end can be made by cutting a rabbet at the edge of a square stick, as shown, or the rabbet can be formed by using strips of different widths, letting the wider lap over the narrower so as to form the rabbet. both doors can be made to swing in the usual way, of course, if preferred. where the two sides of the roof meet at the top, the edges must be bevelled (see _bevelling_). [illustration fig. 186.] * * * * * =kennel.=--there are many kinds of dog-houses, and the style and size must, of course, depend upon the dog and the situation. * * * * * [illustration fig. 187.] a good kennel (fig. 187) for a small dog can be made very much as you would make a box (see _box-making_, page 219). if for a very small dog the ends, sides, floor, and sides of the roof can each be made of one piece, but ordinarily these parts will each be made of two or more pieces. matched boards are suitable. first get out the bottom, then the sides and ends. if you use boards with square edges you must of course use pieces of different widths, so that the cracks between them will not meet at the corners, or put posts at the corners. this is the best way to do with matched boards, if the house is at all large. nail these parts together. it will be easiest to cut the slant at the top of each end--the gable--so that the sides of the roof will meet in a right angle. this looks well and saves the need of bevelling the edges of the roof-boards. an opening for the doorway should be cut in one of the ends before the roof is nailed on. if you do not use matched boards, a strip should be nailed on the inside at each side of the doorway, to keep the boards together. the roof-boards for one side should be as much longer than those for the other as the thickness of the stock. the same applies to the width of the saddle-boards which cover the extreme top. if the roof is not made of matched boards, battens should be nailed over the cracks as shown in part iii. * * * * * for a large dog a kennel should be built more like a real +house+ and not so much like a box. a structure with a frame (fig. 188) can be built of any size suitable for a kennel, and will be more durable than the preceding form. [illustration fig. 188.] * * * * * for the frame, small joists, or strips of plank of any size from 1-1/2" ã� 2" to 2" ã� 3" can be used. first get out the sills or bottom pieces of the framework, nailing them together at the corners to form a rectangular frame, as shown in fig. 189. then get out the corner posts and fasten them in place, and on top of them fasten the plates (a second horizontal frame like that at the bottom); and see that all this framework is rectangular and free from winding. the sills and plates can be halved at the corners (see _halving_), but this is not really necessary in so small a house, as the boarding adds strength to the joints. the frame can be temporarily held in place until the boarding is put on by nailing on as many diagonal strips (fig. 189) as may be required. two rafters at each end should next be put in place, their ends having been cut at an angle of 45â° (see _mitreing_) and the upper ends being nailed to a strip of board which serves for a ridge-pole. an intermediate rafter on each side will add stiffness to the roof. the floor should next be laid, as it will be inconvenient in so small a house to do this after the sides are put on. the sides and ends should be boarded with sheathing or matched boards laid vertically, cutting out the doorway and a small window in the back gable for ventilation. the roof can next be laid with the boards running horizontally, or lengthwise, as this house is to be shingled. the shingles can be dipped in creosote stain or paint to good advantage before laying. after the roof has been shingled the saddle-boards can be put on and the house will be ready for painting (see _painting_). another form of doorway is shown in fig. 189_a_. for the various details of a framed structure of this sort, see _part iii. (house-building for beginners)_. [illustration fig. 189.] [illustration fig. 189_a_.] * * * * * the author of _house and pet dogs_ gives the following suggestion: "the best device is an ordinary single kennel forty-eight inches by thirty-three inches, with an a roof, but with a detached bottom of the same size as the outside ground measurement of the kennel. this bottom is hinged by two stout strap-iron hinges to the side of the kennel, and is provided with two wooden axles, to which are fitted four wooden wheels, say four inches in diameter. when closed it looks like any other kennel on wheels. it can be easily moved by one person from damp spots, etc.; and by turning the kennel back upon its hinges the bedding can be daily sunned and aired and the kennel washed and purified without trouble. the wheels also serve to keep the bottom clear of the ground, and allow of a free circulation of air beneath." =squirrel house.=--the small squirrel house, or cage, shown in fig. 190, is made like a box (see _box-making_, page 219), with the exception of the roof. the construction is similar to that of the houses already described. [illustration fig. 190.] * * * * * it can be made of 7/8" or 3/4" stock. the dimensions of the bottom can be made to agree with those of any baking-pan you may have, as shown. the slide in the roof can be made of zinc or tin. that in the side can be of either zinc or wood. after the wire cloth has been nailed on a strip of wood can be nailed around the front edge as a moulding. the little sleeping-box in the upper corner can be readily reached from the slide in the roof and connects with the floor of the house by a little door and a flight of steps (fig. 191). the latter can be made as shown in fig. 173. the most difficult part of this house to make nicely is the joining of the roof-boards. these must be bevelled at the ridge and the tops of the ends must also be bevelled where they join the roof (see _bevelling_). for other details, see the houses already described. [illustration fig. 191.] * * * * * a more +elaborate+ affair, shown below, can be made quite large and will give room for a whole family of squirrels. this house is, however, considerably more difficult to make than the others shown in this chapter, and if you have not already acquired some skill as a workman you had best be content with a simpler design. * * * * * four or five feet by about three feet will not be too large for the ground dimensions of the main part of the house. regular sills can first be nailed together for the bottom of the main house and ell in the way shown in fig. 189. these sills can be from 1-1/2" ã� 2" to 2" ã� 3". perhaps an easier way is that shown in fig. 192, in which three cross cleats or sills are laid and the floor nailed directly to these. when the lengthways boards shown in fig. 192 are nailed to the floor boards and the sills the bottom will be sufficiently stiff for a squirrel house. the sides and ends of the ell can be made of boards nailed together like a box, the openings for the doors, windows, etc., being first cut out; but the main part of the house should have posts at the corners to which the boarding at the ends is to be nailed. rafters should also be put in at each gable. plain sheathing will look better for the outside of this house than that with beads. after the outside has been boarded and the upper floors put in, the roofs and the cupola can be added. if the cupola is too difficult it can be omitted, as it is a luxury to which the average squirrel is unaccustomed. [illustration fig. 192.] the stairs, the openings in the floors, the doorways, the sleeping-box, the revolving wire cage, the tree, and the swing in the cupola, are shown in fig. 192. the stairs can be made as shown in fig. 192; strips nailed vertically at the outside corners of the house, as in a real house, will give a more finished appearance. the window casings can be made by nailing strips on the outside. the glass can be held in place by strips, or small rabbets can be cut as in a window sash. for the shingling of the roof, see _part iii_. (_house-building for beginners_). each door can be made of a single piece of board, cleated (see _doors_). for any other details, see the houses just described and also _part iii_. (_house-building for beginners_), and _painting_. * * * * * [illustration fig. 193.] several cages of various sizes can readily be built together, as shown in fig. 193, which is merely a suggestion, for, of course, the shape, size, arrangement, and number of compartments must depend on the number and kinds of animals and the situation. various combinations will suggest themselves as occasion calls for them. if you have such creatures as frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., a water-tank should be provided. this can easily be made by taking a tightly made flat box and caulking the cracks, or pouring hot tar or pitch into them and also tarring or painting the whole surface of the outside. a board can be fitted slantingly from the bottom to the edge, at one or both ends, to form an incline by which the users of this miniature pond can crawl in and out of the water. the box must, of course, be sunk in the ground inside of the cage. for larger houses, as for hens, etc., see, also, the principles of construction of somewhat larger structures in part iii. (_house-building for beginners_). * * * * * =travelling cage.=--a small box (fig. 194) in which to carry a kitten, a squirrel, a bird, or any small animal, when travelling, is often very useful and much better than the bags and baskets so often used for the purpose. [illustration fig. 194.] * * * * * all that is necessary is to make a small box of 1/2" stock (see _box-making_, page 219), with one side open (to be covered with wire cloth or netting), and the opposite side made in two parts, the upper of which is hinged to serve as a door or lid. strips of moulding can be nailed on with brads along the edges where the wire is fastened, the door can be fastened with hook and screw-eye or catch, and a handle fastened upon the top. it is a good plan to round the edges of a box which is to be carried around. if this box is neatly got out and put together and carefully smoothed and finished it will look well and serve for many years. chapter ix implements for outdoor sports and athletics =stilts.=--there is very little to say about the manufacture of stilts. the construction is obvious (figs. 195 and 196), the size and arrangement depending on your own size and skill. the handles can either be long, or reach up as high as the hand, or short and strapped to the legs. [illustration fig. 195.] [illustration fig. 196.] =tilt or see-saw.=--one of small size is shown in fig. 197. the exact proportions given are not necessary, provided you make it strong and so that it will not tip over. [illustration fig. 197.] [illustration fig. 198.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 199.] [illustration fig. 200.] first make the standard (fig. 198) of any sound plank 1-1/4" to 2" thick and 12" or more in width. get out the pieces to the dimensions before beginning to put together, the ends of the braces h being cut at a mitre (see _mitring_). square the line ef across the plank b at the middle (fig. 199). drive three or four stout wire nails (3" to 4" long, according to the thickness of the plank) nearly through the plank on this line. stand the piece a on end under these nails and drive them through firmly into it (fig. 200), keeping the two boards at right angles. bore holes with a 1/4" bit (see _boring_) in each end of the pieces h, as shown, taking pains not to get them too near the edge. screw these braces in place with screws from 2-1/4" to 3-1/4" long (according to the thickness of the plank), keeping the piece a at right angles with the plank b (see _screws_). screw this frame on the cross-pieces c and d, as shown. nails can be used throughout, but screws are better. with plane, draw-knife, or spoke-shave (see _part v._ for these tools), round the top edge of a. [illustration fig. 201.] the tilting-plank should be of spruce, ash, hard pine, or any strong wood, and had best be from 1-1/2" to 2" thick, according to the length, which can be 12' or 14'. it should of course be planed. next get out a few cleats 7/8" square, or thicker, and screw them on the under side of the tilting-plank at the middle (fig. 201, which shows the under side of the plank), so that the spaces between them will be a little wider than the thickness of the upright piece a--just enough to allow the plank to tilt freely. nail strips on the edge, to keep the plank from slipping off sideways, shaving a little from the edges of a at the top if necessary. finally run over the edges with a plane (see _plane_), and sandpaper the plank to prevent slivers. simply paint or oil and varnish (see _painting_ or _finishing_). a larger and more elaborate affair, adjustable to different heights, is shown in fig. 202. [illustration fig. 202.] * * * * * first get out the main pieces to the dimensions (figs. 203, 204, 205). the upright pieces should be mortised into the planks on which they rest (fig. 206) (see _mortising_). gauge a line lengthways along the centre of each side of the uprights (see _gauge_) and mark points (say 6" apart) on these lines for holes for the iron rod on which the tilting-plank rests, taking pains to place them alike on the two uprights. then bore 3/4" or 1/2" holes (see _boring_), according to the size of rod you can get. next fit the cross bar at the top. this can simply be nailed down or fitted between the uprights (fig. 207), or made with a shoulder (fig. 208), which will add to the stiffness of the frame. the rest of the construction of the standard is plain, and similar to that just described. [illustration fig. 203.] [illustration fig. 204.] [illustration fig. 205.] [illustration fig. 206.] [illustration fig. 207.] [illustration fig. 208.] iron rods can be used for braces, if you wish (fig. 209). the tilting-plank should be 16' or 18' long, and of 2" plank. a thread with nut on one end of the iron rod on which the plank rests will keep the rod from slipping out of place. the plank can be fastened to the rod by iron straps or even staples, or a box-like bearing can be quickly made (fig. 210). washers can be placed between the plank and the uprights if necessary. smooth the edges with a plane (see _plane_) and sandpaper the plank. simply paint or oil and varnish (see _painting_ and _finishing_). [illustration fig. 209.] [illustration fig. 210.] * * * * * =skis.=--to make as perfect skis as possible they should be of rift stock, that is, split out instead of sawed; but this may seldom be practicable for you and is not really necessary. good straight-grained sawed stock will answer, but be sure that you get clear, strong stock--_air-dried_ if possible. always avoid kiln-dried stock for anything which is to be put to sudden and violent strain, if you can get that which has been naturally seasoned (see chapter iii.). ash is very good (white ash the best); spruce, light and strong; oak, strong but heavy. any strong and elastic wood will do, if not too heavy. if you can get stock which is naturally sprung in a good curve upward and is satisfactory in other respects, take it, for a convex curve upward underneath the foot gives spring and elasticity and helps prevent the skis from becoming hollowed too much by the weight of the body. this curve is not necessary, but the better ones are purposely so made. skis are sometimes used in very rude forms--as two strips of wood with the front ends shaved down and bent up at an angle. small ones can even be made of staves from barrels, but these are very unsatisfactory. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _draw-knife_, _plane_, _spokeshave_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 211.] [illustration fig. 212.] [illustration fig. 213.] [illustration fig. 214.] first get out the pieces of the required size. the length for a man is usually about 8' and the width about 4", though they are used even as long as 12' or 13'. from 5' to 8' long and from 3-1/2" to 4" wide will probably be right for you, but the dimensions depend on your size, of course. next taper the forward ends, as shown in fig. 211. you can mark both edges alike by drawing the curve free-hand or with a spline (see _spline_) on a piece of stiff paper, from which you can cut out a pattern for drawing the curve on the wood. next make the pieces thinner towards the ends (fig. 212), noticing that the forward end is thinner than the after end and is shaved down more quickly so that the stock may be thin where the toe bends up. this requires great care unless the grain is very straight, for a little hasty slashing will make too deep a cut (see _paring_, etc.). good forms are shown in figs. 213 and 214, the former showing sections at the middle and the latter nearer the ends, but as the toe is approached the top should become flat for ease in bending. this shaping can best be done by the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or plane. [illustration fig. 215.] [illustration fig. 216.] [illustration fig. 217.] bend the points of the toes upwards about 6" above the horizontal line to ensure their riding clear of obstructions, but there is no gain in curling them up a foot. for the process of bending, see _bending wood_. then turning the skis over, gauge (see _gauge_) parallel lines for the grooves on the bottom. work the grooves out with the gouge or with the saw and chisel (see _gouge_ and _grooving_) unless you chance to have the plane designed for this purpose.[20] make these grooves shallower as they approach the toe, leaving no groove where the toe bends up. [illustration fig. 218.] [illustration fig. 219.] [illustration fig. 220.] [illustration fig. 221.] balance the skis lengthways on a stick or your finger and put stout leather straps just forward of the balancing point. these can be riveted or even screwed to the edges of the skis (fig. 215), but a better way is to put them through slots cut in the wood (fig. 216). gauge accurately for the slots, marking on both edges, and bore in from both sides (see _boring_). the slots must then be cleaned out with chisel and file (see _mortising_). an easier way and fully as strong is to cut grooves (fig. 217) with saw and chisel and cover them with thin strips securely screwed on (fig. 218). some use a second lighter strap to go above the heel. this can be screwed to the edges if you use it. strips screwed across under the instep (figs. 219 and 220), or behind the heel (fig. 221), to prevent the foot sliding back are sometimes used.[21] for racing the norwegian skis are turned up at the rear end also. [illustration fig. 222.] the pole, like the skis, must be of light, strong stuff, and can be round or eight-sided (see _rounding sticks_). to shape the tapering end make the stick uniformly eight-sided for the whole length first and then plane each side down at the end to get the taper. the hole in the disk must not be quite so large as the diameter of the pole, so that it cannot slip up farther than the tapering part (fig. 222). many dispense with the disk. finally smooth skis and pole with scraper (see _scraper_) or glass, and sandpaper (see _sandpaper_), and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _finishing_). if open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _finishing_), and the bottoms can also be rubbed with wax or tallow, if you wish. * * * * * =toboggan.=--this is now commonly made of narrow strips, in principle much like several skis placed side by side--an easier form to make than the older pattern, formed of one or two wide pieces, as originally made by the indians. white oak and hickory are probably the best woods. ash, maple, birch, basswood, or any hard wood which can be bent and has elasticity can be used. as in the case of the ski, to make the best possible the pieces should be rift, or split out, rather than sawed, to ensure straight grain; but, as this may be out of the question for you, be sure to select the straightest-grained clear stock you can find, for, besides the bending of the ends, there is great strain put upon it in coasting. for the same reason use air-dried stock and avoid kiln-dried if possible. probably the best and most scientific way to fasten the parts of a toboggan together is the old way adopted by the indians of binding or lashing with thongs. this gives great elasticity and allows the toboggan to adjust itself to the inequalities of the surface to a greater degree than is possible with the tightly fastened joints now in use. you can try this way instead of that given below, if you prefer, but be sure to cut little grooves in the bottom for the thongs or cords to fit in, or they will be quickly worn through. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 223.] the size can vary from 3' long by 1' wide to 10' or 12' long by 20" to 22" wide; 4' long by 15" or 16" wide is good for a single toboggan; 8' long by 18" is a good size for three or more persons. you will probably find the stock most readily in the form of 12' boards. one-half inch in the rough will be thick enough, though you may have to take inch (rough) or 7/8" (planed) boards. let us make an 8' toboggan (fig. 223). have the stock planed and sawed in strips about 10' long, 2-1/2" wide, and not less than 1/4" nor more than 3/8" in thickness. if they are tapered a little in thickness for 12" or 15" at the forward end they can be bent more easily, but do not shave them down too much (see _plane_ and _drawshave_). smooth the bottom surfaces of the strips with plane and scraper (see _scraper_). it is hardly necessary to plane the upper surfaces by hand, as the planer will leave them fairly smooth, though they will look a little nicer smoothed by hand. plane the edges. next get out eight cross-bars or cleats 18" long ã� 3/8" thick and from 1-1/2" to 3" wide. if wide they can be tapered at the edges, and if narrow, the edges should be rounded (fig. 224). get out also two or three cleats 18" long, 1/4" thick, and 1-1/4" wide, and one piece 18" long and about 3/4" ã� 7/8" (half of a hardwood broomstick will do). [illustration fig. 224.] the long strips must now be bent at the forward end (see _bending wood_). after they are bent take the eight cleats and, laying one across the strips as it is to go, mark points for three holes at each strip (fig. 224). bore 3/16" or 1/4" holes in the cross strips and countersink them very carefully (see _boring_ and _countersink_), so that the heads of the screws will be very slightly lower than the surface--sunk barely enough to prevent any corners or edges from sticking above the surface. take great care not to countersink too deeply, for the long strips are so thin that the screws may come through on the under side. mark and bore the other seven cleats by this first one. now take one cleat, to be put on at the rear end 8' from the beginning of the curve. screw one end of this cleat in place (see _screws_), test with the square, and screw the other end. then put in the intermediate screws, driving them all firmly home, and saw off the ends of the long strips just beyond this cleat. square lines across every foot to the curve at the front, and screw on the other cleats. the length of the screws (which can be quite stout) should be such that they will almost, but not quite, go through to the under side of the toboggan. be careful about this or the points will have to be filed off. then screw the smaller cleats on the inside of the curve. screw the remaining (stouter) cleat on the outside of the curve at the place where the curve is to end, and then saw off the projecting ends of the strips by this cleat. by thongs, belt-lacing, or strong cord at the ends of the cleat last put on fasten the curve (which will naturally tend to straighten somewhat) in the required position to the cleat beneath (fig. 225). [illustration fig. 225.] side hand-rails can be fastened at each side on top of the cross-cleats (fig. 223). a common way is to make every other cross-cleat thicker (say 7/8") and fasten the side bars to these with large and stout screw-eyes, or notches can be cut on the under side of these thicker cleats before they are screwed on, and by passing thongs or cord through these notches the side-bars can be lashed in place. the side bars you can plane round or eight-sided (see _rounding sticks_) out of strips of any strong wood. sandpaper the bottom and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil, or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _finishing_). if open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _finishing_), and the bottom can be waxed or rubbed with tallow, if you wish. [illustration fig. 226.] if you are willing to put in the labour you can bevel or slope off one side of each of the long strips (except the two outer ones) so as to leave the strip thickest in the middle (fig. 226). unless you are willing to take pains enough to do it nicely (which will take some time), it will be best not to attempt it at all, or to have it done at a mill. if you have a good hill you can go well enough with the flat strips and it is not important to round them unless you are scoring fractions of a second against time. another way is to curve the cross-cleats slightly (fig. 226), leaving the long strips flat. some toboggans are made with low runners about an inch high. [illustration fig. 227.] you can, as you may know, patch up a sort of toboggan of barrel-staves, with which, though not a very workmanlike arrangement, you can have a lot of fun at no expense. you can get a high speed with this simple contrivance (fig. 227) on a _steep_ hill. it is not good, however, unless the pitch is steep. you can even get a good deal of sport from this apparatus in the summer on a _very steep_ grassy knoll. =wooden guns and pistols.=--a gun on the principle of that shown in fig. 228, the projectile power being furnished by elastic (rubber) cord, is easily made. [illustration fig. 228.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square,_, _saw_, _spokeshave_, _knife_, in part v., and look up any other references. first saw the outline of the gun from a straight-grained pine or whitewood board. this can be quickly and cheaply done at any wood-working mill. the gun can then be finally shaped with the spoke-shave and knife. the rasp and file can be used (see _rasp_ and _file_.). much of the shaping can be done with the draw-knife (see _draw-knife_), and, in fact, the whole can be whittled out with a knife if other tools are wanting. [illustration fig. 229.] [illustration fig. 230.] the most difficult parts of the work are the groove for the arrow and the arrangement of the trigger. much care is needed to cut an accurate groove with a gouge (see _gouge_), and, unless you are skilled, you can get a truer result by having this done by a carpenter or at a mill. a mortise (see _mortising_) must be cut for the trigger long enough to allow it sufficient play (fig. 229). the arrangement of the trigger is shown in fig. 229. the elastic underneath the barrel (at the lower end of the trigger) must be sufficiently powerful (combined with its additional leverage) to balance the elastic which propels the arrow, so that the trigger will remain in position and hold the upper elastic drawn, until the pressure of the finger on the trigger releases it. [illustration fig. 231.] [illustration fig. 232.] [illustration fig. 233.] the barrel of the gun is sometimes built of three pieces (fig. 230, showing section) of thinner stock, which obviates the grooving but makes more work otherwise. the groove can be left open on top (fig. 230) or covered with a thin strip (figs. 231 and 232). in the latter case a depression must be made in the barrel, so that when the strip is put on there will be a long slot in which the string can play back and forth (fig. 232). with this arrangement you can make a notch (fig. 233) to hold the cord when drawn. the trigger can be of wood or wire, pivoted on a screw or nail, so that when pulled the string will be pushed up and released (fig. 233). a tube is sometimes fastened to the barrel, as in a real gun, and a plunger is sometimes fitted to the tube to start the arrows, or bullets in case they are used (fig. 234). [illustration fig. 234.] [illustration fig. 235.] [illustration fig. 236.] the ends of the elastic cord can be fastened to screw-eyes at the muzzle. a piece of leather thong or cord inserted at the middle of the upper elastic cord will wear better than the rubber at that point. another form of trigger is shown in fig. 235, which can also be made of stiff wire (fig. 236). [illustration fig. 237.] to finish the gun nicely, it should be scraped (see _scraper_) and sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). it can then be finished with oil and shellac or varnish (see _shellac_, _varnish_, _finishing_). these same methods of construction can, of course, be applied to a pistol. [illustration fig. 238.] a bow-gun or crossbow (fig. 237) can be made on the same principle, using a bow instead of the elastic, and inserting it in a hole made through an enlargement of the under side of the barrel (fig. 238). =sleds.=--common sleds can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while, as a rule, to make them. many are so poorly made, however, and will stand so little rough usage, that a few suggestions may be of value if you should wish to make a really serviceable one yourself. take the dimensions from any sled which suits you. avoid making your sled too high, however, as one ten or twelve inches high will coast no better than a low sled, and requires much more bracing to be strong. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 239.] the runners and cross-pieces should be of straight-grained oak, maple, ash, or other strong wood; 7/8" stock will do. mark the runners carefully on the wood, according to your working-drawing (fig. 239), and before sawing them out bore the holes for the rope (see _boring_). saw out the runners, or have them sawed by machine, and see that the curves are the same on each. [illustration fig. 240.] get out three cross-pieces (fig. 240) about 2" wide, and from 7/8" to 1-1/4" thick, with a shoulder at each end as shown. mark and cut the mortises (see _mortising_) in the runners (fig. 239). put these parts together, forming the frame of the sled (fig. 241), driving a pin through each mortise and tenon and adding the l irons shown in figs. 241 and 242. the seat may be thinner than the runners, and is to be fitted between them and to be screwed to the cross-pieces (see _screws_). the thickness of the stock for the seat must be borne in mind when laying out the mortises in the runners. [illustration fig. 241.] [illustration fig. 242.] machine-planed stock is, of course, as smooth as is necessary for a sled, but smoothing by hand (see _plane_, _scraper_, and _sandpaper_) will give a nicer surface. the runners can be shod at the blacksmith's with half-round irons, or round steel can be used with iron at the ends. in case of steel spring irons the runners can be slightly grooved on the edge, so far as may be necessary to keep the irons in place. the irons can be 1/2" to 5/8" in diameter. finish with paint (see _painting_) or with oil, shellac, and varnish (see _finishing_). * * * * * a "double-runner," "bob," or "traverse" sled can be built to good advantage. the sleds can be made as just described, or ready-made ones can be used. see that they are well put together, of the same width, and securely braced, as the strain upon them is great. the length of the double-runner is a matter of choice, of course. as to the height and width, however, if the coasting is straight, smooth, and comparatively safe there is no objection to a high seat, with a comfortable foot-board on each side for the passengers' feet, if you wish. but if you are going to coast on long, rough hills, with sudden curves and pitches to be taken in uncertainty and at whirlwind speed--the kind of coasting for real fun and exhilaration--avoid the luxurious top-heavy double-runners frequently seen. make the sleds rather broad (18" is not too wide for the "track" of a 16' sled; which is a very long sled, however), and keep the height of the top-board down to about 10" or less. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 243.] the seat-board can be from 8' to 16' long, and about 12" to 14" wide. board thickness is sufficient for a short seat, but if long a 1-1/4" plank should be used. if you have in mind to make a very long sled you should consider, before beginning, that you must either use a quite thick plank to get the necessary stiffness, which will add to the weight of the double-runner, or the plank must be stiffened or "trussed" with rods beneath like a bridge, which will add to the expense and labour. it should be of strong, elastic, straight-grained wood, free from bad knots or defects, as the strain upon it is great. it should not be too yielding and springy, however, or it may sag inconveniently. clear hard southern pine or ash is good. a plank of stiff spruce of good quality will do. the rear end can be rounded, as shown (fig. 243). machine-planing is sufficient for the sides of the seat-plank, but the edges should be planed carefully (see _plane_), and the angles slightly rounded off with the plane, spoke-shave, or rasp and file (see _spokeshave_, _rasp_, and _file_) to prevent splinters. [illustration fig. 244.] [illustration fig. 245.] to enable the front sled to turn properly, get out two pieces of 2" plank, as shown in fig. 244, about 3" wide and as long as the width of the sled, one being tapered toward the ends on the under side. the tapering is important, as it diminishes the friction when the front sled is turned. screw one of these pieces firmly across the top of the front sled and the other across the lower side of the seat-board (see _screws_), a hole being bored through the centre of each cross-piece (as well as through the seat-board and the top of the front sled) for the king-bolt upon which the front sled turns. find these centres accurately and bore carefully with a bit 1/16" larger than the king-bolt (see _boring_). the front sled should turn very freely and easily, and have plenty of play, but the bolt should not fit loosely enough to make the double-runner rickety. a washer can be inserted between the cross-pieces. sometimes a thick rubber washer is used to lessen the shock (fig. 245). [illustration fig. 246.] to give the ends of the rear sled freedom to play up and down (without turning sideways) in passing over the inequities of the surface the arrangement shown in fig. 243 (and enlarged in fig. 246) is good. do not make this of 7/8" stock. pieces of plank should be used, the dimensions being so arranged that the seat-board will be equally raised from the front and rear sleds. the pins at the ends of the cross-piece should be not less than 1" in diameter (1-1/4" is better) and should be carefully cut (see _paring_ and _rounding sticks_). the best way is to have them turned to fit the holes in the rocker-shaped pieces. the latter should be long enough (about 1') to prevent danger of the wood breaking apart near the hole and to allow for screwing firmly to the seat-board. [illustration fig. 247.] another way, sometimes adopted, is to use two cross-cleats with two bolts (queen-bolts) and thick rubber washers (fig. 247), the bolts being loose enough in the holes to allow the necessary amount of play. ropes or chain can be fastened from the rear sled to the seat-board, to prevent too much dropping of the former. [illustration fig. 248.] many arrangements for steering have been invented. a cleat at the forward end of the seat-board to brace the feet against, the sled being guided by the ropes held in the hand (fig. 248), is a simple way, though requiring more strength and steadiness of arm, when the coast is rough or dangerous, than is possessed by many steersmen. the brace for the feet should be bolted to the seat-board or strongly screwed from above and beneath. another equally simple way is to screw the brace for the feet upon the forward sled (fig. 243), cutting a shallow gain in the tops of the runners to hold it more securely. in this way of steering the arms can reinforce the legs, or the steering can be done by the legs alone. it is a very effective method, which gives a high degree of control of the forward sled without cumbersome tackle and leaves the seat-board free of obstructions.[22] [illustration fig. 252.] [illustration fig. 253.] in case of a high double-runner, running foot-boards along each side can be added. a simple way to fasten these is by means of pieces of strap-iron bent as shown in fig. 252 and screwed to the under side of the seat-board, with the foot-boards fastened to the projecting arms (fig. 253). the dimensions to which the irons should be bent depend upon the height and size of the double-runner, but you should take pains that the space between the edge of the seat-board and the foot-board is such that the feet cannot become caught. the problem of contriving a perfectly successful brake for a double-runner has not yet been solved. like all other apparatus for emergencies it should be as simple as possible. unless it is _sure_ to work it will be worse than not to have one, as you will come to rely on it. the steersman is usually the one who first realises the need of braking, and when practicable he is the one upon whom it naturally devolves. if he steers with the hands he can brake with the foot against a lever as shown below, but if he steers with the feet it is pretty risky business trying to brake also with the foot and, unless you can contrive some way by which he can safely and quickly brake by hand (not an easy thing to do), the brake had best be worked by the rider at the rear. this has some obvious disadvantages. a few ideas are given below, but are not recommended as thoroughly satisfactory. [illustration fig. 254.] [illustration fig. 255.] the simple and primitive way, so often used in the country by drivers of heavily loaded sleds, of dropping a chain under the runner is an effective method of braking, provided you have some sure method of dropping the chain under the runners. fig. 254 shows a method which can be worked from either the forward or rear end of the double-runner. in the plan, or top view (fig. 254), the details of the arrangement (being beneath the seat) would ordinarily be represented by dotted lines, but in this case, on account of the small size of the drawing, they are shown by full lines, as they would look if the seat-board were transparent. a way of holding up the middle of the chain is shown in fig. 255. a small block _a_, perhaps 3" long, is screwed to the under side of the seat and the chain is held against it by the pivoted bar _b_ (which is pivoted to the seat-board by a bolt and is kept in position by the spring), and on the under side of which a piece of metal is screwed at one end, which prevents the chain from dropping. the end of the bar _b_ is connected by a wire with the lever in front. when the lever is pushed by the steersman's foot the bar _b_ is pulled away from the block _a_ and the chain falls by its own weight under the runners of the rear sled, which quickly brings the double-runner to a standstill. fig. 256 shows the bar held in position by the spring. fig. 257 shows the position of the bar after the lever has been pressed, with the open space which allows the chain to drop. the same apparatus can be worked from the rear end of the double-runner by simply having the wire to be pulled led back (fig. 258), where it can be worked directly by the hand or you can contrive a lever to be raised. [illustration fig. 256.] [illustration fig. 257.] [illustration fig. 258.] a method of braking sometimes used is by means of a crooked lever formed from an iron rod, one end of which is pulled up by the hand while the lower part has one or more prongs which dig into the surface and stop the sled. fig. 259 shows a form sometimes used, and fig. 260 a top view showing position of the handle and prongs when not in use. any blacksmith can arrange this apparatus, which is attached to the rear sled. a similar arrangement can be contrived to work by the steersman's foot if desired. one prong, attached to the under side of the seat-board, can be arranged as suggested (side view) in fig. 260a. [illustration fig. 259.] [illustration fig. 260.] the double-runner should be thoroughly oiled, and a coat of shellac, followed after a day or two by a coat of varnish, will add much to its durability as well as to its appearance. lubricate the working parts with soap or tallow. if you have a gong, it should be worked by someone other than the steersman. the rear sled is sometimes arranged to swivel like the front sled and to be steered by a second steersman, somewhat after the fashion of a long hook-and-ladder truck. this gives good command of the double-runner on curves. [illustration fig. 260a.] * * * * * =gymnastic apparatus.=--it will, in most cases, be out of the question for you to attempt to put up any building roomy enough for a "gym," but sometimes a number of you can club together and get the use of some vacant room in which satisfactory apparatus can be fitted at moderate expense. some of it may be rather primitive compared with the mechanism of a modern college gymnasium, but will answer the purpose so far as getting up muscle is concerned. most of you can find a place for one or more pieces of apparatus, either indoors or out. much outdoor apparatus can be supported on posts driven into the ground, or even by fastening to trees. the outdoor apparatus is usually easier and cheaper to make, but has the obvious disadvantages of not being usable in bad weather or winter, to any great extent, and will not last so long on account of exposure to the weather. if, however, you fix things the right way and take the movable parts indoors during the bad weather, such a "gym" will last until it is outgrown, or until the next generation grows up to build a new one. if indoors have the room well ventilated. often the second story of a barn makes a capital gymnasium. the few simple pieces of apparatus given here will be treated independently, as it is of course impossible to tell how you will be obliged to arrange them. you can vary the designs or proportions to suit the circumstances. white ash, hickory, oak, hard pine, and for some purposes fir, spruce, and white pine, are suitable for gymnastic apparatus. for everything which is to stand violent strain or wrenching, as the horizontal bars, vaulting poles, and such things, use _air_-dried stock, if possible, avoiding kiln-dried, as the latter is more brittle and inelastic, and often utterly unfit for such uses (see chapter iii.). of course for such parts only the toughest woods should be used, as white ash, hickory, oak, spruce. * * * * * =parallel bars.=--a useful form (and not beyond the skill of an amateur) is shown in fig. 261. the height must, of course, depend upon the gymnast, and can range from 3' 6" to 5' 6", the width inside (between the bars) from 14" to 19", and the length from 6' to 8'. [illustration fig. 261.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the base of the apparatus can be simply made of 2" ã� 6" planks, as shown in fig. 261, and fastened by screws (see _screws_), or, as shown in fig. 262, the pieces can be halved at their intersections (see _halving_), in which case thicker stock may be used. for a small pair of bars the planks for the base can be somewhat lighter. [illustration fig. 262.] the upright posts should be of strong wood not less than 2" ã� 4" (unless for a very small pair of bars) and should be mortised at top and bottom, as shown in figs. 263 and 264 (see _mortising_). these joints should be pinned. the bars themselves should be of the best white ash (hickory, oak, hard pine can be used), not less than 2" ã� 3" (unless for a small pair of bars). the arrangement and object of the iron braces is plain. [illustration fig. 263.] [illustration fig. 264.] after the apparatus is all fitted together, take off the bars and carefully round the top edges for the entire length (see _rounding sticks_). the ends which project beyond the posts can also be rounded on the under side (_i.e._, made elliptical in section, as shown), if desired. machine-planing is sufficient for this apparatus, except for the bars themselves, which should be carefully smoothed by hand (see _plane_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_), although, of course, the whole will appear more nicely finished if smoothed by hand. the square edges should be "broken" (_i.e._, slightly bevelled or rounded) so as not to be too sharp in case of contact with them. the whole apparatus can be simply oiled thoroughly, or can be given in addition one or more coats of shellac or varnish (see _finishing_), but a coat of oil is sufficient for the bars themselves, as they will be polished by use. this arrangement has the advantage of being portable, but of course the base can be omitted, if desired, and the posts fastened directly to the floor. if mortises cannot be cut in the floor, blocks can be screwed to the floor around the base of each post so as to form a socket into which the post will fit. parallel bars can be readily made for outdoor use by simply setting four upright posts (not less than 3" ã� 4") firmly in the ground, at the same distances apart as specified for the movable bars described above, and fastening the bars to the tops of the posts by mortise and tenon, as already shown (fig. 263). the posts should reach 3' or more below ground, both on account of the frost and to give increased steadiness, and the earth should be thoroughly tamped down around them with a sharp-pointed bar or stick. this apparatus should be thoroughly oiled and can be varnished (see _finishing_). the posts should be of good thickness at the ground, but can be tapered toward the top, on the outside, to the thickness of the bars. * * * * * =horizontal bar.=--a design suitable for the =amateur= wood-worker is shown in fig. 265. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. first make the upright posts or guides. these are somewhat like a trough in shape, side boards about 6" wide being screwed (see _screws_) on the sides of a 2" ã� 3" joist. fig. 266 shows sections in the middle and at each end, blocks being inserted at the ends for strength. the joist can be of any strong wood. the side boards, which serve as guides for the bar, had best be of hard wood. hard pine, oak, maple, ash, or any strong wood can be used. you will require two of the joists and four side boards, all sawed squarely off the exact height of the room.[23] the usual way would be to get out the pieces a little too long and, after they are fastened together, to saw off the ends so as to give the required length. gauge lines on each side of the upright pieces (see _gauge_) and intersect these lines at regular distances by others squared across and around three sides of the uprights, thus determining the places for the holes for the pins which hold the bar in position. these can be bored from each side with a 3/8" bit (see _boring_). [illustration fig. 265.] [illustration fig. 266.] another way sometimes adopted when you have one or two stout timbers on hand or already in position for the posts is to screw two upright cleats of plank to the inner side of each timber, thus forming the groove for the bar, as shown in section in fig. 267. [illustration fig. 267.] the uprights can now be fastened in place, taking care to have them exactly vertical and in line with each other. the distance apart will depend on the length of the bar. the uprights can of course be mortised into the floor, or the wood-work above, if the conditions admit, but it will usually answer every purpose to hold each end in place by four cleats firmly screwed to the floor or ceiling. it is usually simpler to have these uprights extend to the ceiling, but this is not necessary, and in some cases it may be advisable to brace them to the floor only, by wooden or iron braces, in some of the ways already shown, or they can be guyed with wire rope and turnbuckles. the bar you had best have made or buy already made, in which case you can arrange the dimensions and position of the uprights to fit the bar. it can be from 5' in length to perhaps 6' 9" (6' is a good length), and should be not less than 1-3/4" in diameter, +nor over+ 2". it should be of the best clear, straight-grained white ash or hickory (air-dried, not kiln-dried). one having a steel rod for a core is the best. the ends can be left square and bound with a square ferrule or band of iron of the right size to slip easily up and down in the grooves of the upright guides (fig. 268). any blacksmith can arrange this, as well as the pins to hold the bar. this apparatus can be finished in the same way as the parallel bars just described. [illustration fig. 268.] [illustration fig. 269.] a suggestion for a post for outdoor apparatus is given in fig. 269. the post should be set in the ground at least 3' and the earth well tamped down around it with a pointed bar or stick. the lower ends of the braces can themselves be set in the ground or abut against heavier posts set in the ground. this apparatus should be protected from the weather as in the cases described above. =vaulting apparatus.=--you can buy iron standards or bases, and of course the whole apparatus, for high jumping and pole vaulting, but it is a simple matter to make a pair of uprights that will answer the purpose satisfactorily (fig. 270). * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. take two straight sticks 10' or 12' long and about 2-1/2" square. taper each piece with the plane until about 1-1/2" square at one end. make each base of two pieces of board about 4" wide and perhaps 3' long, as shown in fig. 270, or halve two pieces of plank (see _halving_). mortise the larger ends of the posts into these bases as shown in fig. 271 (see _mortising_). [illustration fig. 270.] [illustration fig. 271.] before fastening the posts to the standards, mark a line along the middle of one side of each post. on this line lay off feet and inches from the bottom and carefully bore a quarter-inch hole through the posts at each of these points (except, of course, those near the ground) for the pins which are to support the cross-bar or cord (see _boring_). then fit the posts in the mortises and brace them by three braces each. the ends of the braces can be cut at a mitre and screwed in place, or the blacksmith will make iron braces for a small sum (fig. 271). finish like the other apparatus already described. vaulting poles should be round, very straight-grained, from air-dried (not kiln-dried) stock of light, strong wood, as spruce, free from knots or any cross-grained, weak spots. the thickness should of course depend on the length, but should not be less than 1-1/4" for an 8' pole (which is quite short), and the pole should taper toward each end (see _rounding sticks_). * * * * * =spring-board.=--a form not difficult to make is shown in fig. 272. the framework can be made of any strong wood, but the spring-board itself should be of the best quality of clear, straight-grained white ash. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. first make the base or framework. get out two pieces of 2" ã� 3" plank for the outside pieces (to stand on edge) and +screw blocks+ of the same plank at each end to raise the pieces from the ground as shown. place these pieces so that they spread apart slightly at the forward end (fig. 272), being about 22" apart at the rear end. fit a cross-tie to connect these stringers at about 2' from the forward end. [illustration fig. 272.] another cross-bar, resting on the stringers, is placed nearer the rear end, and about 1' from the rear end a piece of 3" ã� 4" joist is fitted between the stringers and held in place by a bolt passed through it and the stringers. this should be loose enough to allow the block to turn. the spring-board can be made of five strips of 7/8" stock, 4" wide and 6' long, screwed to a cleat at the forward end, and securely bolted to the block at the rear end. this apparatus can be finished as in the cases described above. * * * * * =vaulting-horse.=--a simple affair (fig. 273) can be easily arranged by making a box, perhaps 5' long and 8" or 10" square, which can be supported by flaring legs of joist as shown in the illustrations. [illustration fig. 273.] [illustration fig. 274.] first make the box (see _box-making_, in part ii.). the corners and edges should be rounded (fig. 274), and the whole padded and covered with such materials as you may have at hand or can afford for the purpose. laying out and sawing the bevels for the tops of the legs is the hardest part of the job. transfer the bevels carefully from your working drawing to the wood, and saw as exactly to the lines as you can. see also _scribing_. unless you have had much experience some paring will probably be required to make all the legs fit. to make the horse stand evenly see _scribing_, _winding-sticks_, etc. the other general directions given for the apparatus described above will suffice for this horse. [illustration fig. 275.] a horse for outdoors (fig. 275) can be simply made of a log, perhaps 1' in diameter, smoothed and with the ends rounded, and mounted (by mortising) upon posts set in the ground (see _mortising_). the top can be covered with rubber, as indicated in the illustration. the posts should be set at least 3' in the ground, and the earth well tamped around them with a pointed bar or stick. the apparatus can be finished as in the cases given above. * * * * * =giant swing.=--this piece of apparatus is excellent for outdoors, and affords considerable sport (fig. 276). [illustration fig. 276.] [illustration fig. 277.] [illustration fig. 278.] you must have a pole or mast from 15' to 25' long and from 6" to 10" in diameter at the lower end. at the smaller end there should be an iron ring or ferrule. this can be heated and driven on, when it will shrink so as to fit tightly and save the end from splitting. the upper end of the pole should first be squarely sawed off (see _saw_). the swing ropes, of which you can have two or four (as you wish), can be fastened by hooks to a pivot set into the top of the post (see _boring_), the latter being firmly set up in the ground. the blacksmith can quickly fix a pivot with hooks or pins and with a washer, to which you can fasten the ropes (fig. 277). the lower ends of the ropes can be fastened at the proper height to sticks for handles. loops can also be made in which to rest one leg if you wish. of course you must have plenty of room for swinging around. in setting up the pole dig a hole 3' or 4' deep and after placing the pole tamp the earth compactly down around it with a pointed bar or stick. a cheaper way, but hardly as good, is to drive a 1" or 3/4" rod in the top of the pole, and get out a stout piece of hard wood, 3" or 4" square and 1-1/2' or 2' long, with a hole in the middle to fit the rod, and smaller holes near each end for fastening the ropes by a knot (fig. 278). a washer can be put under the wooden bar, or the top of the pole may be slightly rounded. * * * * * =other apparatus.=--there are, of course, other useful forms of apparatus involving more or less wood-work, such as hanging poles, fixed upright and slanting poles or bars, and various contrivances which you can readily arrange without more special instruction than has been given. * * * * * ladders are of course good, but it is usually as well for the amateur to buy these. a suggestion for a framework for hanging rings, trapeze, poles, rope ladders, and the like, with fixed ladders and horizontal bar, is given in fig. 279. [illustration fig. 279.] do not make such framework too light. fasten the joints with bolts rather than screws or nails, and suspend the hanging apparatus from eye-bolts passing through the timber and with washers under the nuts. the dimensions for such framework must depend upon the circumstances. the suggestions about the construction of the other pieces of apparatus given above will assist you in designing and constructing something to suit the circumstances. footnotes: [20] all of this work can be done cheaply at any mill, leaving the rounding or bevelling of the edges and the bending of the ends for you to do yourself, and for that matter the rounding or bevelling can be done by machine. [21] mrs. alec tweedie says of the way skis are worn in norway: "the toes are fastened by a leather strap. another strap goes round the heel in a sort of loop fashion, securing the foot, but at the same time giving the heel full play. a special ski boot is worn over enormously thick horsehair stockings. this boot has no hard sole at all, and, instead of being sewn at the sides, the large piece of thick leather which goes under the foot is brought well over the top and secured to what might ordinarily be called a leather tongue. at the back of the boot is a small strap, which is used to fasten the ski securely to the boot. once fixed on the ski, the boot is so secure no fall can loosen it, and the only way to extricate the foot is to undo the three straps." [22] various contrivances for steering with a wheel or cross-bar are sometimes used. these work well if properly attached, and for reasonably safe coasting can be recommended, but where a "spill" is likely to occur, it may be well to consider the chance of being injured by these obstructions in front of the steersman. [illustration fig. 249.] [illustration fig. 250.] [illustration fig. 251.] fig. 249 shows the king-post squared at the lower end (and tapering) to be fitted to a tapering mortise in the cross-cleat of the forward sled and held down by the screw and nut at the extreme end. a wheel is attached to the upper end. any blacksmith can make an arrangement like this, or the bottom of the king-post can be split (fig. 250) and screwed to the front sled, and the top can be made with a bar instead of a wheel (fig. 251). [23] you can get this height by taking two sticks whose combined length is somewhat greater than the height of the room. by letting the ends lap over one another in the middle, the sticks can be slipped along on each other until they just reach from floor to ceiling. hold them tightly together (or fasten them with a clamp) when in this position and you will have the exact length required. chapter x furniture some article of furniture is frequently one of the first objects upon which the beginner (particularly the amateur of mature years) tries his hand; and boys, as well as their elders, sometimes confidently undertake pieces of cabinet-work which would tax to the utmost the skill of an experienced cabinet-maker, only to be discouraged by the unsatisfactory result. do not be beguiled by the captivating sketches and descriptions in the popular magazines and papers which tell you how someone, at an expense of perhaps only $2.98, easily made a roomful of desirable furniture out of packing-cases, old bedsteads, barrels, soap-boxes, broomsticks, and the like, with only the household hammer, saw, and screw-driver, and a liberal supply of putty, coloured varnish, and the occasional help of the "village carpenter." that sort of work does very well for your feminine relatives if they wish to amuse themselves in such ways or to contrive makeshifts to save the expense of furniture made in the usual way. you can very well help them in such work, or do it for them, and some very neat, cheap, and serviceable things can be made of such materials (particularly with the use of cloth)--but that is not the way for _you_ to begin your cabinet-making. learn to do good, plain, simple, useful work in the simplest, most straightforward, practical, _workmanlike_ way. when you can do that, if you wish to exercise your ingenuity in patching up useful articles from discarded ones you will know how to do it properly. be sure to begin with simple articles, avoiding attempts at elaborate decoration. do not spend your time in making a useless object merely because you think it is pretty. think first whether your design is suited for the purpose intended. if you start to make a case for your books, select or make your design accordingly, and do not be misled, by the multitude of overelaborated articles with which the market is flooded, into making a parlour bric-ã -brac cabinet, all built up of turning, and jig-sawing, and machine-made carvings, too complicated and fragile for practical use, with the result that the books continue to be stored on a closet shelf or on the floor. next look to the block-form or general proportions of the object. the importance of this is often wholly overlooked by the average amateur,--sometimes because he is too engrossed in trying to make the details pretty,--but it is essential in making a handsome piece of furniture. no amount of exquisite carving, inlaying, or decoration of any kind (however beautiful in itself) will make an ill-shaped, badly proportioned article a thing of beauty; while a well-shaped and well-proportioned object will be pleasing to the eye even if free from decoration of any kind. of course, no rule can be given for designing a handsome piece of furniture any more than for painting a beautiful picture, but when you have sketched out the general shape and proportions and think you have done as well as you can, there is one thing it is well to bear in mind--that the average amateur is much more likely to spoil the appearance of his work by adding too much so-called ornamentation than by leaving the work too plain. when you become proficient enough to add carving, or other form of decoration, to your work, by all means use any skill you may have in such ways, but even then remember not to use such ornamentation too freely. avoid "gingerbread" work, meaningless jig-sawed decorations, and machine-made carvings, turned out by the gross. look at some of your great-grandmother's furniture (if you are fortunate enough to be able to do so) and think how long it has lasted, and compare it with the cheap modern furniture after the latter has been in use for a few years. how much of the latter would be in existence now if it had been made when the ancestral articles were? the durability of the old things is partly due to the quality of the wood and its seasoning. the use of whole pieces (instead of scraps of all kinds of stuff glued up with cheap glue), the way the articles were put together, and the generally honest work put into them had much to do with it. bear in mind in undertaking a piece of cabinet-work that you must hold yourself to a higher standard in the matter of accuracy of detail, in order to produce a really satisfactory result, than is necessary for much of the other work often done by amateurs. many slight inaccuracies, which are of little consequence in the rougher kinds of work, become such gaping and conspicuous defects in cabinet-work as to detract much from the satisfaction that should be taken in home-made articles. remember, then, that while it is easy to make your furniture strong, it is by no means easy to produce close, accurate joints, smooth, true surfaces, square, clean-cut edges, and a good, smooth finish. choose, therefore, simple forms, easily put together, for your early attempts; for it is much better to make a modest and unpretentious article well than to make an elaborate one badly. first and foremost, when you come to the actual work, use thoroughly seasoned wood. this is essential to making permanently satisfactory furniture, as you will learn after you have spent much time in making an article out of half-seasoned stock, only to see the ruin of your carefully executed work begin as soon as the finish is dry, or even before. although it is very easy to tell you to use nothing but properly seasoned stock, you will doubtless sometimes be deceived, however, as it is by no means an easy matter for the beginner to determine; but you can at least try your best to get wood in suitable condition, for it will be time well spent. (read the remarks on seasoning in chapter iii.) be content with the more easily worked woods in your early attempts. do not buy highly figured, heavy, and hard san domingo mahogany (no matter how beautiful) for your first table or bookcase--nor even quartered oak, nor mottled walnut burl, nor wavy maple--but begin with plain, straight-grained material, easy to work. white pine is often considered rather cheap and common in appearance, but it is suitable for many things in the way of furniture. it is one of the best woods to "stand," or hold its shape, and if not desired of the natural colour (which, is, however, suitable and attractive for some objects) it can be painted. it can also be stained, but is not to be compared with whitewood in this respect. whitewood is, like pine, easy to work, durable, can be obtained in wide boards, can be painted, and takes a stain exceedingly well. black walnut is good to work and is well suited for furniture, though its sombre hue is not always desirable. cherry, when soft and straight-grained, is easy to work and is often (when highly figured or wavy) one of the most beautiful woods. it is easy to finish. mahogany is a wood of great beauty and durability, and holds its shape exceedingly well, but the beginner should confine himself at first to the lighter, softer, straight-grained varieties, which can be easily obtained. you can then try the more highly figured and harder kinds, which will tax your skill in smoothing them. oak in its softer, straight-grained forms is well suited to the work of the beginner. it is durable, and an article made of oak will stand more abuse without serious defacement than most of the other woods used for furniture. when quarter-sawed it is more difficult to smooth than plain, straight-grained oak, but as you acquire skill you will find quartered oak one of the most satisfactory woods. oak can be stained if desired. many other kinds of wood are sometimes used, as sycamore, ash, birch, beech, maple, rosewood, butternut, ebony, etc., but these woods you can try for yourself, if you wish, as you progress in skill, and thus learn their peculiar characteristics. an important point, not always realised by the amateur, is that the stock for good furniture should be planed true, that is, free from winding. buy stock that is as true as you can find (see chapter iii.) and have it planed to be as true as possible. have as much of this truing done by machine as you can afford, for it is not worth while to spend an hour in working down a surface by hand (see _truing surfaces_, in part v.) when a machine will do it in five minutes. there are, of course, cases in which this accuracy is not essential,--and judgment must be used, as in all intelligent work,--but, as a rule, it is highly important that the surfaces should be reasonably true if you wish to do your work as it should be done. the pieces, when fitted, should come together easily and naturally, and not require to be sprung or twisted or bent in order to be able to put the article together. your furniture should always be hand-planed and scraped, for, though the slight hollows and ridges left by the planing-machine may not be noticeable while the wood is in its natural state, as soon as the surface is finished and begins to have a lustre these inequalities become conspicuous. this applies to any small irregularities of the surface. you cannot get the surface too smooth. you will be surprised at first to see how noticeable slight defects in the surface become in the finished work. curved edges occur often in furniture. many of these curves can be cut with a turning-saw or a keyholeand compass-saw, but the easiest way (and the most accurate, until you have acquired considerable skill with the saw) is to have them cut at a mill by a jig-saw or band-saw at but slight expense. have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the sawing. these curves can be smoothed with the spoke-shave alone, or spoke-shave and file, or file alone, according to the conditions, as you will soon learn by experience, the final finishing of the surface being given with fine sandpaper. put the different parts of your article of furniture completely together once (without glue or nails) to see that everything fits right, that the joints close properly, and that the whole job is as it should be, before putting together permanently. this often seems to the amateur a needless precaution (and it occasionally is), but, although it takes some time, it is the practice with skilled workmen and therefore a precaution which should not be neglected by the beginner. you will discover the importance of this when you carelessly assume that all the parts of a writing-desk, for instance, will come together properly, or that you can easily correct errors as you go along, only to find, when you have the work nearly put together that something is wrong. in the effort to mend the trouble you will be apt to loosen the parts already fastened, or will have to take the whole apart, which, when glue or nails are used, is particularly discouraging, and apt to damage the quality of the work. be particular to clamp the parts of your work together thoroughly when using glue and to allow time enough before removing the clamps (see _clamps_ and _gluing_). care should be taken in putting your work together to get it "square," that is, to prove the accuracy of the right angles. in some cases this is of course essential to having the work come together at all. in others, the appearance will be much injured if the article tips to one side or is slanting or twisted. in all cases it is essential to the proper closing up of the joints. it will not do to assume, as the beginner often naturally does, that because the parts of the work seem to be accurately made that the whole, when put together, will, therefore, be square. it must be tested. you will be surprised to see how much "out of square" and how winding the result of your most careful work will sometimes be if you do not test it as you put the parts together. in addition to the obvious way of applying the square (see _square_) to the angles, using the large steel square when you can: there are many cases in which measuring diagonals is a good test, altering the angles of the work until the two opposite diagonals are equal, when the work will, of course, be rectangular. this is a good way for large "case" work, using a stick, or fitting two adjustable sticks, after the manner described on page 167, between the angles, when the latter can be altered until the diagonals are equal. at the same time that you are testing for squareness you must also look out for winding, by sighting across the front or back, using winding-sticks, if necessary. when your work has a back fitted in, as in the case of a bookcase or cabinet, this will help you much in the final adjustment. do not attempt to put your case work together in an upright position, but upon horses horizontally, or flat upon its back or face. it is well to use corner-blocks in the angles of your furniture, in places where they will not show (see _corner-blocks_, in part v.). after you begin to acquire some proficiency in your work, a little beading or chamfering can sometimes be used to good advantage, but it is well not to be too lavish with this kind of ornamentation. wall-cabinets and other articles to be hung on the wall can be neatly attached to the wall by brass mirror-plates screwed upon the back. these should usually be sunk into the wood so that the back will be smooth. your furniture can be finished with oil or wax alone, or with shellac or varnish, as described in part v. in the case of articles to be hung against wall-paper or where any delicate fabric will be exposed, it is well to avoid finishing with oil alone unless the greatest care is used, for a very slight surplus of oil will quickly soil the paper. for the work of the amateur nothing is better than shellac. when your work is made of parts which can be readily separated, such parts as are joined without glue or nails, it is best to take the work apart before finishing. unhinge doors and take off locks, escutcheons, mirror-plates, handles, and the like. take out removable shelves, backs, and all detachable parts. finish all these parts separately and then put the work together again. you can finish the separate parts better and more easily, but of course this can only be done with such parts as are readily separable. in some cases it is desirable to stain your furniture, but as a rule you cannot improve on the natural colouring, which deepens and mellows with age. if you wish mahogany-coloured furniture, use mahogany, or, if you cannot afford that, simply paint or stain some cheaper wood of the desired colour, but do not try to imitate the grain of the mahogany. there are two objections to these attempts at imitation. first, they are not honest; and, in the second place, the deception is usually a failure. finally, be simple and honest in all your designing, your construction (which above all things should be strong and durable), and your finishing. do not put in your room an object which appears at a distance of ten feet to be a mahogany or black walnut centre-table, but which on closer examination turns out to be a pine washstand in disguise. there are, as you know, hundreds of articles of household utility, other than those here given, which are suitable for the amateur to make, but it is hoped that the suggestions about those which are included in this chapter will be of service in the construction of other objects. * * * * * [illustration fig. 280.] =book-rack.=--a simple rack for books (fig. 280) can be of any length desired, about six inches wide, and of half-inch +stock+ (or slightly thinner), but the dimensions can be varied according to circumstances. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. be sure that the bottoms of the ends are accurately cut. the other edges can be rounded if you wish (see _spokeshave_ and _file_). the hinges should be sunk in the wood, so that they will not injure the books (see _hinges_). see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =desk-rack.=--an easily made arrangement to put on the back of a table or desk is shown in fig. 281, and can be made of stock of from 1/2" to 7/8" thickness, according to the size of the rack. [illustration fig. 281.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. first make the two boxes (see _box-making_, page 219), and then the shelf above them. this can be fastened to the tops of the boxes by screws from underneath. the edge can be slightly rounded. the rail or guard at the back and ends of the shelf should be made independently. the back and ends can be joined as shown in fig. 282, and the whole then fastened to the shelf by screws (see _boring_ and _screws_) from underneath before fastening the shelf to the boxes, or it can be dowelled on, as shown in fig. 282a (see _dowelling_). [illustration fig. 282.] [illustration fig. 282a.] partitions can be fitted in the boxes, forming pigeon-holes or compartments, if desired. these partitions can be nailed in place or, to be more workmanlike, can be fitted in grooves (see _grooving_ and _shelves_). see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =hanging book-shelf.=--a wall-shelf (fig. 283) is useful and good practice for the amateur. it should not be made too deep (from front to back). half-inch stock is heavy enough, if the shelf is not more than two feet long. [illustration fig. 283.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this shelf can be simply put together by nailing, setting the nails carefully (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_). carefully mark lines (using the square) by which to nail the pieces in their proper places. it is not worth while to use glue if the parts are put together in this way. a stronger and more workmanlike way is to groove the lower shelf into the sides and the sides into the upper shelf (see _grooving_). in this case glue should be used and the work tightly clamped (see _gluing_ and _clamps_). it will be much stronger to fit a back between the two shelves and the sides. this should properly be set in a rabbet cut around the space, as shown in fig. 284 (see _rabbet_). [illustration fig. 284.] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =wall-cabinet.=--an open cabinet or hanging case for books, magazines, or other small articles (fig. 285) can be of any desired proportions, but should not be very large. half-inch stock is sufficiently thick. [illustration fig. 285.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this case should have a back. rabbets should be cut to receive the back, as in the case of the wall-shelf just shown (see _rabbet_), the top and middle shelves being narrower than the lower shelf by the thickness of the back. this case can simply be nailed together (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_), but it will be better to groove the shelves into the sides (see _grooving_). see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =hanging bookcase.=--a simple and useful case for the wall (fig. 286) can be made on much the same principle as the small case just shown. it is well not to make such cases very large, and, unless quite small, stock from 3/4" to 7/8" in thickness will be suitable. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. instead of a back, strips can be screwed on vertically (fig. 286), being sunk so as to be flush with the back of the case (fig. 287). * * * * * [illustration fig. 286.] [illustration fig. 287.] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =wall-shelves.=--an easily made arrangement is suggested in fig. 288. the design can easily be varied if you wish. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is extremely simple, the shelves being merely screwed on from the back. [illustration fig. 288.] get out the back and the shelves, and smooth them. mark lines across the face of the former at the places for the shelves, bore holes through the back from the face for the screws (see _boring_), and countersink the holes on the back (see _countersink_). screw the shelves in place (see _screws_) to see that everything is right, then take apart and finish. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =pipe-rack.=--a modification of the shelf arrangement just described makes a good rack for pipes and other articles for smoking (fig. 289). [illustration fig. 289.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this differs from the article just described only in the shape of the shelves, which have openings in the edge for holding pipes. these openings can be made either with a fine saw or by boring holes and cutting in to them from the edge (fig. 290). [illustration fig. 290.] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =wall-shelves.=--a quite simple form is shown in fig. 291, having a small box with lid. a combination of this form with the design for a pipe-rack can easily be made if desired. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is plain from the cases already described. the hinges should be sunk in the edge of the lid (see _hinges_). see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. 291.] * * * * * =wall-cabinet.=--the cabinet shown in fig. 292 should be rather small, for if large it will look clumsy. it can be made of half-inch stock. [illustration fig. 292.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is quite similar to the preceding cases. if you have no board wide enough for the back, two can be joined (see _jointing_ and _gluing_). the cupboard is simply a box without front or back (see _box-making_, page 219) screwed to the back from behind (see _boring_ and _screws_). the shelves at the sides of the cupboard and the bracket underneath it can be screwed from the back and from the inside of the cabinet, as in the preceding cases. the door (see _doors_) can be fitted and hung (see _hinges_) after the whole has been put together. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =corner-shelves or cabinets.=--a simple form of hanging corner-shelves is shown in fig. 293. this can be of any size, of course, but such articles look clumsy if made very large. half-inch stock is heavy enough unless the case is quite large, when 3/4" or 7/8" thickness can be used. [illustration fig. 293.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 294.] one of the sides can be made wider than the other by the thickness of the stock, so as to lap over and secure a tight and strong joint at the back. the top board (with rounding front) can simply be nailed down on the sides (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_), or, to be more workmanlike, a rabbet (fig. 294) can be cut around the edge of the top on the under side into which to fit the sides, which can be screwed in place (see _rabbet_, _boring_, _countersink_, and _screws_). this rabbet should not come quite to the front edge of the top. the shelves can be screwed in place from the back (see _screws_), carefully marking lines with the square, for boring the holes, before putting the case together, and countersinking +the holes+ upon the back. this case (being fastened by screws) can be taken apart for finishing. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * [illustration fig. 295.] a standing cabinet like fig. 295 can be made in the same manner as the hanging cabinet just shown, but can, of course, be larger. stock from 3/4" to 7/8" in thickness can be used. the rail at the top can be made and put on as directed for the desk-rack shown in figs. 281 and 282. * * * * * =medicine-cabinet.=--any small cabinet can be used for medicines by simply arranging the shelves in any convenient manner. a simple way is to have a series of horizontal grooves on the inside of each side, into which the shelves can be slipped at any desired distance apart. a design for an easily constructed medicine-cabinet for the wall is shown in figs. 296 and 297. [illustration fig. 296.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. a good size for a small cabinet is to have the main box-part, the cabinet proper, about 15" wide, 20" high, and 7" deep. it can be made of 1/2" stock. the construction is like that of the other cases already shown. the joints should properly be grooved (see _grooving_ and _gluing_), but the whole case can be nailed together, although the result will be inferior (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_). the back should be set in a rabbet as in the cases already shown. the arrangement of the hinges is shown in the illustration (see _hinges_). the partitions can be of thin stock (1/4" or 5/16"). the doors can have thick cleats, shaped as shown in fig. 297 (enlarged in fig. 297a), with holes bored down from the top for homoeopathic phials. care must be taken not to bore the holes through (see _boring_). stop boring before the spur comes through and clean out the bottoms of the holes with a gouge. a small drawer can be fitted to one of the small compartments, as in fig. 297 (see _drawers_). if the edges of the doors are made to lap slightly where they come together, rabbets being cut on opposite sides of the edges (fig. 298), the joint will be tighter, but a little space must be allowed or the doors may bind. the rest of the details are like those of the cases already described. [illustration fig. 297.] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part. v. [illustration fig. 297a.] [illustration fig. 298.] * * * * * =bookcases.=--a plain case (fig. 299) can be made of any desired size. if quite small 3/4" stock can be used, but ordinarily 7/8" thickness will be best. the method of construction is practically the same as in the cases already described. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the shelves can all be fastened in, if desired, but a good way is to groove the top and bottom shelves into the sides and make those between movable (see _shelves_, in part v.). [illustration fig. 299.] [illustration fig. 300.] the back can be fitted by simply cutting a rabbet on the back edge of each side for the entire length (see _rabbet_), and making the shelves of such a width that they will not project beyond the rabbet. a narrow piece can be screwed from the back lengthways, above the upper shelf, as shown in fig. 300. the rest of the back can then be screwed in place (see _boring_ and _screws_). the back, being too wide to be made of one board, can very well (for a plain case of this sort) be of matched boards or sheathing.[24] do not force the back too tightly into place,--that is, crossways of the boards. allow a little play for the expansion and contraction. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * a "knock-down" method of putting together with tenons and wooden pins (fig. 301) is not very difficult, but requires care and accuracy. in the case of the bookcase just shown, the upper and lower shelves can be pinned through the sides, which will hold the case firmly, and the other shelves can be movable (see _shelves_). a case fastened in this way can be readily taken apart. this method can be applied to other designs for bookcases and cabinets. [illustration fig. 301.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the general principle is that of the mortise and tenon (see _mortising_). if you cut the mortises for the pins before cutting the tenons on the ends of the shelves you will avoid the liability of splitting the tenons. the pins should taper and the angles of the pins and tenons be very slightly bevelled, that is, the sharp edge taken off. the ends of these shelves can be slightly "cut under" or bevelled inwards (see fig. 302, which is exaggerated), on the same principle that the ends of floor boards and the like are sometimes slightly bevelled, to ensure a closely fitting joint. [illustration fig. 302.] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * a good form for an open bookcase suitable for the beginner to make is shown in fig. 303. this design is suitable for a low, or dwarf, bookcase of whatever length may be desired. if of quite small size it can be made of 7/8" stock throughout, but in most cases a thin plank (perhaps 1-1/4" to 1-1/2" thick) had best be used for the ends. a curtain can be added if desired. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the curves of the ends can be sawed by hand (see _turning-saw_ and _keyhole and compass saw_), or better by band-saw and jig-saw at a mill, and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see _spokeshave_ and _file_). the shelves (at least the upper and lower ones) should be grooved into the sides and glued (see _grooving_ and _gluing_), although, as in the other cases already described, nails can be used, but the result will be inferior (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_). the plainness of the upright edges of the ends can be relieved by a little beading (fig. 305), which you can do yourself or have moulded at the mill (see _beading_). [illustration fig. 303.] little brackets, screwed under the lower shelf at each end, as shown in fig. 306, add to the stiffness of the case. a back can be fitted into rabbets as described above, but in this case it had best not come above the top shelf, a rabbet being cut on the under edge of the latter as well as in the sides. the bottom shelf can simply be made narrower and without a rabbet. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * the bookcase shown in fig. 304 can be of any desired size and proportions. it can be of 7/8" stock, although the upright ends can well be of thin plank. [illustration fig. 304.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this case can simply be nailed together (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_), but the more workmanlike way is to groove the sides into the top and the bottom shelf into the sides (see _grooving_). the second shelf from the top can be grooved into the sides, and the upright partition forming the cupboard can also be grooved in place. this process involves careful laying out and accurate cutting. the other shelves can be removable. the base-board can be bevelled or curved on the top edge (or moulded by machine) and can be mitred at the corners. it can be fastened with fine nails (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_). the front piece can be glued as well as the mitred joints. a moulding can be nailed around the top as shown, being mitred at the corners.[25] the other details of construction do not differ from those of the cases just given, except in the matter of making and fitting the door, for which see _doors_ in part v. a common way of making the sides of such cases is to make the side itself of board thickness, and to face the front edge with a strip (which can be glued on) from 1-1/4" to 2" wide, according to the size of the case, in the way shown in fig. 305 (see _gluing_). this gives a wider edge to the side and the shelves can fit behind the facing strip. beading can be worked on this strip, as shown (see _beading_). [illustration fig. 305.] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =desk and bookcase.=--various combinations of book-shelves with a desk can be arranged. a useful form for a small one is shown in fig. 306. the height is of course regulated by the necessary position of the desk-lid when dropped. the general principles of the construction are the same as those of the cases already shown. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the wing, or attachment at the side, can be grooved into the side of the main part. [illustration fig. 306.] the back should reach across from one part to the other, which will give stiffness to the whole. the desk-lid, which should be set in perhaps 3/8" from the front edge of the case, can be prevented from dropping too far by chains fastened inside to the lid and the sides of the case. various other arrangements can be bought for holding a desk-lid in the proper place. the inside of the lid must of course be smooth. if panelled as in fig. 306 the panel must be thick enough to be flush with the frame on the inside (see _doors_). there will be more or less of a crack around this panel, but this is unavoidable. lids of this sort are sometimes made with a smooth surface (without frame or panelling), but this requires some form of cleating to prevent warping (see _cleats_). the small brackets under the lower shelf will help to stiffen the case. a few shelves can easily be arranged in the desk compartment. if you wish a number of pigeon-holes and compartments, a good way for the amateur to fit these is to make an independent case of pigeon-holes and compartments, without front or back, of thin wood (perhaps 1/4"), and of such outside dimensions that it will just slip into the desk-space. this open box-like arrangement can be nailed together with fine brads. the best way to make it is by fitting all the divisions into grooves, but to do this by hand requires more work and care than can be expected of the ordinary amateur. the grooving can be done by machine. a convenient arrangement is to have rows of parallel grooves into which the division boards can at any time be slipped to form compartments of any desired size. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =music-case.=--the construction of the form shown in fig. 307 is like that of the examples already shown. the sides, top, and bottom should be of 3/4" or 7/8" stock, but the shelves can be thinner. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this case can be simply nailed together (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_), but the more workmanlike way is to groove the bottom shelf into the sides and the sides into the top, as in the cases already shown (see _grooving_). a moulding at the top can be made as in the bookcase shown in fig. 304. for various ways of putting in the shelves, see _shelves_, in part v. the back can be thinner (1/4") and should be fitted in a rabbet cut around, as already shown in the illustrations. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. 307.] * * * * * =plant-stands.=--the form shown in fig. 308 is of quite simple construction and is useful to hold a large flower-pot. it should be made of 7/8" stock. the top can be from 8" to 12" square. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 308.] simply make a box (see _box-making_, page 219), without top and bottom, with the grain of the four sides running up and down. before putting together saw the curves at the bottom. as the grain of the four pieces all runs up and down, these sides can be glued together without nailing (see _gluing_). screw four cleats around the inside of the top (fig. 309) with holes bored in them for screws with which to fasten on the top from underneath (see _boring_ and _screws_). round the top edge as shown (see _spokeshave_ and _file_), and smooth the surfaces. then, having shaped the edge of the top as shown in fig. 308, fasten it in place and the stand is ready to finish. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. 309.] the form shown in fig. 310 is made upon a similar principle, and can be of a larger size than would be satisfactory for the first pattern. * * * * * much care must be taken to so lay out and cut the slanting edges of the sides that the pieces will come together accurately. after the top has been fastened on, a little piece of moulding can be put around beneath the edge of the top as shown, provided you have the skill to do it neatly. the corners must be mitred, and the moulding fastened on with fine brads, which must be set (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_).[26] [illustration fig. 310.] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. =tables.=--a plain table, which although not especially ornamental is serviceable for many purposes, is shown in fig. 311. it can be made of any size and proportions and the details can easily be varied. [illustration fig. 311.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is too simple to require special description. the legs and the cleats at the top should be of plank thickness, the rest of 7/8" stock. the legs can be halved where they cross (see _halving_), or for a rough job can be simply nailed (see _nailing_). the cleats at the top of the legs should be nailed or screwed to the legs, and will act as cleats to the top, which is fastened to them. the boards forming the top can be simply laid with the edges touching, for a rough job; but where a good surface is required the joints should be glued (see _jointing_ and _gluing_) and the surface smoothed afterwards. extra cleats can be put under the top if needed for stiffness, and additional lengthways stretchers can be added to connect the upper part of the legs. the whole should be planed and sandpapered and can be shellaced or painted. the remaining details do not differ from those of the subjects already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * a table of simple construction and neat appearance (fig. 312) can be of any desired size and proportions. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 312.] the legs can be from 1-1/2" to 2-1/2" square, according to the size of the table. after being squared and cut to a length they should be tapered toward the bottom by planing down two opposite sides and then the other two. the tapering, however, should not extend to the tops of the legs, but to a point a little below the bottom of the rails, or cross-bars, which connect the legs. on the two inner sides of the legs mortises must be cut to receive tenons on the ends of the rails which connect the legs, as shown in fig. 313 (see _mortising_). these rails can be of 7/8" stock, the curves on the lower edge being cut with the turning-saw or compass and keyhole saw, and finished with spoke-shave and chisel or file. the curves can be omitted, of course, if preferred. [illustration fig. 313.] do not try to put this table all together permanently at one operation. first put together two legs and the connecting piece, then the other two legs and the connecting piece, and finally join these two sides by the remaining rails. glue the joints (see _gluing_) and the parts should be securely clamped (see _clamps_) until dry. corner-blocks can be put in at the angles (see _corner-blocks_). holes must be bored in the rails by which to fasten the top. if the rails are not too deep, vertical holes can be bored, countersinking deeply if necessary. deep countersinking can be done by first boring a hole large enough to admit the head of the screw to the depth required, when the hole can be continued with a smaller bit. if the depth of the rail is too great for this process, the hole can be made by a species of counterboring, making first a larger hole in the side of the rail (on the inside), an inch or so from the top, and boring down into this hole from the top. a slanting cut can be made from below with the gouge to allow the screw to be slipped into the hole (fig. 314). another way is to screw cleats on the inside of the rail with a vertical hole through which the top can be screwed on (fig. 315). [illustration fig. 314.] [illustration fig. 315.] the top, if too wide for one board, should be glued up before being dressed off (see _jointing_ and _gluing_), and the edge shaped and smoothed. then, laying the top face downward on the horses or bench, place the frame upside down upon the top. when in the exact position mark a line around the inside of the frame, continue the holes in the frame a little way into the top, using a bit a trifle smaller than the screws, and then screw the frame securely to the top (see _boring_ and _screws_), measuring carefully to see that you use screws which will not protrude through the top of the table. depend entirely on the screws to hold the top on. do not fasten a table-top on with glue (see _laying out the work_, in chapter iv.). if the table does not stand even, see _scribing_ and _winding-sticks_. the final scraping (see _scraper_) of the top can well be left until the table is put together, when the whole, after being scraped, can be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). the remaining details do not differ from those of the articles already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * an excellent centre-table for the amateur to make (fig. 316) is useful for many purposes. about three feet square on top is a convenient size. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v. and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 316.] get out four legs, from 1-1/2" to 2" in diameter, according to the size of the table. they can be tapered slightly, as in the preceding case. groove one side of each leg to receive the end of the cross-partition shown in the cut (see _grooving_). these partitions can be 1/2" to 3/4" thick. one of them can extend across (diagonally) from post to post. the other can be in two parts, reaching to the centre; or the partitions can be in four parts, meeting in the centre. this framework of legs and cross-partitions can be bound together at the top by cleats screwed on top (fig. 317), holes being made in the cleats by which they can in turn be screwed to the top of the table. the lower shelf, or shelves (being made in four parts), can be fastened up from underneath, cleats, also, being used if necessary. the shelves can be of 1/2" stock. the upper shelves can be fitted after the rest is put together and can rest upon cleats underneath, to which they can be fastened. the shape of the top is shown in fig. 317a. [illustration fig. 317.] [illustration fig. 317a.] the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =small stand.=--a simple arrangement shown in fig. 318 involves more difficulties than many of the other articles shown, but is not beyond the skill of the careful amateur. a good size is about 13" or 14" across the top and 17" or 18" high. such a stand is useful to hold a flower-pot. [illustration fig. 318.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v. and look up any other references. the top can be of 1/2" or 5/8" stock and the legs of 7/8" stock, the lower part tapering in thickness to 5/8" at the bottom. the curves can all be sawed at a mill for a small sum, and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see _spokeshave_ and _file_). the underside of the top can be bevelled at the edge (fig. 319). this can be done with the spoke-shave. the file can be used to good advantage in the rounding of the extreme edge, finishing with sandpaper, but not until after the top surface has been finally smoothed (see _spokeshave_, _file_, and _sandpaper_). [illustration fig. 319.] the curved frame under the top and connecting the legs is to be made in four pieces, the legs being fitted between them (fig. 320). these curved pieces should be got out a little too long and the ends carefully sawed to make a tight joint with the legs. be sure that all these parts fit accurately before you finally put them together. screw them together, toeing screws into the legs. use glue at the joints of the curved frame and the legs, but do not glue the frame to the top. [illustration fig. 320.] the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =small table.=--fig. 321 shows a good form for a small stand suitable for various purposes, which, although not as easy to make as it looks, is not too hard for the amateur who has acquired some familiarity with his tools. it can be made of any desired height or proportions. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. get out the top as in the small stand last shown. the thickness can vary from 1/2" to 7/8" according to the size of the table. the legs should not be fastened directly to the top, but to a cleat framework to be screwed to the top (fig. 322). this helps prevent the top from warping. the legs can be round or six-sided and should be tapered (see _rounding-sticks_). a tenon or dowel should be made at the upper end of each leg to fit into a hole in the cleat framework. [illustration fig. 321.] [illustration fig. 322.] [illustration fig. 323.] the hexagonal shelf at the bottom can be of 1/2" stock and should be notched or grooved into the legs, the extreme angles of the shelf being cut off (fig. 323). a fine screw toed from underneath through the shelf into the leg (fig. 324) will strengthen the joint, and after the whole is fastened together, little brackets can be screwed with fine screws in the angle between the lower shelf and the leg. all the joints should be glued except where the cleats are fastened to the top, in which case screws alone should be used. much care is required to make all these joints accurately, and to put the whole table together properly. [illustration fig. 324.] the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =footstool or cricket.=--a common low seat or cricket (fig. 325) can be made of 5/8" or 7/8" stock and of any desired size. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 325.] the hardest part of this job is to cut the bevels where the sides meet the top and at the ends of the stretcher between the sides (see _bevelling_). you will probably find it easier to lay out and cut the ends of the sides before they are tapered. the edges of the top can be slightly rounded. after the parts are nailed together (see _nailing_) set the nails (see _nail-set_). the remaining details do not differ from those of the cases already described. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =out-door seat.=--the construction of the plain chair shown in fig. 326 is too obvious to require special description. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this seat can be made of thin plank. the most difficult part is the bevelling of the joints (see _bevelling_). [illustration fig. 326.] the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. for the painting see _painting_, in part v. =bookcase and lounge.=--"combination" articles of furniture are, as a rule, frequently undesirable on the ground of taste, and often are not as convenient as to have the parts made separately. but the amateur may sometimes find it desirable to join two or more different pieces to fit some particular spot or for some special reason. examples are given in the bookcase and desk (fig. 306), in the combination for a corner (fig. 328), and in fig. 327. these are given as suggestive of the kind of combinations that can be suitably undertaken by the amateur, and many simple arrangements can readily be contrived when desired. [illustration fig. 327.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the new principles involved in this design are merely in the combination. the bookcase and the cupboard (which can be open if desired) are similar to those already shown, and the lounge is simply a shelf or box-like arrangement connecting the two. the back of the lounge is merely a board fastened by screws. the appearance of the article depends much upon the upholstering. this should not be done until after the finishing of the wood-work. the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. 328.] another combination, suitable for a corner, is shown in fig. 328. the principles involved are the same as for the other articles already described and the construction is obvious. * * * * * =table and settle, or chair-table.=--this is an excellent form of table for the amateur to make and is useful for many purposes (figs. 329 and 330). if of moderate size, it can be made of 7/8" stock, but if large, and to be subjected to rough usage, thin plank will be more suitable for the ends and top. another good form of chair-table can be made on the same principle by making a narrower seat, or a heavy chair, and attaching a circular top by hinges to the back of the arms of the seat. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the framing of the lower part is similar to that of a box. get out the upright ends and the front and back of the box part and fit them together as shown in fig. 331, a rabbet (see _rabbet_) or groove being cut to receive the bottom. the lid, which forms the seat, can be arranged as shown (see _hinges_). the top, made like any table-top and fastened by screws to the deep cleats shown (see _screws_), is pivoted to either side of the upright ends by pins when a seat is desired. when you wish to use the table and the top is lowered, it can be held in place by inserting pins in the other two holes also. the pins should not be less than 1/2" or 3/4" in diameter. care must be used in laying off the points for making these holes (see _boring_). [illustration fig. 329.] [illustration fig. 330.] the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. 331.] =cabinet for guns, fishing-rods, etc.=--a convenient form is shown in fig. 332. the construction is similar to that of the bookcases and cabinets already shown. the stock for the case itself can be 7/8" in thickness, for the larger divisions 3/4", and for the small partitions 1/2". [illustration fig. 332.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. if you make the doors with glass panels, as shown, these can be set in rabbets cut on the inside of the door frames and held in place by strips of "quarter-round" moulding. the doors can be fitted between the sides or can lap over the edges of the sides, as you prefer (see _doors_). the drawers can be omitted if too difficult to make well (see _drawers_), and small boxes of various sizes stored upon the shelves can be used as a substitute. the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =picture frames.=--these are often undertaken by the amateur, but making them well is much more difficult than it seems to the beginner. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. if you buy the prepared mouldings so much in use, they will, in most cases, have to be mitred at the corners, which is an operation by no means easy for the beginner, particularly when the moulding is sprung or twisted, as is often the case. those joints which do not close properly must be trimmed with the plane, for which purpose the mitre shooting-board is useful (see page 94), and all four joints should fit accurately before finally putting together, so that none will have to be sprung or twisted in order to close up. at the same time you must guard against winding by sighting across the face, and the angles must be tested with the square. the clamping together is important in such work. this can be done by laying the frame flat, nailing strips a short distance outside of each of the four corners, and driving in wedges between these strips and the frame until the joints are firmly held (fig. 333). this can also be done by putting blocks at the corners and passing a doubled cord around, which, by inserting a stick, can be twisted until the frame is held tightly. but making mitred frames of moulding is not suitable work for the beginner and should be deferred until you have had some experience (see _mitring_). [illustration fig. 333.] for a plain frame nothing is better than a joint with mortise and tenon (fig. 334), the rabbet (see _rabbet_) at the back being cut through to the ends of the shorter pieces (those having the tenons), but being stopped before reaching the ends of the longer pieces (those having the mortises), as shown. the latter should be got out too long, so as to overlap a little at the ends (fig. 334). this enables you to take the frame apart more readily when fitting, and with less danger of injury to the work. the projecting ends can be sawed off after the frame has been glued together (see _mortising_, _gluing_, and _clamps_). the final planing and smoothing of the front surface and the edges should be done after the frame is glued together, careful attention being paid to the direction of the grain (see _plane_, _scraper_, and _sandpaper_). [illustration fig. 334.] after a frame of this kind is all done, an inner moulding with a row of beads, or some other simple form, can easily be fitted to the rabbet, if desired. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _finishing_, in part v. footnotes: [24] this method of putting in a back answers very well for the beginner, and is often used in cheap work, but, unless quite small, the really workmanlike way is to make a panelled frame, which is screwed in place as one piece. the degree to which the panelling is carried depends upon the size and shape of the back. when you become able to make your work more neatly and accurately than can be expected of the beginner, you will do well to construct the backs in this way, but it involves much more labour and is hardly worth while for such simple work as you will do at first. [25] a more workmanlike way is to work all such mouldings on the edge of the top, making it as much thicker as may be required, thus avoiding putting on the moulding across the grain of the piece to which it is fastened, which is not a scientific form of construction; and for that matter it is a more thoroughly workmanlike way to work all mouldings on the solid wood. the top can be made of two thicknesses, the moulding being worked on the edge of the under piece before the two are glued together. various forms of moulding can be worked on the edge by a moulding machine at almost any wood-working mill. [26] see footnote on page 198. chapter xi a few miscellaneous operations =wooden chain.=--white pine or any other easily whittled, straight-grained wood can be used. take a stick of any length and from 1" to 2" square. if very small the whittling is more difficult. [illustration fig. 335.] [illustration fig. 336.] [illustration fig. 337.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _knife_, in part v. [illustration fig. 338.] mark as shown (fig. 335), and remove the wood at the corners, forming four rabbets, giving a section of the piece the shape of a greek cross (fig. 336). next lay out the links, alternating as shown in fig. 337, and allowing space enough so that they can have some play when cut. by notching in from the outside and finally cutting away the wood within the links, they can be separated. the whittling must be done carefully, of course, and wholly by _cutting_ with a _sharp_ knife. if you try to do it by prying or twisting with the blade, you will be likely to split the wood. finally, round and smooth the links (fig. 338), doing as much of this as you can before the links are separated. use fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). leave the chain in the natural wood or oil and shellac (see _finishing_). * * * * * =ball and block.=--white pine or any other easily whittled, straight-grained wood will do for this whittling exercise (fig. 339). * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _knife_, in part v. first get out a cubical block, each edge of which may be, perhaps, 1-1/2" or 2" long. gauge a line around each side parallel to the edge and about 1/4" from it (see _gauge_). cut straight in on these lines and then make slanting cuts to meet those first made. remove the wood on the same general principle as in cutting a notch, gradually shaping the middle part into spherical form; while the cuts which are parallel with the sides finally meet and form four posts between the top and bottom. the wood must be removed by cuts, not by prying. trim the ball to be as nearly spherical as you can. if you wish to make the ring or handle shown on top, additional length must be allowed in getting out the original block. the whole can be sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_) and finished with oil or shellac (see _finishing_). [illustration fig. 339.] * * * * * =box-making.=--in laying out common boxes, bear in mind that the sides, top, and bottom usually lap over the ends,--the sides over the ends, and the top and bottom over the sides and ends (fig. 340). sometimes, however, to avoid joints showing on the front, the front and back are made to lap over the top (fig. 341), occasionally the ends lap over the back (fig. 342), and other arrangements are sometimes made. do not rely on glue for these common square joints in box-work, but place your dependence on nails or screws. [illustration fig. 340.] [illustration fig. 341.] either lid or bottom or both can sometimes project slightly to good advantage (fig. 343). in nice work, however, the bottom is more often set in so as not to show, either simply fitting in between the sides and ends or into a rabbet (see _rabbet_) cut in the lower edge (fig. 344, showing box bottom up). [illustration fig. 342.] [illustration fig. 343.] the lid or cover can be hinged to the top edge of the back of the box, or a narrower lid can be used and hinged to a strip fastened at the back of the box (fig. 345). plain lids of this sort, for everything but rough or temporary work, should be cleated, either by end cleats, by framing, or simply by cleats on the under side (see _cleats_ and _doors_). [illustration fig. 344.] [illustration fig. 345.] remember that the joints will be held more tightly (for a permanent box) if you "toe" the nails (see _nailing_). mitring is a common way of making box-joints. it is, however, one of the poorest of all ways in point of strength, and unless done with much skill,--more skill than the average amateur usually acquires,--the joints are very liable to come apart, or at least gape open, and be weaker and look worse than the common, squarely fitted joint first shown. * * * * * glue can be used and is a help. mitred joints can, however, be strengthened by splines or keys or pieces let into saw-kerfs (see _mitring_). a mitred box is hard for an amateur to put together, particularly when it is to be glued. the whole process should be rehearsed before gluing. everything must fit exactly before you begin to finally put the box together. if you get one corner out of place, all four will probably be thrown out of position before you get through puttering with them, and the glue become cold and the operation be spoiled. only a skilful amateur can make a box with nicely fitted mitred joints that will hold permanently. * * * * * there are various other ways of making joints by machine (see _joints_). the rabbeted joint shown in fig. 346 can be made by hand very well, but so much quicker with a circular saw that you will save much time by having it done at a mill. it is a good, strong, neat joint and shows less wood at the end than the common way. when it is allowable to round what little end wood there is (fig. 345) it makes the joint quite inconspicuous. glue can also be used to advantage with this joint on account of the shoulder. dowelling the corners is a method sometimes used. it is easier than mitring, but by no means a strong joint, unless skilfully made. the principal advantage of dowelling is in cases where it is objectionable to have nails show. but, as a rule, there is not much gain in trying to _conceal_ joints. certainly not unless you can do the work in the best of style. [illustration fig. 346.] learn first to make the common, plain joints accurately, and you can then attempt the more difficult ones with some chance of success. the joints can sometimes be reinforced to good advantage by triangular corner-pieces or posts, glued and screwed in place. there is no better or more workmanlike way of putting boxes together than by some form of dovetailing (see _dovetailing_), but this process is hardly one for the beginner to undertake, and should be postponed until he has acquired considerable skill, for, though the principle of laying out and cutting dovetails is easy to understand, much exactness is required in the execution. where the box does not open at the top but lower down, as in fig. 347, the best way is not to make the two parts separately, but simply to put together a tight box and then saw it apart wherever you wish to have it open. be careful to gauge accurately the line by which to saw it open (see _gauge_), and not to drive any nails too near this line. any which you omit can easily be added after the sawing. saw the box open very carefully on the line. smooth the edges after the saw, but take pains not to plane away the wood too hastily, for a very little carelessness will spoil the joint and necessitate a general truing of the edges. [illustration fig. 347.] [illustration fig. 348.] a good form for a plain chest is shown in fig. 348. the construction is the same as in the other cases. the bottom can be fitted to a groove cut around on the inside and can be inserted when the box is put together, or for a rougher job can be simply nailed in place. a simple form of tool-chest is shown in fig. 349. this can be made of any size desired and of any wood. it is usually as well to make a good-sized chest, for the cost is but little more than to make a small one. hard wood will be much more durable than soft. stock from 3/4" to 7/8" in thickness will be suitable. * * * * * unless you have had considerable experience you had best be content with the simpler joints rather than to attempt dovetailing the corners, as shown in the cut. it is not necessary to cut a rabbet for the bottom, because of the base-board or moulding which is to be nailed around the bottom, and the latter can be nailed or screwed directly to the edge, before the moulding is put around. the rest of the construction of the chest is obvious and like the cases already shown. if the moulding around the lid is to be arranged as shown, it will be best to fit the lock first, as it will be easier to attach the hasp of the lock before the moulding has been added (see _locks_ and _hinges_). [illustration fig. 349.] at about two or three inches from the top, fasten a ledge on the inside of the front and back. this can be about 1/4" thick by 1/2" deep and is for the sliding-tray, shown in the cut, to rest upon. this tray can be of soft wood, from 1/4" to 3/8" in thickness, and can be divided as you wish. it will often be advantageous to arrange the lid and the top tray so that tools can be fastened on the inside of the lid. saws and various flat tools are often thus disposed of, being held in place by straps, blocks, and buttons. you can also arrange a rack around the inside of your chest for such tools as chisels, gouges, etc. when kept in trays, such tools should be separated by divisions. the various details of making such a chest do not differ from those of the articles just described in the preceding chapter on furniture. * * * * * in nailing together rough boxes for packing or some temporary purpose, you do not need to devote much thought to the arrangement of the pieces with reference to the direction of the grain, so long as you put them together in a way that your common-sense tells you will be strong. examination of a few packing-cases will show you all you need to know for such work. but when you make a better grade of box, to be glued, regard must be paid to the direction of the grain and the matter of expansion and contraction. in the majority of boxes and chests the grain of the sides and ends should run in the same way--horizontally or around the box, as shown in the illustrations. * * * * * this gives a strong edge all around at the top of the box and permits the use of glue (with some joints) where the sides and ends meet, as the parts glued will thus naturally tend to expand and contract alike. when the grain goes in opposite directions (_i.e._, at right angles), such joints, unless short, should not be glued. where the top board is fastened to the sides and ends of the box, as in fig. 347, it should not be glued, except in the case of a small box, and the grain should run lengthways, so that there will be as little change as possible due to the expansion and contraction (see chapter iv. on laying out the work, and appendix). when several boards are required to cover the top or bottom of a box, if you wish to have as few cracks as possible and to avoid the swelling and shrinking across the grain as much as you can, lay the boards lengthways of the box, but if you merely wish for strength, lay them crossways. * * * * * care must be taken about testing the angles with the square, and guarding against winding (see _winding-sticks_), in making nice boxes, as with all framed work. if the bottom and top are got out accurately they will, of course, assist in the matter of getting the box square, and for common work carefully fitting the bottom (or bottom and top) in place will be all the "squaring" required. in nice work where the joints are glued, waste pieces should be placed over the joints (across the grain of the sides) before applying the clamps, not merely to prevent the work being marred by the clamps, but also to distribute the pressure and ensure as close a joint as possible (see _clamps_). the final smoothing of the outside of a box should be done after it is permanently put together, allowing plenty of time, if glue is used in the joints, for it to dry before dressing off the surfaces. the inside must, of course, be smoothed before putting together. the variety of forms in which boxes are made is too great for all to be specified, but the same general principles apply to nearly all forms of box-work. in the case of chests or large boxes, you will often see them with the sides and ends panelled, but this is rather an elaborate form for the beginner to attempt and had best be avoided by the inexperienced worker. a form which is not too hard for the amateur is shown, however, in fig. 350, the sides and ends being fitted to grooves or rabbets cut in posts at each corner. [illustration fig. 350.] the work of getting out the stock for boxes and making the joints can be done so quickly and accurately (and usually cheaply) by a circular saw or other machine that much time is saved, when making nice boxes, by having the parts sawed at a mill. the remarks made at the end of the introduction to chapter x. (on furniture), in regard to getting out your work, putting together, smoothing, and finishing, apply equally to making the better class of boxes and chests, and the general details of the work do not differ from those of the articles shown in that chapter. see also, _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _nail-set_, _screws_, _hinges_, _locks_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. =toy boats.=--a few suggestions about the wood-work of the hulls of toy boats may be useful to the beginner. the details of rigging and discussion of the merits of the various types and designs are matters which do not come within the scope of this book, and you can easily find information upon these points. making your boats yourself is half the fun, of course, and capital practice with tools as well as a valuable introduction to the building of model yachts, which you may undertake later, and to the general subject of boat-building and sailing. making different types and sailing them is both interesting and instructive. you will quite often see little boats fitted up as exact copies in miniature of real vessels, with all the complexity of fittings, rigging, and minor details found in the larger boats. these models are often interesting specimens of skill,--as pieces of handiwork,--but the time can usually be spent to better advantage in some other way. if you wish actually to sail your boats, leave out everything which is not essential to successful sailing. very little skill, and no instruction, is required to make the simpler forms of toy boats familiar to the small boy who lives near the water. almost any scrap of shingle or piece of wood upon which a little mast can be raised will sail, as the small boy well knows. the difficulties begin when something more like a boat is attempted, and the first and greatest of all difficulties is that of the design, as you will discover later if you attempt scientific model yacht-building. but advanced model yacht-work requires much skill--more than can be expected of a beginner. at first, in beginning to make toy boats, copy any successful boat as nearly as you can. after you get beyond making boats of shingles and scraps of board, you may very likely make something like fig. 351, which is too simple to require special description; but when you begin to build regular boats you will find enough to tax your wood-working skill to the utmost. you had best begin with simple forms and not make your first attempts too large. [illustration fig. 351.] one way of making the hull (as of course you know) is to cut it from a solid block of wood of the required size. another way is to build it up of layers of board laid on one another horizontally (fig. 352).[27] [illustration fig. 352.] the greatest care must be taken in the selection of the wood. it should be free from knots, checks, and bad grain, and above all things must be thoroughly seasoned. nothing is better than the best quality of clear white pine. mahogany is excellent, but is more costly and harder to work. * * * * * take a simple model of the fin-keel type (fig. 353). first you must have the design or drawing giving the different plans or views. if the drawing is smaller than the actual size you wish to make the boat, it must, of course, be enlarged and a full-sized working drawing made.[28] [illustration fig. 353.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _chisel_, _gouge_, _spokeshave_, _paring_, etc., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 354.] to cut the hull from a solid block, first prepare the block of the right dimensions, and plane it, making sure that the sides are true and square with one another. the sheer plan must now be transferred to the sides of the block, either by copying it on the wood by the use of transfer paper placed between the drawing and the wood, by cutting out a pattern, or by fastening the drawing itself on one side of the wood and a reversed duplicate on the other side. in the same way transfer the half-breadth plan twice to the top of the block, on each side of a line drawn along the centre, reversing the pattern for one side, of course. also continue the centre line down each end and along the bottom. if the top and side outlines can be sawed to the lines marked with a band-saw or jig-saw, the expense will be but slight and considerable labour will be saved. saw down on the lines 1--1, 2--2, 3--3, etc. (fig. 354), nearly to the sheer line shown in fig. 355. in your first attempts at making small boats it may be well to omit the deck sheer, leaving the top flat (fig. 354), as this simplifies matters in the beginning. also, saw off the superfluous wood shown by the shaded parts of fig. 355. now clamp or wedge the block, bottom up, firmly on the bench, in case you have no vise arrangement by which it can be properly held, and rough it out approximately to shape with a wide chisel (see _paring_) or the draw-knife (see _draw-knife_). [illustration fig. 355.] the operation of shaping and hollowing out is slow work and requires much care. a little haste may spoil the work of hours. as the bottom begins to approach the desired shape you must have something more than the eye by which to gauge your cutting, for a very little deviation from the true curve may spoil your boat. it is very important to get both sides of the boat alike. on card-board or stiff paper, mark a series of patterns of the different sections shown on the body plan. cut out each of these patterns so as to save the part which is the reverse of the shape of the section of the boat, thus forming a series of templates, which you can apply to the hull at each section to test your cutting, until the templates just fit the wood at their respective sections, when the shape of the hull will, of course, agree with the plan. the spoke-shave, and sometimes the plane, can be used to good advantage in the final shaping (see _spokeshave_). especial care is required not to slice off too much, and you will, of course, work, as a rule, from the centre (or amidships) towards the ends. the block can be held in the lap or between the knees for this shaping, but it is better for all kinds of crooked work to have the material firmly held by a vise or some other contrivance, so that not merely the hands of the worker are free, but the whole body as well. [illustration fig. 356.] this form of hull is simple to make, in that the curves of the outside are all convex. there are no concave surfaces and reversed curves. the surface can be finally shaped by the use of the rasp, followed by a file, and finally smoothed with scraper or glass (see _scraper_). do not use sandpaper until the hull is finished. the inside must next be hollowed. gauge a line around the upper side, 1/2" from the edge, except at the bow and stern, where a greater distance should be allowed (fig. 356). the hull must now be held firmly in some way. if you cannot contrive to clamp it firmly without bruising the outside, you should arrange some blocks (padding them with cloth or leather) in such a way that it can be held securely. it is better to spend an hour in fastening the block firmly than to attempt to steady it with one hand and to cut with the other. in all the shaping of the boat, both hands should be free if possible. grasp the blade of the tool with the left hand, or lay the hand across it, so as to exert a back-pressure on the tool. this gives great control of the tool (see _paring_). bore one or more holes (according to the size of the boat) downward from the top (fig. 356), being very careful not to bore too deeply, but to leave at least half an inch of wood below the hole (see _boring_). now run a groove with the gouge around the deck, inside of the line marked, and hollow out the inside with the gouge, cutting towards the middle. the holes bored will help in this process. cut down straight from the line marked on the upper side until the thickness of the sides of the hull is reduced to perhaps 1/4 of an inch (fig. 357). the object of the increased thickness at the gunwale is to stiffen the sides and give a better bearing for nailing down the deck. below this point make the thickness as uniform as you can, except for a narrow space at the very bottom where the keel is to be fastened, where it is often well to leave a thicker ridge (fig. 357). [illustration fig. 357.] [illustration fig. 358.] extreme care is required in hollowing the inside. it is best not to attempt to make the sides thinner than one fourth of an inch, unless you are a pretty good workman with a fair degree of patience, for it is hard to repair the damage if you cut too deeply. templates can be made for the inside. you can tell quite well whether you are making the thickness uniform by the sense of feeling, gauging the thickness between the thumb and finger. do not try to cut away too much at the bow and stern, as it will weaken the boat, but leave a sufficient body of solid wood. smooth the inside neatly with a flatter gouge (if you have it) than that with which you removed the bulk of the wood. next, with a thin strip or batten, mark the line for the sheer of the deck by the saw-kerfs already made and remove the wood carefully to this sheer line. the outside can now be thoroughly sandpapered, first with, perhaps, no. 1-1/2, and finally with no. 00. get the surface as smooth as possible (see _sandpaper_). next paint the outside and inside with two coats of white lead and oil (see _painting_). it is a good plan to apply a coat of hot oil first. [illustration fig. 359.] [illustration fig. 360.] [illustration fig. 361.] now to make this same simple model by the method of layers you will readily see that if you take a piece of board of a thickness equal to the distance between the water lines in the sheer plan (fig. 353), and cut from it pieces of the shape of the water lines as shown in the half-breadth plan (fig. 353), and also cut out the centres of the two upper pieces as shown in figs. 358, 359, 360, and then fasten these pieces one upon another as shown in fig. 361--you will see that you have built up the general form of the boat, and saved much of the labour of shaping and hollowing. before cutting out these layers, a centre line must be accurately marked along both sides and at the rounded ends, so that the layers can be put together in the correct positions. also, for the same reason, mark the midship lines across each side and on the edges, as shown. in drawing the inside lines (for the part to be cut out), care must be taken to leave sufficient thickness at the sides to allow for the final shaping. the sawing of the layers had best be done at a mill with a band-saw and jigor scroll-saw, but can be done by hand, of course. the boards or planks must be accurately dressed so as to make as perfect joints as possible when put together. if not convenient to make the thickness of the boards agree with the water lines of the plan, you can easily draw in new water lines to agree with the thickness of the board you may have--say, 3/4" or 7/8" apart. glue must now be applied to the joints, and the pieces firmly clamped together between boards, or laid flat (bottom side upwards) and weights applied. it is best not to cut out and glue up more than two or three layers at a time, lest they become bent or sprung. care must be used in applying the pressure to make it uniform and not cause the somewhat flexible sides to be sprung or twisted out of shape (see _gluing_ and _clamps_). do not delay this building-up operation needlessly. do not leave the pieces lying around for a fortnight. keep them all clamped up in the proper position, or under pressure, if you can, until the whole form is glued together, as such pieces spring out of shape very easily. after the glue is thoroughly dry, complete the shaping of the outside and inside as in the case of the solid block, care being taken to pare off the projecting angles on the outside gradually, so as not to cut within the curve marked on the plan. the fin (when flaring at the top and not too thin) can also be made of wood, glued and screwed on, the lead being screwed to the bottom with brass screws.[29] be sure that the fin is in line with the centre line of the boat. unless the boat is quite small it is best to fit in two or three deck beams to connect the sides and support the deck (fig. 357). these should be of thin stuff (perhaps 3/16" thick and 1/2" wide), set on edge and very slightly arched, the ends being fitted into gains cut in the sides, and nailed with fine brads. they can also be glued. the deck should be of thin stuff (perhaps 1/8" planed). mark carefully on the piece the deck outline and cut it approximately to shape, but well outside of the line. fasten small blocks of wood to the under side of the deck wherever any attachments for the rigging are to be fastened. paint the lower side, and when dry bore a row of holes with a very small brad-awl (see _awl_) all around the edge, 1/8" inside of the line. smear the top edge of the hull with thick white lead, or white lead putty, and nail the deck in place with very fine wire brads, perhaps 1/2" in length. care must be used not to split the deck or drive the nails through the sides of the hull. fine brass screws can be used if necessary. the overhanging edge of the deck can be trimmed down carefully with chisel, plane, or knife. the outside of the deck can now be painted. the rudder can be fixed in a brass tube, the ends of which can be set in lead. the mast can also be stepped in a brass tube, or simply pass through the deck to the bottom, where it can be stepped in a smaller hole, which must be bored with care lest it go through. when you come to making models of less simple form--those having hollows and reversed curves in their outside form, as the majority of boats do--the difficulty of shaping accurately is much increased and more care is required, but the principle of construction remains the same. [illustration fig. 362.] suppose, for example, you are ambitious enough to undertake such forms as those which compete for the _america's_ cup, for instance, you will find it difficult to carry the process of building by horizontal layers below a certain point (fig. 362) but the keel and lower part can be added by gluing (or gluing and screwing) a piece of board or plank on edge (or two pieces, if necessary) to the bottom. the lead can, in turn, be fastened to the lower edge of the keel by screws. models of such yachts are not always the best forms for toy boats, however desirous you may be to reproduce in miniature these famous boats. footnotes: [27] still another way sometimes used for model yachts is to build the hull much in the same way that a real vessel is built--making a framework or skeleton and covering it with little planks, but this method (though a good one in some respects) requires more skill than can be expected of the average amateur, and this mode of construction should not be attempted until you become a skilful workman and accomplished in the building of regular model yachts. if your boat is quite small it will probably be easier and better in most cases to cut the hull from a solid block; but if much more than two feet in length it is usually better to build it in layers. either of these methods can be used in any case, but for a small boat the building in layers is more difficult, while for a large one it is hard to find a block that will be sufficiently free from defects. [28] in making the plans for a boat, three views are usually drawn, known as the sheer plan, the body plan, and the half-breadth plan. these correspond to the "front or side elevation," "end elevation," and "plan" in ordinary drawings, and give side, end, and top views of the boat,--or of one-half of it, which is all that is needed, as the sides are of course alike. several equidistant horizontal lines are drawn across the plans. one of these represents the line of the water when the boat has its proper load. it is called the load water-line. the other lines being parallel to it represent other imaginary levels, at equal distances apart--like the lines which would be made by the water if the boat sunk deeper or floated higher. other lines are also added to show vertical and horizontal, longitudinal and cross-sections, at regular intervals, and also other longitudinal sections, but these details you will find fully described in works on yacht-(and model yacht-) building. [29] the fin can be cut from sheet metal (brass or sheet-iron) and inserted in a thin saw-kerf cut exactly in the centre of the bottom, being set in thick white lead, or it can be riveted to thin plates screwed to the bottom of the boat, or lips can be bent over alternately on either side of the upper edge of the fin and screwed to the bottom. the amount of lead required for the bulb at the bottom of the fin can be determined by loading the hull with weights until it is sunk to the water line. the weights will, of course, represent the weight of lead required. this can be cast in a mould and riveted to the bottom of the fin. part iii _house-building for beginners_ chapter xii house-building in its simple forms, and on a small scale, is very suitable work for the beginner in wood-working. one of the most important things to bear in mind is not to be too ambitious in your early attempts. content yourself with the simplest forms until you have attained sufficient skill to undertake more difficult buildings. all the work of such structures as are here shown can, in case of necessity, be done by one person alone; but--unless, perhaps, in the case of the smallest and simplest houses--it is much better for two or more persons to join forces, as much time will thereby be saved, for the lumber can be handled much more easily and quickly by two than by one. this will be the best way if the building is to be done by boys, in which case by all means have some system for carrying on the work. you know men usually work under the direction of a head man, or foreman, and, when there is no head man, they defer as a matter of course to the one of their number who is the best fitted to take charge of the work. choose one boy master-builder, foreman, or boss, letting him assign to each his part of the work and leaving to him the decision of questions that arise in regard to the details. if one of you is clearly more of a mechanic than the others, choose him foreman; otherwise it will be a good plan to have the office filled by each in turn for perhaps one day apiece. let the foreman divide the work as fairly as possible. that is, instead of having one boy saw off all the boards while another drives all the nails, arrange regular "shifts" at short intervals, letting the two change places and work perhaps every hour. this plan will prevent much confusion and perhaps disagreement, which might even cause the work to be given up--an unfortunate result which sometimes happens to boys' undertakings. it is not simply starting in with an understanding that you are to take turns when one may think he is tired of what he happens to be doing, but it is the regular rotation of work and responsibility at fixed intervals that will ensure harmony and a successful completion of the work. the situation is a very important matter which will be spoken of in treating of the larger structures farther on, but there is one thing which should be borne in mind for even the smallest play-house in the back yard of a town lot, and that is not to build it in a hollow where the water will collect to make it damp or uninhabitable. a flat roof should also be avoided, as it is much harder to keep tight than one which has sufficient pitch to shed the water freely. you can determine the kind of a house to build and its general dimensions according to the requirements of the case, but you will, of course, wish it to be attractive in appearance, however small it may be; and therefore, in making the drawings, it is essential to have in view the block-form, or general shape and proportions. if these are not pleasing and agreeable to the eye, your house will be unattractive, for nothing you can do in the way of ornamentation or elaborate details will make up for poor shape and proportions. to design a building (however small) with a pleasing and attractive exterior is, however, no easy task. if you can make a perspective sketch of your proposed house with reasonable accuracy, it will be a great help, as the regular working drawings (the plan, elevations, etc.), however well made, often fail to give one a clear mental picture of how the structure _as a whole_ will look. a little model will be of the greatest service in determining whether the shape and proportions of your house are good. a model is easily made of paste-board with sufficient accuracy for this purpose. it is quite remarkable how different many objects appear when actually made, from the way one thinks they will appear, in spite of the most careful drawings; therefore do not despise this simple precaution of making a model in cases where attractive appearance is an element, for it may save you from putting up a structure which will be a continual eyesore. the amateur (like many professional builders) is much more liable to make his work too elaborate and with too many attempts at ornamentation than to make it too plain. so give your first attention to the block-form, and then to the details. do not cover your house with an embroidery of jig-sawing, fanciful turning, superfluous brackets, and the like, in the effort to make it pretty or to imitate the vulgar details of inferior summer cottages. the amateur is also liable in the case of very small buildings to make them too tall in proportion to their ground dimensions. a tall, narrow house is seldom homelike or attractive, whether it be six feet square or sixty. finally, be simple and modest in your designing, avoid meaningless "gingerbread" work, do not set your house up on stilts, as it were, but hospitably near to the ground; have generous doors and windows, avoid flashy and gaudy colours in painting, cultivate plants and vines to run over the outside, and keep the surroundings neat and tidy. the variety of small structures from which to select for your early attempts is almost endless. you can find many ideas for your designing and the construction in every town and in various publications. only simple types will be treated here, involving merely such principles of construction as you can readily apply to such other designs as you may wish to carry out. as it is impracticable to repeat all the suggestions and details under each structure treated here, the prospective builder who should begin with any of the later examples had best read these chapters through from the beginning before starting on the actual work. one of the simplest and most easily built small structures that you can make is that with a single-pitched or shed or "lean-to" roof; that is, with the roof slanting only one way. this style of construction, though commonly applied to a rather humble class of buildings, is by no means to be despised, the ease with which it can be built by boys or amateurs being one of its marked advantages. you will find this simple form of building capitally suited to many purposes, and a good type with which to begin. =a play-house or play-store.=--you know that an ordinary wooden building has a framework of timbers,--a kind of skeleton upon which the boarding is nailed. this will be shown in the following chapters, but a very small house or cabin, like that shown in fig. 363, suitable for a play-house for boys and girls, can be built very well in a simpler way by making the four sides separately and then nailing them together as you would do if making a box. there is no floor (except the ground), and the roof is to be nailed down on top of the four sides as you would nail the cover on the box. [illustration fig. 363. a little house, with trees a-row, and, like its master, very low!--_pope._] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. fig. 365 shows one of the sides (inside view). it is made of boards running horizontally, with an upright cleat at each edge, and another cleat at the top. fig. 366 shows the back (inside view), made in the same way as the sides, except that each cleat is set back from the edge 1-3/4", thus forming a rabbet in which to fit either side when the house is put together. the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth boards from the top are not nailed to the cleats, but are omitted, to leave space for a large open window. [illustration fig. 364. elevation. side elevation. plan. rear elevation.] [illustration fig. 365.] [illustration fig. 366.] fig. 367 shows the front (inside view), four upright cleats being used and a large opening left for the doorway. [illustration fig. 367.] first estimate the stock you will require (see chapter iv.),[30] and try to get dry wood without too many large knots. you can get along very well for such work as this on the floor, or even the ground, with a couple of boxes for horses, but a bench and horses are a great convenience. make the sides first, disregarding the slant for the roof. take a matched-board and square off one end of it, if it is not already square. then measure 5' 10"[31] from that end, mark across by the square, and saw the piece off. use this piece (5' 10" long) as a measure to mark the lengths of enough pieces to make the two sides. if you saw them off as you measure them, one by one, be sure to mark all the lengths by the first piece, and not by the one last sawed, or they will probably, vary in length. when you put the boards together to form the sides, be sure that the ends are in line. use the edge of a straight board for a straight-edge to get them in line, or drive them against the side of the room, if that is straight, or temporarily nail a straight-edged board to the floor and keep them driven up squarely against it. make sure, also, by testing with the square or by measuring, that each side of the house when made is a rectangle and not a rhomboid, or the whole house will be askew when put together. when you fit the matched edges be sure to make the joints as tight as you can, but do not pound directly on the tongued and grooved edges with the hammer. take a short piece of waste boarding, fit it to the tongue or groove wherever you wish to strike, and hit this waste piece with the hammer. you will see that there is no need of sawing out a square hole for the window, as you can put in short pieces at each side of the window-space. nail the upright cleats at the edges with 1-1/2" nails, driving two into each board in the way shown in the cut, bearing in mind that the cleats must all be on the inside of the house, and also to have the tongues of the boards uppermost when the house is put together. mark the front edge of each side in some way to prevent any mistake. the reason for putting the tongues upward and the grooves downward is because the joints will shed the water better, as otherwise each groove would be a little trough into which the rain could soak. measure 5' 6" from the bottom on the front edge of each side and 4' 6" on the back edge. draw a straight line on the outside between these points and it will give the slant for the roof. saw the boards and cleats by this line and then fit and nail the top cleats as in fig. 365, or nail the top cleats first and saw the boards off by them. next make the back in the same way, setting the cleats 1-3/4" away from the edges. leave out the boards at the window-space. make the shutter, and trim off its tongued and grooved edges (see _paring_, etc.) before nailing the back of the house together, as you can thus determine more easily the space to be left open. also trim off the tongued edge of the board coming next below the shutter. leave the open space a little wider than the shutter (say 1/4" wider) to allow for possible swelling of the boards. when you nail the cleats on the drop-shutter, be sure to use nails long enough to clinch (see _nailing_), or use screws (see _screws_). the front is to be made in the same way, the width of the door-space being 27-1/2", and of the boarding at each side, 21-1/4". have the two inner cleats project about an inch inside the edge of the doorway for the door to hit against when shut (fig. 367), and "toe" or clinch the nails for these cleats, or use a few screws, so that the slamming of the door will not loosen them. now the four sides are ready to put together. find a spot as nearly level as you can for your house. do not, however, put it in a hollow where the floor will be flooded with water when it rains. hold up the front and one side in the right position, press them closely together at the corner, and drive in a couple of nails to hold them until you can get the other parts in place. then fit on the other side and the back in the same way. try the four corners with the steel square, and when you have them right nail all the corners strongly with 2-1/2" nails. if you have no large square, measure the diagonals with a stick, altering the angles at the corners until the diagonals are equal. toe the nails at the corners, and, in fact, if you can do it neatly, it will be stronger to toe the nails throughout the work. now get out boards 6' long for the roof, to run from side to side. when you nail them on have them project 1" all around. cover the roof with roofingor sheathing-paper. lay it in strips from side to side, beginning at the back and letting the second strip overlap the first, as shingles are laid. three strips will cover the roof once. of course you can cover it with as many layers as you wish to pay for. fasten the paper with roofing nails or tacks. drive them close together, but only where the strips lap and at the edges of the roof. you can bend the edges of the paper down over the edge of the roof to cover the joint underneath and nail neat strips of wood outside to cover the edges of the paper, or you can simply nail the paper around the edge of the roof. in making the door (fig. 368) clinch the nails which fasten the cleats, or use screws, and trim off the tongued and grooved edges, as with the drop-shutter. now hang the door and drop-shutter with two strap-hinges each. place the door and shutter exactly in position (shut), and tack them temporarily in place with a few nails, or wedge them. then carefully placing each hinge so that the pin on which it turns is just in line with the crack between the door and the door-frame, mark points for the screws. bore holes for the screws and fasten the hinges in place (see _screws_). put a latch, a catch, or a hasp and padlock on the door, and a hasp or screw-eye and hook on the inside for the shutter. also fix a brace to hold the shutter when lifted, or you can arrange a rope to pass up from the outside of the shutter and around a pulley to the inside of the house, where it can hang down and be used to hold the shutter up by fastening it round a cleat or a couple of nails. [illustration fig. 368.] you can fix a shelf inside under the open window at the back (fig. 364, plan), resting on cleats nailed to the sides of the house, and also put in a seat at one or both sides, supporting the middle by a short post or a short piece of board on edge. a few strips will serve to hold the lights of window-glass in place. the house is now ready to occupy. of course you can save a good deal of labour (and lose some experience) at slight expense by having the boards sawed off squarely of the given lengths at a mill,--often where you buy the wood. in this case, remember to make a list of the number of boards of each length to take to the mill. if you would like to be able to move your house or to take it apart and store it during the winter, you can fasten the four sides and roof together with screws, or hook them together on the inside with stout screw-eyes and hooks. you will find this way in very common use by builders and contractors in the little portable tool-houses, offices, and shops which they take apart and move from place to place. [illustration fig. 369.] =play-store or booth.=--a good form for a simple play-store or booth (fig. 369) can, if small, be constructed on the same box-like principle as the little building just shown, and the details of construction are so similar that special directions for this design are unnecessary. if large, it should, however, have a frame, which you can readily pattern after that shown in fig. 371. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. by using heavier cleats, as 2" ã� 2" or 2" ã� 4", on the ends, those on the front and back can be omitted, and the boards nailed directly to the sides. an arrangement for one end (that with the door) is suggested in fig. 370, 2" ã� 2" or 2" ã� 4" joist being used. [illustration fig. 370.] a shelf or counter can be fitted inside the drop-window for the display of your wares. * * * * * this general shape can often be advantageously used for a quite good-sized building--a little cottage, for instance--and when an addition to a larger structure is desired, it is sometimes the best form for the purpose, for its shape renders it more easily attached than any other form of ell (fig. 391). a building of this style, however suitable as an attachment to a larger structure, will not be an attractive object in some situations. it will not stand alone, regardless of the surroundings, as well as some other forms. therefore it is well to consider, before deciding to build anything of this kind larger than the play-houses and stores just shown, whether your house will have a building, a fence, or a wall for a background; or a steep bluff or ledge under which it will nestle, or trees or shrubbery behind or around it. in such cases it will often be attractive in appearance. if, however, it is to be put in a prominent place where it can be viewed from all positions, it may be better to select some other type. =frame for larger building with lean-to roof.=--while the simple box-like arrangement described above is suitable for a very small structure, it must be discarded for a frame of some sort when you undertake a larger and more permanent building. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. this frame can be put together as shown for the framed structures described farther on, the only difference being at the top. a simple method of framing is shown in fig. 371. fig. 382 shows a simple way of fitting boards around the edge of the roof where it overhangs, and other arrangements for this detail can be found in the various illustrations. it is not necessary to have roofs overhang, even for a large building, but it is usually desirable on the ground of appearance and for shedding the water away from the walls. [illustration fig. 371.] for matters relating to the foundation, see pages 259-264. =play-house or cabin.=--the house shown in fig. 372 can be put together in the way already shown. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the ground dimensions can be 5' or 6' ã� 7' or 8'. the ends must be made higher than the sides, as shown, to allow for the slant of the roof. mark lines, using a straight-edge, to give the slant for both sides of the roof, and saw the boards off by these lines. a short cleat can be added at the top in the middle to stiffen these top boards. after the sides and ends are put together, get out two boards, of the shape shown in fig. 373, to rest in four rectangular notches cut in the front and back sides of the house. these pieces are to support the roof-boards, and their upper edges are to be cut at the same angle as the top of either end of the house. nail these pieces firmly in place at each end (fig. 374). [illustration fig. 372.] now get out boards for the roof, to run from end to end and about 4" longer than the house. begin to nail them on at the top, and have the roof overhang the sides and ends 2" all around. you can easily put in the window-sash, either by hinging it so as to swing open, or by having it slide to the right or left on strips nailed above and below it, as shown in fig. 369. [illustration fig. 373.] the roof-boards can also be laid the other way by putting in a ridge-piece in the form of a piece of studding or joist of any size not less than 2" ã� 2" (fig. 377), or even a board on edge, to which the upper ends of the roof-boards can be nailed. [illustration fig. 374.] another form of roof, but arranged in the same way, is shown in fig. 375. you will require a compass-saw for the curves, or you can have them sawed by a band-saw, or the wood can be trimmed to the line with the hatchet and draw-knife or chisel (see _paring_). another way to put any such little structure as this together is to have the sheathing run up and down and the cleats horizontally. this makes a neater structure than the way just given. the general principle of the construction is the same, the four sides being made separately and then fastened together. [illustration fig. 375.] =play-house, store, or cabin.=--the design shown in fig. 376 can be carried out in the manner already described. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the ground dimensions can be 6' or 7' ã� 8' or 9'. in making the ends where they are cut off at the top to give the slant for the roof, inside cleats should be used. mark lines, using a straight-edge, for the slant for both sides of the roof, and saw the boards off by these lines. it will be convenient and will look well to make the angle at the top a right angle. at the top saw out a notch in which to rest the ridge-pole, as shown in fig. 377. [illustration fig. 376.] after the sides and ends are fastened together, nail the ridge-pole in place and get out short boards for the roof. cut these for one side of the roof so as to be about 2" longer than the slant of the end of the house, and make those for the other side of the roof as much longer as the thickness of the boards, so that they will lap over at the top, as shown in fig. 377. nail them on, beginning at one end, so that the roof will overlap the ends and sides 2" all around. nailing upright strips at the corners, as is commonly done on wooden houses, and as is shown in the picture, will give the house a more finished appearance. the other details are similar to those already shown. [illustration fig. 377.] [illustration fig. 378.] [illustration fig. 379.] this house can have a floor, which can be made of 2" ã� 4" studding simply nailed together and floored over (fig. 378), forming a sort of platform to which the sides and ends can be nailed when the house is put together; and the best way to make the whole structure is that shown in fig. 377, the boards running vertically and cleats horizontally. in case of using a platform floor with this last method of construction, the lower cleats can be raised from the bottom so as to rest on the floor, as shown in fig. 378. this makes the putting together of the house quite simple, as the fitting of the sides and ends and floor in their proper places obviates the need of testing with square or measuring diagonals. the lower cleats on the sides and ends are not really necessary, however, except for convenience in putting together and taking apart, as the vertical sheathing can be nailed directly to the floor-frame or sills, as shown in fig. 377. [illustration fig. 380.] [illustration fig. 381.] the whole can then be levelled (see _level_ and _plumb_), being blocked up underneath as may be required. the design is also suitable for a larger structure, in which case a frame should be made as shown in fig. 389. * * * * * another very, similar design is shown in fig. 379, and can be put together according to the principles already shown. the boarding runs vertically and the cleats horizontally, as shown in fig. 377. [illustration fig. 382.] figs. 380 and 381 show other simple arrangements, the ground dimensions of which can be, perhaps, 8' ã� 12', and which can be put together in the same way as the preceding cases, with or without a floor, and with the boarding running vertically or horizontally. * * * * * [illustration fig. 383.] [illustration fig. 384.] [illustration fig. 385.] if a stove is to be used, the smoke-pipe can be arranged to pass through the side of the house, as in figs. 382, 383, etc. if to pass through the roof, it should be soldered or riveted to a sheet of metal, as galvanized iron, the upper edge of the latter being slipped under the roof covering while the lower edge laps over it (fig. 384), on just the same principle that shingles are laid, the idea being, of course, that the water will run down over the metal without leaking through, just as it runs down over the shingles. this simple principle must always be observed whenever metal is used to prevent joints leaking. with such small houses as these it is usually easier and safer about leakage to have the pipe run through the side of the house. if to go through the roof (particularly when there is no special roof covering but boards), it is a good plan to have the pipe pass through the roof near the ridge, so that the upper edges of the metal sheet can be slipped under one of the saddle-boards (fig. 385). in any case, an air space must be allowed between the smoke-pipe and the wood, and it is always well to have a collar an inch or two outside of the pipe. any tinsmith or metal-worker can arrange these details. round drain-pipe set in cement is often used for a cheap pipe or chimney, and answers the purpose very well. fig. 383 also shows the way to lay sheathingor roofing-paper in case you wish to use it for a temporary structure. it also gives a suggestion for a window-shutter to be raised by a cord passing through to the inside, where it can be fastened to a cleat. =a workshop.=--a small building, like that shown in fig. 386, from 8' to 12' wide by 12' to 18' long, will be suitable for a workshop or for various other purposes. [illustration fig. 386.] while it will do for a little play-house without a floor, like those described at first, to rest directly upon the ground, a better structure like this should have some sort of underpinning. * * * * * it is not customary to lay a stone or brick and cement foundation for such a structure as this, because the building is not usually worth it. it can very well be rested upon stones at the corners and middle of the sides or upon posts set in the ground. if the soil is sandy and large stones abundant, it can be rested upon piers of stones. so far as supporting the building for one season is concerned, simply resting it upon stones laid on top of the ground is sufficient, but the action of the frost will move the stones and heave the building more or less out of place, which will require it to be occasionally levelled and blocked up. a hole can be dug to a depth of about three feet, so as to be below the action of the frost, and a pier of flat stones built up. if the soil is of clear, well-packed sand, a pier of this sort will last for some time before being thrown out of shape by the frost, although, of course, if laid in cement (or if bricks laid in cement are used), it will be much more permanent. if the soil is clayey, the foundation, of whatever kind, should be carried to a depth of three feet or more and cemented, and even then it will be liable to be heaved by the action of the frost. this involves considerable labour and perhaps expense, and for such a small building it will usually be better to rest it upon flat stones laid on the surface, or to block it up in some way so as to be clear of the ground, and then level it whenever necessary, which is not difficult with so small a structure.[32] * * * * * while brick piers built upon a foundation of stone laid in cement and carried to a depth of three feet or more is doubtless the best underpinning you can have (next to a regular foundation wall), it is not always advisable to incur the necessary expense and labour, and a common and usually satisfactory way for a building of this sort is to rest it upon posts set in the ground. but before placing the posts the exact position of the building must be determined. * * * * * having fixed upon the position of the building, proceed to stake it out. first measure off with the tape, or rod, or even a string, the length of one of the sides of the building, and drive a stake at each end of the line. stretch a line between these stakes and measure off the length of the end of the building from each stake, as nearly as possible at right angles with the first line. you can do this approximately with the help of a "mason's square," or large triangle, which you can make yourself of thin strips of wood nailed together in the form of a right-angled triangle with sides 6', 8', and 10' long, or the sides can be 3', 4', and 5' long.[33] whatever method you use, be sure that the figure is rectangular, and move one or two of the stakes, if necessary, until the diagonals are of equal length. if the ground is uneven, keep the tape horizontal when measuring, and to determine the points required drop a plumb-line from the end of the tape which is raised from the ground. having in this way accurately fixed upon the lines for the four sides of the house, continue these lines a few feet (perhaps 4 or 5 feet) beyond the corners to the points marked e (fig. 388), and drive a stake at each of these points. you can easily get these eight stakes in line by sighting from the four first driven. next drive in one of these outside stakes (the one where the ground is the highest in case the surface is uneven) until it sticks out of the ground a few inches, and then drive the other seven until their tops are level with the top of the first. this you can determine by applying the level to a line stretched taut from the top of one post to the top of another. drive a nail into the top of each stake to hold the string, or cut a notch for the same purpose. now if strings are tightly stretched between these stakes, they will intersect over the four stakes first driven at the corners of the house. these four stakes you can now remove when you dig the holes for the posts, and the exact position of each post and its height above the surface will be determined by the intersection of the strings from the outside stakes. the strings can be taken off while you are digging and replaced when you are getting the posts in position. [illustration fig. 388.] next dig a hole at one corner, about 18" in diameter and about 2-1/2' or 3' in depth. in this hole set a post about 6" in diameter, sawed off squarely at the upper end, and of such a length that when pounded down to a firm and upright bearing the top of it will reach the string stretched between the levelling stakes. when you fill up the hole put in only a little earth at a time, "tamping" each layer compactly around the post with an iron bar or stick before adding more earth. contrary to what one might naturally think, the earth can be tamped more compactly with a bar or stick than with a heavy joist. set another post in the same way at the next corner, fixing it accurately in position by means of the strings, as in the case of the first post, and seeing that the distance from the outside of this post to the outside of the first one is that required by the plan. set the other corner-posts in the same way, testing all the distances (including the diagonals) as before. you can try the height of each post now and then as you dig, and thus avoid making too deep a hole. if you prefer, you can set all the posts in the right positions at first, but without trying to level the tops, merely seeing that the tops all stick up above the line. you can then strike a horizontal line all around with a cord, and saw all the posts off by this line--a process which you very likely have seen when watching the work on a pile-bridge or wharf. sawing off the posts squarely will be much easier, however, before they are set in the ground. * * * * * the posts may be of locust, cedar, cypress, or chestnut. locust is considered very durable, but is the most expensive. cedar is excellent, and will be perfectly satisfactory. chestnut will do very well for a house of this sort, and is comparatively cheap. if you do not mind the slight increase in cost, cedar is better. if you wish to be as economical as possible, chestnut will answer.[34] the reason for selecting wood of greater natural durability for the posts than for the rest of the house is to withstand the greater exposure of the posts to alternate moisture and dryness. timber will last for centuries if placed in a sheltered position and exposed to a free circulation of air. it will also last for a long period when immersed in fresh water or sunk underground, so as to be beyond the influence of atmospheric changes. but the alternate exposure to dryness and moisture, as in the case of posts partly above and partly below ground, or piles for a wharf or bridge, causes decay in a comparatively short time (see appendix). if your site is too rocky for posts, you will be saved some digging, but must provide a level and stable foundation in some other way. it rarely happens that the surface will be quite level, and you must use stone or timbers for underpinning. if there are one or two corners that must be raised, owing to inequality of the surface, and you cannot find large stones that will be sure to stay in place, you can rest the raised parts of the house upon posts securely braced. rock is not the most desirable foundation for a building with a regular underpinning and cellar--the biblical parable to the contrary notwithstanding--and there is no foundation superior to sand or gravel (only the sand or gravel must be confined and not free to slide or move). but as your house merely rests on the surface, and has no cellar to be dug or drained, there is no disadvantage in putting it on a rock, provided you support it properly. do not rest one end of it on a pile of loose cobble-stones, five feet high, only to have the stones slip some wet, stormy night and let the building down. having the foundation set, the next thing is the frame, which for a small building of this kind can be made of almost any kind of wood which you can readily obtain, provided, of course, that it is dry enough and not weakened by large knots or other defects. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 389.] the sills, or the lower timbers of the frame which rest upon the foundation, should be got out first, and can be of 4" ã� 4" stock, and halved at the ends (see _halving_) (fig. 389). upon these sills is to be set up a 4" ã� 4" post of the desired length at each corner.[35] on top of these are placed the plates, which can be of 2" ã� 4" studding laid flat and halved at the ends. be sure to get out these pieces before beginning to put them together. toe-nail the posts to the sills and nail the plates directly down on top of the posts, keeping the latter in a vertical position by temporarily nailing on strips of board diagonally, adjusting these until the posts are vertical and at right angles to the sills (see _plumb_ and _square_). next put in vertical studding (2" ã� 4") at each side of the door-space, and at the sides of the window-spaces, allowing a little more space than the exact widths of the door and window-frames. in the same way horizontal studding should be fitted in above the door-space and above and below the window-spaces, and in any places where it will be a help in stiffening the frame or for nailing on the boarding. another way is to first fit in pieces of joist horizontally, either midway between the sills and plates (except at the window and door-spaces), or running the entire length above and below the windows. just where and how many of these pieces are to be put in depends upon the arrangement of the doors and windows, and pieces of vertical studding can be fitted in at each side of the door and window-spaces and wherever advisable. short braces, with their ends sawed at an angle of 45â°, can also be fitted at the corners, where the corner-posts meet the sills and plates, and be nailed in place to help stiffen the frame. it will be a convenience in working to lay the floor next. for this you will require a number of floor-joists. if the building is only 8' or 10' wide, 2" ã� 4" studding will do; but if the width is as great as 12', 2" ã� 6" will be better. these are to be placed on edge on top of the sills, as shown. place one at each end against the corner-posts (to which it can be nailed), sawing off each end so that it will be flush with the outside of the sill. distribute these floor-joists so that they will be about 18" apart, and hold them in position by "toeing" a nail through them at each end into the sill beneath, or nailing them to the studding when practicable. before laying any of these floor-joists trim them off on the under edge, which will rest upon the sills, if necessary to ensure a level surface on top for the floor. do not neglect this, as such joists frequently vary in width. now measure the diagonals again, before laying the floor-boards, to be sure that the base of the house is rectangular. if one diagonal is longer than the other, push those corners towards each other until the diagonals are of equal length. next lay the floor-boards, lengthways of the building, driving them together tightly by pounding on a waste piece, and nailing them firmly to each floor-joist with two nails. if your floor-boards are not long enough to reach the entire length of the house, you will take pains, of course, to saw them of such a length that the ends of the boards will meet over the middle of one of the floor-joists, arranging the joints so that they will alternate or come at different points of the floor. saw off neatly all projecting ends of the floor-boards. you will frequently wish to use more force in driving the floor-boards to a tight joint at the edges than you can easily apply with the hammer. you can easily apply all the pressure required by using two short boards on the principle of the toggle-joint. arrange these as shown in fig. 390, one end resting against a temporary cleat or any firm object and the other against the edge of the floor-board. by stepping upon this toggle-joint at its apex, the floor-board will be forced into place. a common way is to pry the board into place with a chisel driven down at the edge. [illustration fig. 390.] if the building is to be used in cold weather, by all means lay double flooring. the under floor can be of cheaper stock and laid less carefully. between the two lay sheathingor roofing-paper, and you will have accomplished much towards keeping the room warm. the frame is now ready for the roof-timbers. these can be of 2" ã� 4" studding, except the ridge-board, which can be any common board about 6" wide. to obtain the length of the rafters and the angle at which the ends are to be cut, you can easily make a full-sized pattern on the floor by simply laying off a right-angled triangle of the required height and base, which will give the length of the rafters and the angle at each end, after cutting off a little piece at the upper end to represent one half the thickness of the ridge-board; or two pieces of the rafter stock can simply be laid on the floor in the right relative positions for the roof, when their points of crossing can be marked on each edge and the bevel marked on the sides of the pieces. the bevel at the lower end can be found in a similar manner. take off enough at the upper end to allow for one half the thickness of the ridge-board, and saw off one rafter as marked. this will serve for a pattern by which to mark the others. the end rafters and the ridge-board (which should first be sawed the length of the house) can easily be nailed in position by two persons, one at each end, being temporarily stayed in place by a board nailed outside (fig. 389). the roof-boards can be nailed either lengthways, or up and down. if the former way, the rafters must be put quite near together to give sufficient support to the boards. if the latter, purlins, or lengthways stringers, should be added between the ridge-board and the side-plates, as shown. if the roof is to be shingled, the boards can as well be laid lengthways--otherwise they should be laid up and down. if not to be covered in any way, matched-boards (or battened joints) should be used. if well painted, such a roof will last for some time, but shingling is much better. saddle-boards should be put along the ridge, as they add much to the tightness and durability of the roof. the sides require to be sheathed before covering the roof, leaving open spaces for the door and windows. shorter pieces can be used above and below these spaces. the boarding can be put on vertically and battens (narrow boards 2" or 3" wide, or strips of "half-round" moulding) nailed over the cracks, as shown in fig. 391, or, of course, the sides can be clapboarded or shingled if preferred, in which case the boarding can be put on horizontally. the door can be made of boards, cleated, as already shown, or one can be bought ready-made. a casing should be nailed around the door-space, previously putting at the bottom a threshold upon which the lower ends of the casing can fit. this you will at once understand by examining the arrangement of these details in almost any dwelling-house. the arrangement of the windows (which you can buy ready-made of almost any desired shape and size) does not differ from the cases already shown. the smoke-pipe can be arranged as shown on page 258. a few floor-beams put across on top of the plates and wholly or partly floored over will provide a loft useful for storage. if the building is for a shop, this will be a good place to keep lumber. the roof can be covered according to the methods already shown, but shingling will be much better. if a building is worth shingling at all, it is usually best to use a good quality of shingles. the cheapest ones are apt to be unsatisfactory for a permanent building, but, on the other hand, for such structures as these it is not necessary to get an extra quality, for some knots or defects at the thin ends where they will be covered by two or three layers may do no harm. cedar shingles are better than spruce. it is a good plan to lay roofing-paper over the roof before shingling. begin the shingling at the eaves and work upward. lay a row the length of the roof, letting the butts slightly overhang the edge. directly on top of this row lay another, breaking joints with those underneath; that is, lay the first row double, taking pains that the spaces between the shingles of the lower layer are covered by the shingles of the upper layer. leave a slight space (perhaps 1/8" to 3/8") between the shingles in laying them. this gives room for swelling, and allows the water to run off freely. if the edges are close together at the lower end, the tendency is to dam up these water-courses and retain the moisture, which is injurious. some people pare off the edges to make the butt-ends narrower, in order to obviate this; but simply laying the shingles slightly apart answers the purpose. fasten each shingle with two shingle nails (one near each edge, within perhaps 1"), far enough up from the butt to be covered by the next row of shingles. common shingles can be laid about 4-1/2" to the weather, that is, with that portion of the length exposed at the butt. if shingles of extra length are used this distance can be varied accordingly. lay the butts of each row by a chalk-line or against the edge of a narrow board, which can be adjusted and temporarily held in place by two strips nailed to the board and to the ridge of the roof. the upper ends of the top row of shingles can be trimmed off and saddle-boards can be put on at the top, letting the edge of one overlap the other. it is doubtful economy to paint shingles after they are laid. the paint tends to clog the spaces between them. it is better to dip them in paint before laying. a much better way is to dip them in some one of the prepared "creosote stains," which can be had in a great variety of colours. these are excellent, although, except to obtain some desired colour effect, it is hardly worth while to use any preparation on the roofs of such buildings as these. cut nails are considered better than wire nails for shingling, on the ground of durability. take pains to keep the lines of the rows straight and at equal distances apart. for the painting, see _painting_, in part v. if this building is for a workshop, various suggestions about the interior arrangement will be found in part i. footnotes: [30] to find the number of square feet in the cleats, first find the number of "running" feet, that is, the total length of the cleats if they were stretched out in a long line, like one of the rails of a railroad track. then, as the cleats are 3" wide (or one fourth of a foot), it will take four running feet to make one square foot. therefore divide the number of running feet by four and the quotient will be the number of square feet. [31] boards twelve feet long will be the best to buy for this house, because you can get two lengths from each board without waste. you could not be sure, however, of getting two lengths of exactly six feet from each twelve-foot board, because the ends are frequently checked or damaged in some way; so it will be safest to make the length 5' 10", as given above. [32] if you have only small stones or blocks upon which to rest it, the building can be put together directly upon the ground, the sills being rested temporarily upon any material at hand, and then the supports adjusted underneath. [33] you can mark a point on one string 3' from one stake and a point on the other string 4' from the same stake, and then increase or decrease the angle made by the two strings until another string exactly 5' long will just reach from the marked point on one string to that on the other. this process is based on the principle of mathematics that if the two sides of a right-angled triangle are respectively 3 units and 4 units in length, the length of the hypothenuse will be 5 units. another way, if you are fond of mathematics, is to find the length of the diagonals of the plan of the house by extracting the square root of the sum of the squares of the two sides. (the square described on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares described on the other two sides.) you can measure the diagonal directly from a plan if you understand mechanical drawing well enough to make an accurate plan on a scale of perhaps 1/2" or 1" to a foot. then take one tape, or string, measuring the width of the building, with one end held on the stake c (fig. 387), and another tape measuring the length of the diagonal, with the end held on the stake d. drive the stake a at the point where the two tapes meet when brought together. reversing the positions of the tapes will give in the same way the fourth corner b. the distance a b should equal c d. [illustration fig. 387.] [34] the part of the post which is embedded in the ground is sometimes charred or painted to preserve it from decay. this can be easily done, but the process is advisable only with thoroughly seasoned wood. it is highly injurious to green timber, as by closing the pores and obstructing evaporation from the surface it prevents the seasoning of the wood and causes fermentation and decay within (see appendix). [35] these posts, and even the sills, can be built up if necessary of 2" ã� 4" studding, two pieces being placed side by side and nailed together, but this is not so desirable as regards strength, its only advantage consisting in the readiness with which the joints can be made by simply cutting one of the two pieces shorter than the other. "the cottage is one of the embellishments of natural scenery which deserves attentive consideration. it is beautiful always, and everywhere; whether looking out of the woody dingle with its eye-like window, and sending up the motion of azure smoke between the silver trunks of aged trees; or grouped among the bright cornfields of the fruitful plain; or forming grey clusters along the slope of the mountain side, the cottage always gives the idea of a thing to be beloved: a quiet life-giving voice, that is as peaceful as silence itself."--ruskin, _the poetry of architecture_. chapter xiii simple summer cottages "=cottage row.="--the little houses shown in the accompanying illustrations[36] afford excellent examples of what can be done by the beginner. these were built by boys, and form, with others, a most interesting little village or street, known as "cottage row." they are small, but have many of the details of larger houses. they are shingled and clapboarded, have regular doors and windows, and are very attractively fitted up inside with curtains, cupboards, shelves, tables, chairs, lounges, bookcases, and other articles of furniture. the walls are hung or covered with prettily figured cretonne or calico. these little structures are good models for boys' first attempts at house-building, in that they are simple, modest, and unpretentious, and have a homelike air which does not pertain to many more elaborate and pretentious houses. the visitor is attracted by their neat, trim, inviting appearance, and wishes to enter. houses of this character can easily be made by two or more boys working together; and by the united forces of a number of boys a very attractive little village can be built (and much simple carpentry be learned at the same time), in which many pleasant hours can be spent. such houses as these can be framed and put together without difficulty by the methods already shown. it will not add very much to the expense to have the parts of the frame which show on the inside of the house planed by machine, and this will much improve the appearance of the interior. shingling the roofs, putting casing around the windows and doors and at the corners of the houses, and clapboarding or shingling the sides, adds much to the attractiveness of such small structures, as you can see from the illustrations. [illustration] the windows and casings you can buy ready-made, or the latter you can make yourself. the doors and casings you can also buy, or make. the door-casings and window-casings should be nailed in place before the sides are clapboarded. the tops of these casings should always be protected by strips of sheet lead, the upper edges of which are slipped up under the clapboarding (fig. 390a), thus covering the crack where the casing joins the side of the building and shedding the water--on the same principle as shown in figs. 384 and 385. this is important, as the rain will drive through such cracks, even though they seem very tight. tonguing and grooving can be used in such cases, but flashing with lead is a simpler process. the same precaution should always be taken where roofs or attachments join a building in such a way as to expose a crack through which the water can leak. zinc, or even tin, can be used, but are inferior to lead. the corner-boards and the water-table (the horizontal board at the bottom of the house) should also be nailed in place. the latter should have the top edge slightly bevelled, to shed the water. all these pieces having been carefully nailed in place, the clapboarding or shingling of the sides can be done. [illustration 390a.] it will cost but little to sheath the outside with sheathing-paper, and the house will be much tighter and dryer. this should be put on under the casings, corner-boards, etc., so as to avoid a crack where these boards and the clapboards or shingles meet. * * * * * laying clapboards, unlike shingling, is begun at the top. lay the upper row by a line, as in shingling, keeping the clapboards in place by a few nails in the upper part only. then slip the clapboards for the next row up from underneath under the first row until only the desired amount of the clapboards is exposed. the first row can then be firmly nailed near the lower edge with clapboard nails. this will hold the next row in position while the third row is put in place, and so on. the thin edge of the upper row can be finally covered with a strip of board or moulding. the clapboarding can be continued to the very bottom of the house. if, however, a water-table is used at the bottom, the lower edge of the bottom row of clapboards should be slightly bevelled to fit closely down on the slanting upper edge of the water-table. be careful to lay the clapboards in line and at equal distances apart, as variations in the alignment are quite noticeable. examine the clapboards of any house on which they are used. in arranging them break joints at the ends, that is, do not have the joints of one row directly under, or very near, those of the rows above and below. do not saw the ends by eye. mark them accurately with the try-square and knife and saw them carefully with a fine saw, trying to make as close joints as possible. [illustration] a fair quality of clapboards should be used, but a few defects near the thin edges which are to be covered may do no serious harm for such structures as these. when you begin to attempt more ambitious structures, such as modest summer cottages for camping in vacations, for huntingor fishing-lodges, or for family use,--such houses as are often undertaken by older boys or men with a taste for amateur carpentry,--there are a number of things to be considered before beginning to do any actual work. [illustration] do not begin a house you cannot pay for. if you find that the more elaborate plans suggested will exceed your means, do not let them tempt you to run in debt, but content yourself with the simplest plan.[37] you will find it perfectly comfortable, and whenever you can afford the expense you can easily add to it and improve it. that is the best principle to go on, morally as well as financially. in addition to points already spoken of in the preceding pages, bear in mind, in making your plans, to use only simple forms for your first efforts. avoid dormer windows and complicated roofs (especially combinations producing "valleys") and bay-windows, and the like, at first. such arrangements add many difficulties for the beginner. when you can make a plain, simple building, with everything snug and tight, and can lay a plain roof that will not leak, you can then attempt such variations of form with a fair chance of success, but do not be too ambitious in your first attempts. a simple piazza can often be added to good advantage, if desired. [illustration] it is well to ascertain the sizes of the ready-made doors and windows which you can buy in the place where your house is to be built, before drawing your plans. if there is a choice of situations in which to place your house, a few suggestions about the selection of a site may be of value. * * * * * if you are going to build in the mountains, or the pine woods, or on rocky islands or promontories in the ocean,--in places where there are almost no unsanitary conditions, where the climate is so invigourating, the air so purifying,--there is no need to think of many precautions important in a cleared and settled country. as much sunlight and circulation of air as you can get, pure drinking water, and the simple precaution of not building in a hollow or on the edge of a swamp, are about all the sanitary points you need consider in such places. in selecting a site in any ordinary country or seashore region, first make sure above all things of _dryness_, _sunlight_, _pure air_, and _pure water_. avoid building a cottage for regular occupancy in a dense thicket, not merely on account of the mosquitoes and other insects, but because the thicket shuts out the sun and cuts off the free circulation of air which there should always be in summer around and through a house. of course, for shooting or fishing, a lodge, camp, or cabin must be built wherever required by the circumstances. sunshine is very important in securing dryness and in purifying the air. you will naturally reject wet land. avoid also soil that retains moisture,[38] even though it may not be actually wet to step upon, for land saturated with moisture may be the unsuspected source of serious diseases. there is air in the ground, which may be the means of spreading dampness and foul gases. do not place your house in a depression or in the bottom of a valley where dampness is likely to settle. at the seashore there will, of course, be fogs from the ocean at certain times and places, but they are not harmful, except to navigation; and at the mountains more or less dampness at night is very common. do not try to find a place where there is no dampness at all, but except at the seashore or mountains reject situations where there are mists at night, avoiding particularly the vicinity of wet marshes and swamps, stagnant pools of fresh water, boggy ponds, sluggish rivers and brooks, on account of the malarious vapours which are liable to hang over them. do not try to keep cool by hiding your house where the sun will not shine upon it. the southern or south-eastern slope of a hill usually affords a most desirable site as regards both coolness and sunlight. if you can also find a site on the top of a little mound or knoll, so as to secure the free drainage of the water in every direction, it will be advantageous. the main points in regard to water are to have it pure and to have plenty of it. in regard to pure water, and pure air also, if you are planning to build in a little settlement or near other cottages the question of drainage (sewerage) from the neighbouring houses becomes of the utmost importance. a breeze from the sea, the mountains, or the pine woods is pure in itself and to a certain degree a scavenger, but do not throw upon it the work of purifying a naturally unhealthful situation. this matter of drainage you can arrange for yourself on your own land, but the arrangements of your neighbours you will have to take as you find them; therefore guard carefully against contamination of your drinking water and of the air through proximity to the cesspools, privies, or sink drains of the neighbouring cottages. exactly how far a well or spring should be from such sources of pollution it is impossible to state without knowledge of the particular spot, for it depends upon the slope of the ground, the kind of soil, the direction of the underlying strata, and other circumstances. in some cases a distance of twenty feet might be perfectly safe, while in others two hundred would be highly dangerous. one hundred feet or more is near enough under ordinary conditions. there is no greater danger than that from defective sewerage, and the danger usually begins before the senses are aware that there is any trouble. this subject is better understood now than formerly, but still, until the subject forces itself upon their attention, the majority of people pay but little regard to it. it is a fact well established among medical men that some of the worst forms of sickness are nothing but filth diseases, to which the dwellers in summer cottages are sometimes even more exposed than those in town houses. remember that air as well as water is an active agent for spreading the germs of disease. as to the position in which to place the house itself after the spot has been chosen much will depend on circumstances. consider the sun, the prevailing winds, and the views in relation to the rooms, the windows, and the piazza. an unsheltered piazza facing the west is apt to be very hot at the time of day you are likely to use it the most, though, of course, the wind or other considerations may make such a position desirable. * * * * * the subject of the necessary underpinning for such simple structures as are here shown has been already treated in the preceding chapter. in most cases you will find posts set in the ground, as there described, an excellent way (except, of course, upon rocky ground), but brick or stone piers are almost always more desirable, if you can afford the cost of the materials (which can be obtained almost anywhere), and the work of laying piers for such a purpose is not very difficult; but whether to use posts or piers should, of course, depend upon the character and permanence of the building. having fixed upon the position of the building, proceed to stake it out (including the piazza if there is to be one), as shown in the chapter immediately preceding. the foundation being ready, the frame is next to be considered. you have probably noticed in the old houses built by our forefathers their massive construction,--the great size of the timbers and the way in which they are heavily braced and mortised and pinned together. with the modern facilities for cutting wood into small pieces by machinery has sprung up a style of building of which you will see examples on every hand, and which when carried to its extreme in the cheapest houses makes a structure so flimsy that it is literally held together by nothing but nails. a scientific modification (adapted to modern conditions) of the old-fashioned "braced" structure, retaining its advantages and remedying its defects, is undoubtedly superior (_expense being no object_) to a "balloon" frame that will only hold together by having the outside boarding nailed on to it as fast as it is put up. if the more cheaply built "balloon" structures of to-day had been put up in the days of our pilgrim or puritan ancestors not a stick of them would now be standing. a lighter arrangement than the old-fashioned frame and one more easily built is, however, in our day probably better adapted for the construction of a large class of buildings of moderate size and moderate cost. this is said about braced and framed structures that you may not be led to think that the light construction advocated here for you would be the best for _all_ wooden structures. your house will be so small, and the construction of a braced and mortised frame is so difficult for amateurs, that a lighter and easier arrangement will be best for you to use, however ill-suited it might be for a large mansion or ware-house. this system of construction will be perfectly satisfactory and sufficiently durable for a little summer cottage. a little house well suited for summer use, or for a winter camp, is shown in fig. 391. * * * * * [illustration fig. 391.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the main house (which contains the general living-room) can be framed as shown in fig. 389. the "lean-to" addition (which contains the kitchen) can be framed as shown in fig. 371. if both parts are built at one time, only four sills should be used for the entire structure, and the corner-posts and upright studding of the "lean-to" on the side next the main house should be omitted. the sides of this house are battened, _i.e._, the joints of the vertical sheathing are covered with strips nailed over them--in this case with strips of "half-round" moulding. this is an easy and quite inexpensive way to finish the outside, and while hardly equal to clapboarding or shingling in some respects is a very good way for structures of this kind. as you will see from the illustration, the rafters of both the house and the ell project or overhang at the eaves. this is not really a necessity for any structure, and you will sometimes see quite large buildings without any overhang of the roof whatever, but, as a rule, it improves the appearance of the house, and is a help in shedding the water farther from the walls. it is only necessary to let the rafters project at their lower ends, making all project equally, and to nail a board to their ends, as shown. the overhang at the ends of the house can be arranged in the same way, short pieces of studding being nailed in the outside angle of the roof and ends, with strips nailed upon these. if the ground slopes, as in this case, lattice-work is good to cover the space below the sills. the remaining details have been treated in the preceding cases. * * * * * the simple structure shown in fig. 392 is suitable for various uses, and can be constructed in the way already described. * * * * * the piazza is, however, a new problem, but not a very difficult one after the processes already described. a simple way, suited for rustic structures or rough cabins, is to set the piazza posts in the ground to a depth of two or three feet, sawing the tops off at the height of the piazza roof, and simply nailing a system of floor-timbers for the piazza floor to these posts and the side of the house and flooring it with boards, while the roof of the piazza is supported on the tops of the posts. this is not a good way, however, for a carefully built house. [illustration fig. 392.] a strip of joist or plank can be spiked to the side of the house at the proper height, and to this can be nailed a system of floor-timbers for the piazza floor (see page 287), the outer corners and middle resting upon stones or posts in the same way as the rest of the building. this is then floored crossways, the whole having a slight slant outwards to shed the water. upon this platform are raised the piazza posts, and at the top of these is nailed a roof system, which is covered with boards in the same way as the floor beneath. enough slant should be given the roof to enable it to shed the water freely. the other details do not differ from those already described. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. * * * * * an excellent form for a small structure is that shown in fig. 393. this has a hip-roof, which is the only essential difference between it and the types already shown. [illustration fig. 393.] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 393a.] this roof is somewhat more difficult to make well than the simple kinds, but is not beyond the skill of the amateur. up to the plates the construction is the same as that already shown. in this roof, however, the ridge-board is short and the end rafters (called hip-rafters) incline towards it (fig. 393a). laying out the upper bevels of these rafters will require careful planning. after you have succeeded in laying them out, cutting the bevels at the ends, and fitting them in place, the shorter jack rafters can readily be put in place. [illustration fig. 394.] [illustration fig. 395.] the shingling is more difficult at the corners than in the other roofs shown, as the shingles must be cut. it is well to cover each hip with a line of shingles, laid parallel to the hip and along each side of it. boards can be used to cover the hips, as shown in one of the illustrations of "cottage row." another form, embodying the same roof construction, but larger and correspondingly more difficult, is shown in fig. 394. * * * * * a small cottage for summer use (fig. 395) is not more difficult than the cases already shown, except in the matter of size. [illustration fig. 396. end elevation.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the process of staking out and setting the foundation has been already described under _a workshop_, pages 259-264. the frame can be built upon the same general principle as shown in fig. 389, the dimensions of the stock depending upon the size of the house; but the directions given in these chapters are intended only for small structures. the sills should be 4" ã� 6" or 6" ã� 6", the corner-posts can be 4" ã� 4" or 4" ã� 6," the floor-timbers and rafters 2" ã� 6", although, if the house is quite small, 2" ã� 4" will do for the rafters, which can be braced by "collar beams," or simply horizontal pieces of board nailed across in the upper part of the roof. arrange the studding according to the doors and windows. as this house is not to be lathed and plastered, it is not essential that the studding should be at any exact distance apart. the essential difference between the frame of this house and that shown in fig. 389 consists in the projection of the second-story floor-timbers over the piazza, the ends resting upon an outer plate on top of the piazza posts (fig. 396). the arrangement of the attic floor-beams, the rafters, and the side-plates is shown in fig. 397. [illustration fig. 397.] the frame for the piazza floor can be arranged as follows: fasten a strip of 2" ã� 4" joist along the side, spiking it through into the sill. on this fasten an arrangement of floor-timbers, such as is shown in fig. 398, the inner cross-beam and lengthways stringers resting in gains, as shown in fig. 399. the details of the arrangement can be varied according to the height you wish the piazza floor to be relatively to the floor inside. for a quite small structure, or for a temporary one, it will answer to make this piazza-floor system of 2" ã� 6" stock simply sawed square and spiked together, on the principle shown in fig. 378, but for a good house which you wish to be permanent, it is better to put a little more labour into the piazza. [illustration fig. 398.] [illustration fig. 399.] another way is to have the main sills extend under the piazza as well as under the house proper. this is a more thorough way as regards stiffness, but extra pains must be taken to prevent the water working down on the sills where the house and piazza join, as this will tend to rot this portion of the sills. with this arrangement of sills an extra sill, or cross-sill, should be added under the juncture of the body of the house and the piazza. the ends of this sill can rest in gains cut in the end-sills, and the middle can be supported by one or more posts. for the stairs, which can be put wherever you wish, take two pieces of plank, 2" ã� 9" or 10", and of sufficient length. having determined the points for the top and the bottom of the stairs (by laying off on the floor in the same way as for the rafters, page 268), lay one of the planks on the floor in the proper position and mark the notches for the steps and the bevels for the ends. after these "notch-boards" or string pieces have been cut and put in place, you can easily get out and nail on the "risers" and "treads." examination of any common stairs will show you how to arrange these details without difficulty. you can mark on a stick the height from the top of the lower floor to the top of the upper. divide this distance, on the stick, into as many parts as you wish to have steps, and you can use the stick as a gauge by which to determine the points for sawing the notches for the steps.[39] it is best to have the treads not less than 9" wide, and 10" is better, while 7-1/2" or 8" will do for the risers. a "header," or cross-piece, must be securely fastened between the second-story floor-beams where they are cut off to make the opening at the head of the stairs. the partitions inside require no directions, being simply made of studding to which sheathing is nailed. the remaining details do not differ from those of the preceding cases, and the interior fittings you can arrange without further instructions. a regular brick chimney will, of course, be a desirable feature if you can afford it. * * * * * by the slight modification of having the roof overhang on each side, two piazzas will be provided and space given for larger chambers (fig. 400). * * * * * the construction differs from that of the design just shown only in the arrangement of the framing for the second story. [illustration fig. 400.] the floor-beams of the second story will overlap at each end and the rafters be correspondingly longer, and the end-plates can be omitted and the end-studding continued up to the rafters, except where interrupted by the window-spaces. this house, like the others, can be clapboarded, shingled, battened, or sheathed, as you may prefer. footnotes: [36] obtained through the courtesy of mr. charles h. bradley, superintendent of the admirable farm school on thompson's island, in boston harbour, where this little village was built. [37] if that is too expensive, some of those given in the preceding pages will probably answer your purpose. [38] "soils which are naturally porous, from which rain rapidly disappears, are known to be the healthiest for the sites of houses. in this the action of the soil oxidizes all organic impurities, the resulting product is washed away by the rain, and the soil remains sweet and wholesome."--latham. [39] to find the number of steps for a given situation, find the height, as just shown, from floor to floor, 102" for example. assume, for trial, a satisfactory height for each step, as 7". divide 102 by 7, which gives 14-4/7 for the number of steps. to make the number even, call it 14, and you have only to divide 102 by 14 to get the exact height of each step. chapter xiv a few simple structures =summer-houses.=--a form which is quite easy to build, and which is attractive when overrun with vines, is shown in front elevation (fig. 401) and in side elevation (fig. 402). * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is simple. the frame can be of 2" ã� 3" stock (planed), except the sills, which had best not be smaller than 2" ã� 4" (on edge). cross floor-beams can be inserted, as in the floors of the little houses first shown. the upright members can, however, rest upon posts set in the ground and the floor be dispensed with. where the parts of the frame cross they can be halved (see _halving_). the square joints can be nailed together. the roof can be solid or made of slats several inches apart, resting upon rafters. [illustration fig. 401.] the strips for the lattice-work can be about 3/8" thick, and from 7/8" to 1-1/4" wide. these can be got out at any mill in long or short strips, which you can cut off as you put them on. do not lay them too closely together. put one strip on at the desired angle. then cut off one or more short pieces by which to gauge the distance for laying the next strip, or get out a piece of light thin boarding of the width of the space between the lattice strips and hold it beside each strip as a guide by which to lay the next one. this lattice-work, although each strip is so slight, will give the frame great stiffness and strength. [illustration fig. 402.] the joints of such framework as this should properly be painted before being put together (see _painting_), and it also is a more thorough and neater way to lay the lattice-work strips on supports of some kind and paint them before putting on. they will then only require touching up with paint after the house is done. * * * * * the rustic summer-house, or arbour, made of sticks in their natural form, shown in fig. 403, is in some respects more difficult to build than the preceding, because the ends of so many of the pieces have to be cut at an oblique angle. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. first make a platform, as for the other floors, or the upright posts can rest upon posts set in the ground and the floor be dispensed with. plates can be placed on top of the posts, and rafters extend from the plates at the top of each post to the apex of the roof. these plates and rafters will make a framework on which to nail the sticks which form the roof covering. the remaining details are apparent. much care is required, however, to put this house together properly, not merely in cutting the angles at the joints, but in sighting, measuring, and testing to ensure its coming together without twisting or winding. [illustration fig. 403.] * * * * * instead of making this house six-sided, it can, if desired, be made rectangular like the preceding one, but keeping the same arrangement of the details. this makes a very pretty design, and in respect to joining the pieces is much easier to make. another pretty plan is to build a hexagonal, octagonal, or circular house of this sort around a tree trunk. if the roof is fitted too snugly to the tree trunk, the growth of the latter may split the roof apart before the rest of the house is past its usefulness, so you should arrange this part to allow for the growth of the tree. =bath-house.=--a plain bath-house (fig. 404) can well be made with a lean-to roof and put together on the same simple principles already shown; so that additional instructions for this design are unnecessary. a good way for such a building is to sheath it vertically as shown, but any of the other methods can, of course, be adopted. [illustration fig. 404.] [illustration fig. 405.] =boat-houses.=--by using the same simple system of framework shown in fig. 389 you can make an inexpensive boat-house (fig. 405). * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the inclined slip or platform upon which you haul the boats up from the water requires simply two or three timbers for stringers, running down towards the water, with 2" planks nailed across, as shown. the simplest way to square the ends of these planks is to nail them in place, allowing a little extra length, and then saw the ends all off at once by a line. [illustration fig. 406.] a house of this kind can be built to extend over the water (for boats which are to be kept in the water) by arranging a foundation of stone or piles in the water, or by digging a little dock into the shore under the house. in these cases there must, of course, be an additional door of the ordinary kind for entrance on the shore end of the house, and it will be convenient, if the house is long enough, to floor over this end. a narrow floor or platform can also be extended along one or both sides to facilitate handling the boats and getting in or out of them. the sill at the water end will have to be omitted, of course, a piece of studding being fitted in at each side of the door-space, but these details you will have no difficulty in arranging if you have studied the preceding examples. * * * * * a larger and more elaborate boat-house, or club-house (fig. 406), having a loft for storage as well as a balcony, can be constructed on the same general principles already explained. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 407.] the end-plate for the end shown in the illustration cannot run across from side to side, because of the doorway opening on the balcony, but can be made in two parts to extend from the sides to upright studs at each side of the doorway. a simple way of arranging the frame at the floor of the second story is shown in fig. 407. unless this building is very small (in which case it can only be used for the storage of oars, rigging, etc.), the sills should be of 4" ã� 6" (on edge) or 6" ã� 6" stock, and the floor-beams of 2" ã� 6" stock. 4" ã� 4" or 4" ã� 6" will do for the corner-posts, and 2" ã� 4" for the studding and rafters for such a small structure as is advisable for the beginner to attempt. if you should, however, build anything large, the posts, the lower floor-beams, if unsupported in the middle, the plates, and the rafters should be heavier. if your house is to be used by many people and heavy boats are to be hauled in and out, it is much better to err on the side of having these timbers too heavy rather than too light. but these designs are only intended for comparatively small structures. the outer floor-timbers for the balcony had best be mortised into the posts (see _mortising_). the top rail around the balcony can be of 2" ã� 4" studding, laid flatways, and with the upper angles bevelled (see _bevelling_). the balusters can be simply square pieces nailed into place. the rail and balusters can, however, be obtained in a great variety of forms at a wood-working mill, if you prefer to buy them. the braces under the balcony can be of 2" ã� 4" stock. all these outside parts should be planed by machine. the remaining details do not differ from those of the houses already described. part iv _boat-building for beginners_ chapter xv boat-building, like many other kinds of work, can be done (even in its simplest stages) more quickly, more easily, and, of course, more cheaply, by two persons than by one, so it will be economy of money, time, and labour to find someone to join forces with you. do not, however, give up your plans for lack of a fellow-workman, for nothing is given here which cannot be done by one person with, perhaps, a little help once in a while about holding or lifting something. if these boats seem rather simple compared with many which you have seen, and you fail to find here some form you have in mind to build, it is to be remembered that boat-building is by no means easy, and that many an attractive design would prove too difficult for the average beginner to finish successfully. the experience gained in building such boats as these will help you in more difficult boat-building. these simple models are not offered as being in themselves the best there are, nor are the ways shown for building them in every case such as would always be used by a regular boat-builder; but boat-building involves a variety of difficulties, not merely in the designing, but also in the execution. it takes a good workman to turn out a really successful round-bottomed boat (except by the use of canvas), therefore a few simple types of flat-bottomed boats are all that are treated here. when you have become skilful enough to attempt the more advanced forms, you can easily find a number of excellent books on boat-building from which to gain the needed information. the intention here is to show wood-working processes which you can use in making these simple craft, but not to go into the details of designing or of rigging, subjects which are far too complex to be satisfactorily treated, even for the beginner, in a hand-book on wood-working. while it is practicable to make a good punt, or flat-bottomed rowboat, entirely by rule of thumb, or "cutting and trying" as you go along, still you should accustom yourself, even in the simplest forms, to lay the work out on paper correctly first, as this is really essential, in order to work to good advantage when you come to the more advanced forms. =scows and punts.=--a flat-bottomed boat, if made with care, may be not merely good-looking, but light, strong, and useful, and sometimes superior for some purposes to a round-bottomed boat. boats of this class are easily and cheaply built and by no means to be despised. they are safe, capacious, and comfortable, and the flat bottom permits much freedom of movement by the occupants, making them good boats for fishing and general use on ponds and rivers, as well as for transporting loads. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the process is to first get out the sides, then the ends, next to fasten the sides and ends together as in making a box, then to nail on the bottom, and finally to put in the seats and any other fittings. almost any kind of soft wood can be used for a boat of this kind. pine is excellent. care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. [illustration fig. 408.] for the sides, take two boards, for example, 14' long, 14" wide, and 7/8" thick, planed on both sides. both edges should be "jointed" and the ends squared and sawed accurately. mark, saw, and plane the slant at each end of these boards as shown in fig. 408. the ends must next be got out. in this case they can be 4' long and 4-1/4" wide. nail together the sides and ends just as in making a flat box. use three nails (3" or 3-1/2" long) at each corner. it is safest to bore holes for the nails (see _boring_). copper nails are best for boats, but galvanized iron answers very well for common boats of this kind. next place this frame, bottom up, on horses or boxes or a flat floor and plane down the projecting edges of the end pieces to agree with the slant of the sides. pieces for the bottom are now to be sawed from boards about 6" to 8" wide. mark and saw one piece and use it for a pattern by which to mark the lengths of the remaining pieces. you can take the length directly from either end, allowing a trifle (say 1/8") to spare, for planing the ends after they are nailed. having sawed the required number of pieces, which will depend on the width of the boards, nail them on carefully. before nailing, thoroughly paint the bottom edge to which they are to be nailed with thick white-lead paint. see that the edges of each board are straight, paint the edges as you lay them, and nail thoroughly with 2-1/2" nails. do not put the nails so close to the edge as to cause splitting. the edges of the pieces which come together at the angles of the bottom must be fitted carefully with the plane (see _bevelling_), to make as tight joints as possible. the boards should be pressed closely together as they are nailed. they will assist in keeping the sides and ends of the boat at right angles, but it would be well to test the angles with the large square, or by measuring the diagonals, when you nail on the first two boards. a quicker way is to nail on all the boards (not sawing them accurately to a length) and then to saw the ends all off by a line. a good way is to use, for the bottom, plain sheathing or matched boards, if obtainable without the bead or moulding commonly worked on the surface, which would be apt to cause leakage. the sheathing can be planed down on both sides to a thickness of 5/8", which will remove the moulding, but this is rather thin for the bottom of a boat as large as this, though an excellent way for a narrower boat. when the bottom is all nailed on, turn the boat on each side and plane off any irregularity in the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will be flush with the sides. a cleat from 4" to 6" wide should be laid along the middle of the bottom to stiffen it, as shown. the nails should be driven through the boards and clinched. wrought nails, or some kind that will bend over and not break, must of course be used for this. this cleat is often nailed on the outside instead of the inside. nail a seat at each end directly on top of the sides and ends as shown. from 12" to 18" in width will do. the seat for rowing (about 8" or 9" wide) can rest on cleats, as shown. next screw a cleat, about 2" deep, 7/8" thick, and 10" long, to the insides of the gunwales at the places for the rowlocks (see _screws_). common iron rowlocks can be bought almost anywhere, and the way to put them on is obvious (see _boring_). a substitute for them can be arranged easily by simply boring two holes, 3-1/2" apart, for the insertion of round thole pins of hard wood. another simple way (fig. 409) is to make two mortises or slots, 3-1/2" apart and 1-1/2" long ã� 5/8" wide, to hold thole pins (fig. 410). the cutting can be done wholly in the cleats by sawing and paring. [illustration fig. 409.] [illustration fig. 410.] insert a ring-bolt at the end by which to fasten the boat, or a staple can be driven in, or a hole bored at the end of the seat. if care has been taken to make close joints, the wood will swell on being put in the water and in a short time the boat should be tight. unless made for some temporary purpose, however, a boat that is worth making at all is worth painting. it should be painted carefully with lead paint, both inside and out, two or three coats, being careful to work the paint well into the wood and the cracks (see _painting_). instead of laying the bottom boards tightly together, as directed above, they can be laid slightly apart, so that the cracks between them will be about 1/8" wide. these can then be caulked with oakum, cotton-batting, or wicking, or something of that nature. roll or twist the material into a loose cord, unless already in that form, and force it into the cracks with a putty-knife, screw-driver, case-knife, or anything of the sort. a regular caulking-iron is not at all necessary for a small boat. a piece of hard wood will do. be sure to fill the seams thoroughly and tightly with the oakum or other caulking material. then apply white lead plentifully to the caulked seams. but the method first given is usually satisfactory if you do your work with care. pitch or tar can be used in making the bottom of a boat of this kind tight. * * * * * a form which is a decided improvement on the preceding is shown in fig. 411. the process of making this punt will be first to get out the cross-board which goes in the middle, and next the sides and ends. these pieces having been put together, the bottom is nailed on, and finally the seats and other fittings are added. [illustration fig. 411.] the one here described is small, but large enough for two good-sized boys. the dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the process. as much larger boat as may be desired can, of course, be made upon the same principles. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. care should always be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. pine is excellent, but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort. first get out carefully a board, perhaps 3' long, or the width of the boat (at the middle), and of the shape shown in fig. 412, removing a small piece at each lower corner, to allow for the passage of any water which may leak in. get out each side of the boat, 10' 4" long, of 3/4" stock, carefully squaring the ends. after these are cut, mark a distance of 3' from each end towards the centre on the edge of one of the boards and a distance of 3" on the ends, measuring from the other edge, and mark the curves shown in fig. 413, which should sweep easily from the edge of the board without any abrupt turn. if you cannot draw a good curve free-hand, take a spline or thin strip of wood, bend it on the side of the board towards one end till you get a good curve, hold it in position, and using it as a ruler mark the line with a pencil. you can cut this curve and use it for a pattern by which to mark the other curves. these curves can be band-sawed or cut with the draw-knife or hatchet and plane (see _paring_). whatever method you adopt, the curves should finally be run over with the plane to remove irregularities, and care must be taken to keep as accurately to the line marked as possible. the top edges must also be jointed, although it is not material that they should be absolutely straight. mark a line with the square across each board at the centre. next get out the end pieces, 2' long, 3-3/4" wide, and of 7/8" stock (fig. 414). bevel the ends of these pieces at the same angle as the centre board already sawed, from which you can mark the angle. [illustration fig. 412.] [illustration fig. 413.] [illustration fig. 414.] an easy way to put this boat together will be to put the sides and ends together, and then, by spreading the sides apart, to put the middle board in its proper place. bore holes for 2-1/2" screws at each end of the sides (see _boring_) and screw the sides and ends together loosely (see _screws_), not driving the screws home, but leaving their heads sticking beyond the sides perhaps an eighth of an inch. now lay the boat (so far as made) bottom side up on the horses or boxes, or even with one end on the floor and the other raised by a box, and, spreading the sides in the middle as much as may be necessary, push the middle board up into place, getting it exactly opposite centre lines previously marked on the sides and so that the bottom edge of the board is just even with the _inner_ edge of the bottom of the sides. this piece can now be nailed in place by three nails at each end. now, on looking at the ends where the sides are screwed, you will see that spreading the sides has caused the joints (purposely left loose) to open slightly at the inside, and that the ends require to be slightly bevelled or trimmed to make a close joint. unscrew one end, do the necessary trimming with the plane, replace the piece, and screw it into position again, driving the screws home and adding one or two nails. do the same with the other end and the boat will be ready for the bottom. but before the bottom is nailed on, the lower edges of the sides must be bevelled with the plane, owing to the sides flaring outwards. the degree of bevelling required can be determined by laying a board across (fig. 415). at first it will only touch the outer angles of the edges, and the planing must be continued until it bears flat on the entire edge. [illustration fig. 415.] now get out of 7/8" stock the bottom boards, the edges of which should be carefully jointed to fit together as tightly as possible. these boards should be thoroughly nailed to the sides of the boat with 2-1/4" or 2-1/2" nails, care being taken not to nail too near the edges of the boards, lest they split. as the sides are only 3/4" thick you will have to be careful in driving the nails or they will split the sides. before you finish nailing the first bottom boards, test the symmetry of the frame by measuring the diagonals. these should be equal. if not, you can easily make them so with your hands, and tack a couple of strips diagonally across the gunwales to keep the frame in position until the bottom is nailed on. also sight across the gunwales to see that the frame is true. if it winds, correct the error by blocking it up where needed. sheathing can well be used for the bottom of this boat, as for the one just described, if you can get it without the moulding. the bottom can also be caulked (see page 302), but if you cannot get the sheathing the way first described will answer every purpose. after the bottom is nailed on, turn the boat on each edge and plane off any irregularities at the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will be flush with the sides. next nail a strip, about 3" or 4" wide and 3/4" thick, lengthways on the middle of the bottom, on the inside. fasten this to each board with a couple of nails driven through and clinched on the outside. this will serve to stiffen the bottom. next deck over each end with a seat 12" wide nailed directly on top of the sides. put in a seat, or thwart, 9" wide and 7/8" thick, next to the middle brace, as shown. cleats can be nailed to the sides under this seat. this should be a fixed seat, nailed to the cross brace and to the sides of the boat, which will assist in stiffening the sides. you can nail a gunwale strip, 2" wide by 7/8" or 3/4" thick, on top of the sides and reaching from one end seat to the other, or you can put a somewhat smaller strip around the outer edge of the gunwale, which is quite as good a way. it is not really necessary to put any gunwale strip on so small a boat, but if omitted a cleat must be screwed on for the rowlocks (fig. 409). if you put the gunwale strip on top, it will make a more workmanlike job to first plane the edges of the gunwale so that they will be horizontal across the boat, in the same way that you planed the bottom edges to receive the bottom boards. put the centre of the rowlocks about 12" aft of the centre of the boat, raising them an inch or so above the gunwale by means of a cleat (fig. 416), as shown. [illustration fig. 416.] at a distance of about 28" from the bow, you can, if desired, put in a 6" thwart between the gunwales or a little lower, and in the middle of this thwart bore a hole for a small mast, putting below and slightly forward upon the floor a block with a smaller hole. sailing does not amount to very much in a boat of this sort, but a small sail is often very useful when going before the wind and adds to the fun. this makes a very useful and safe boat for a couple of boys for river or pond work. if you wish to make a larger one you will have no difficulty after studying the process given above. the only difference need be in the dimensions. for one 12' long you could make the beam at the gunwale (outside) 3' 6" and at the bottom 2' 10", the beam at the bottom of the ends (outside) 2' 10" (same as amidships)--the ends to flare upward at the same angle as at the centre, the boards for the sides being 14" wide. for one 14' long, you could make the beam 4' at the gunwale, 3' 4" at the bottom, the same at the ends, and the sides could be made of boards 15" wide. stock 3/4" thick is sufficiently heavy for the sides of a boat 14' long. the seats for a larger boat than that described can be arranged to rest as shown in fig. 417, and an extra mould or cross-board not far from each end can be used, as shown. [illustration fig. 417.] [illustration fig. 418.] a piece of keel or skag can be added at the stern end, if desired, as shown in fig. 418. this will assist in rowing straight. fit a piece of 7/8" board to the curve of the bottom, keeping the straight edge parallel with the top. square off the end in line with the stern, nail the skag firmly to the bottom, and nail a stern-post, 7/8" ã� 1-1/4" or 1-1/2", securely to the stern and the skag. a rudder can be hung to the stern-post if desired. a centre-board is sometimes added to a punt, being arranged in the way shown on page 330. a lee-board is often used on punts and scows. it is merely a centre-board lowered outside of the boat instead of in the centre. [illustration fig. 419.] =small rowboat.=--a simple form of skiff, or common flat-bottomed rowboat (fig. 419), called by various names, is similar to the punt at the stern, and the mode of construction is similar. the boards for the sides are not cut away on the bottom at the bow, as in the punt, but are left full width and drawn together to form a sharp bow. the ends are usually, but not always, cut off with a slight slant at the bow, which gives a rake to the stem (fig. 420). [illustration fig. 420.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. pine is excellent. any good wood can, however, be used. make a middle mould (fig. 421), as in the case of the punt just described, and proceed with the construction in a similar manner, until you come to the bow. [illustration fig. 421.] [illustration fig. 422.] screw the sides to the stern-piece (fig. 422) without driving the screws completely in, but leaving a little play to the joint (see _screws_). next put the middle mould in place by lines previously squared across each side. nail the middle mould in position. then, letting someone draw the bow ends of the sides together (or if you are alone, binding them together temporarily), release the stern-piece and plane its ends to make close joints with the side pieces, as in the case of the punt already described. when these joints are fitted, paint them with white lead and screw or nail the sides securely (and permanently) to the stern board. draw the fore-ends together and fit a piece of hard wood in the angle at the bow as shown in fig. 423. you can cut this piece approximately to shape with a hatchet and then plane the surface down until you get an accurate fit. when you have made it fit, paint it and also the sides where they bear against it. afterward screw or nail the sides firmly to this stem-piece, letting each end of the stem project a little. screws are best (brass screws if for salt water), but nails can be used. do not drive them all in line, but add a second row farther from the edge and alternately arranged. if a piece of hard wood is not available, a block of soft wood can be used, but it should be somewhat larger. [illustration fig. 423.] another pattern of stem-piece can be used (fig. 424). much pains should be taken in making this post. the rabbets on each side should be cut with care, trying to get the sides alike and to cut accurately to the lines marked. when the cutting is nearly done, put the piece in place and you can then note any changes which may be required to make tight joints. when you finally have a good fit, paint and fasten in place as described above. [illustration fig. 424.] [illustration fig. 425.] still another form of stem-piece is shown in fig. 425. one side of the boat must be got out longer than the other to allow for the lapping over at the bow, the stem-post being first fastened to the shorter side and then trimmed if necessary, until the side which laps over fits accurately. when the boat is fastened together to this extent, it will frequently be found that the bottom has too much curvature lengthways, according to the degree to which the sides flare outward and bend up at the ends. this you can remedy by trimming off the sides in the middle, first carefully marking the desired line. measure accurately, in doing this, to be sure that the two sides will be alike. in removing the superfluous wood do not attack it hastily with hatchet or draw-knife, for wood often splits in a way surprisingly different from the direction in which the grain appears to run (see _paring_). it is sometimes best to remove the wood with the splitting-saw, but stop all such processes some distance outside of the line, and rely upon the plane for the final shaping. the lower edges must be bevelled off accurately, ready for the bottom boards, the same as in the case of the punt (fig. 415). next nail on the bottom, using common boarding or sheathing as in the case of the punt just described, and put in the stiffening strip of board along the middle of the floor. if the middle mould comes in such a position that it will be in the way if left in place permanently, you can simply tack it into position with a couple of nails at each end, leaving the heads protruding enough to draw them out easily. when you have put in the seats and any other braces necessary to ensure the sides keeping their position, you can draw the nails and take out the centre mould. fit seats at bow and stern, putting them two or three inches below the gunwale and resting them on cleats. in case you use the stem-piece shown in fig. 423, saw or plane off the projecting ends of the sides at the bow smoothly and screw (or nail) on a cutwater made of some hard wood and with a sharp edge. fasten strips along the gunwale,--"wale strips,"--as already shown. a skag can be put on at the stern, if desired, as described on page 307. such a boat can be sailed by adding a centre-board (see page 330) or by bolting on a keel several inches in depth. a small sail-boat can be made in this way by making the stern narrower, proportionately, the sides higher, and decking over the bow and stern. the decking can extend over all the top, if desired, except a well-hole around which can be fitted a coaming or wash board. the keel can be of plank fitted carefully to the shape of the bottom, its lower edge being horizontal towards the after part, which will make it quite deep at the stern. a rudder should be added for sailing. * * * * * [illustration fig. 426.] =skiff or flat-bottomed canoe.=--a double-ended skiff, batteau, or flat-bottomed canoe (fig. 426), known by various names, can be easily made by simply carrying the process already described a little further, and drawing the sides together at the stern as well as at the bow, thus forming a boat sharp at both ends. this is an excellent type for the amateur, whether in the form of a small canoe or a quite good-sized boat for rowing, or even light sailing. such a boat is light, easily propelled, buoyant, does not pound the waves when meeting them so much as the punt, and the sharp stern is good when running before a sea. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. care must be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. pine is excellent, but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort. the sides can be bent into place around a mould in the middle and brought together at _both_ ends and two end-posts fitted. in other respects the process differs so little from the preceding that complete description is needless. the two stem-pieces, which you can fit in the manner already shown, will, theoretically, be alike. practically, there should not be more than a very trifling difference required in their shape. having found the shape for one, get the other out just like it. if it does not fit perfectly, it can be trimmed until it does fit; but if the first one fits right and the second fails to do so by more than a trifling degree, you had best look the boat over and verify your work, and you may find that you have cut something too long or too short or got something in the wrong place. paint the ends of these sides where they will be in contact with the stem and stern with white lead. the sides and ends can be put together as follows: take either side, screw it securely to the stem-pieces at each end. dip the screw points in white-lead paint. next screw either end of the other side to the corresponding stem-piece, which will leave the sides separated at an acute angle, with one end of one side not yet fastened to its corresponding bowor stern-post. the ends being alike it does not matter which is called the bow or stern. to fasten this remaining joint, it will be necessary to spring or bend the sides. if you have someone to help you, you can easily put the midship frame into position and bend the sides around it until the unfastened end comes into the correct position against the stem-piece, to which it can be held and screwed firmly. if you can get no help, you can hold the sides in position by using a rope doubled and inserting sticks at top and bottom by which the rope can be twisted and shortened (see _clamps_). another way is to put a box or joist, perhaps a couple of feet long, between the sides, to prevent making too much strain on the end fastenings, and, having secured the unfastened end, the frames can then be laid flat, the sides drawn farther apart, and the midship frame forced into position. the latter will be in position when it agrees with the lines previously drawn on the sides and when the bottom is flush with the inner corners of the lower edges of the sides. nail the sides to it with 1-3/4" or 2" nails, or it can finally be removed if not needed for stiffness. the remaining details do not differ from those previously described. the rowlocks can be placed wherever desired in the way already described, but if the boat should be too narrow for this arrangement, they can be fastened to outriggers, which the blacksmith can easily contrive. * * * * * a flat-bottomed canoe can be made on this same principle, the only difference being to have less beam and to use a paddle or paddles instead of oars. * * * * * a very successful small canoe, suitable for quiet waters, can be made of quite thin wood (perhaps 3/8" to 1/2" in thickness), the outside being covered with canvas. in case of building so light a craft as this, however, it is best to insert regular ribs at distances of about a foot to give the necessary stiffness, and to lay the bottom boards lengthways. the ribs can be bought in any large town on the water, or you can fashion them yourself. natural bends are always preferable, but you can make knees (on the general principle shown in fig. 433) of straight-grained stock, which, though clumsier and not so strong, will serve the purpose. care must be taken in fastening on the bottom not to split either the bottom or the sides. but the canvas will be the main reliance in keeping the boat tight. the canvas can be put on in three pieces, first the sides, and then the bottom. cover the sides down to the bottom and let the bottom piece lap up over the sides two or three inches and the edges be turned under. stiffen the gunwale by a strip. a light, removable board, or grating of slats, should be laid inside along the bottom, on the cross-frames. if well made and kept well painted so as to protect the canvas from wear at the exposed points, a light canoe of this sort will last many years and be a very useful boat. it must be kept out of the water and under cover when not in use. [illustration fig. 427.] * * * * * a simple and cheap flat-bottomed canoe (figs. 427 and 428), but not canvas-covered, is not difficult to make by the process already described. first make the frames and the stemand stern-posts, then get out the sides. these parts are put together and then the bottom is put on, the well-hole coaming fitted, the boat decked, and finally the minor fittings added. [illustration fig. 428.] * * * * * first make the centre frame like fig. 429, the bottom strip being of 7/8" stock, 1-1/4" deep, and the side pieces of 3/4" board. screw the pieces together with two screws at each angle. care must be taken to make this frame symmetrical or the boat will be one-sided. you can draw the outline of the frame carefully on a piece of stiff brown paper, drawing a vertical centre line and measuring both ways for accuracy. lay this pattern on the bench top, or on a smooth floor, and place the pieces for the frame on the drawing so that the outer edges just coincide with the outline of the drawing. hold them firmly in position and screw the angles securely together. tack a waste piece across near the top to help keep the frame in shape until in position. next get out two frames like fig. 430, taking the dimensions from your plan, two more like fig. 431, and two like fig. 432. to make the stemand stern-posts, take two pieces of joist, about 2" ã� 4" and of sufficient length, and with the chisel and saw cut a rabbet on each side of each piece, on the principle shown in fig. 424. give these rabbets a good coat of white-lead paint. [illustration fig. 429.] [illustration fig. 430.] [illustration fig. 431.] [illustration fig. 432.] the sides are got out in the way already shown. on them mark the position for the centre mould. insert and nail into place the two next largest frames, at the proper places, and so on until all are in position. all, except the centre one, will require to have their edges slightly bevelled with the plane to fit the sides. you can do this best as you put them in place. paint the edges of the frames with white lead before nailing them in position. next fit pieces of 1/2" board to form the coaming around the well-hole, and fasten them to the three middle frames. the details of this you can easily arrange for yourself. the general idea is expressed in figs. 427 and 434. before proceeding further with the deck, thoroughly paint the whole of the inside of the boat with white lead, working it well into all the joints and cracks. after giving it a few days to dry, look the inside over carefully for any holes or defects to be stopped. after filling any there may be, give the entire inside another coat, working it well into all crevices as before. do not neglect this part of the work, as it will not be easy to get at the inside (except in the middle) after the deck is put on. on the middle of the deck stretch strips of 1/2" wood about 4" wide from the coaming of the well to the stemand stern-posts, tapering the pieces as they approach the ends and resting them on the tops of the frames, to which they should be firmly nailed. if you wish to sail, a stiff brace or thwart can be put in for the mast, with a block for a step. one or more strips, 1" ã� 1/2", can now be placed longitudinally on each side of the deck and nailed to the frames. additional deck-beams, running from gunwale to gunwale, and having the requisite arch or convexity, can be put in if needed. a few brackets can also be put under the deck, reaching from the sides to the coaming, if needed. a keel about one inch square, or deeper at the centre, if desired, can be fitted along the entire length of the bottom. it had best be fastened on with screws. if your boat is to be used in deep water only, you can make the keel 3" or 4" deep in the middle, rockering it up towards the ends, and the boat can be sailed without a centre-board. cover the deck with canvas, fastened with small tacks to the coaming and to the sides. the edges of the canvas can be drawn down over the gunwale for about half an inch, the edge being finally covered by a gunwale strip screwed from stemto stern-post. a piece of half-round 7/8" moulding is good, although any small strip will do. dampen the canvas and then give it at least two coats of paint. a wooden deck can be put on if preferred. * * * * * =canvas-covered canoes.=--to make a really good canoe wholly of wood requires a degree of skill much greater than can be expected of the beginner, or than is attained by the average amateur. any boy or amateur can, however, with the help of canvas and with a very few tools and at slight expense, make some simple varieties which will serve the purpose satisfactorily. the canoe is sharp at both ends, requires only a paddle, and is light enough to be easily handled ashore. if carefully made, a canvas canoe will be strong, durable, and not difficult to mend, though repairs are seldom necessary if proper care is taken. if canvas of good quality is used, it will not be easily punctured or torn as one might think, but will stand an amount of banging around, running into snags, dragging over obstacles, and abuse generally, that would badly injure any but the best of wooden canoes. the variety of designs for canoes which has developed or been evolved from the more primitive forms is in these days almost endless, and the number of types from which to choose is confusing. the purpose for which the canoe is to be used will help you somewhat in selecting the type--whether for paddling only, or sailing, or for cruising and general use, and whether for a river or small pond, or for the deep and rough water of a lake or bay. all these matters must be considered in determining the beam, depth, shape of the midship section, the draught, degree of sheer, whether to have keel, centre-board, or neither, and other points. this is too complex a subject to be treated in a hand-book on wood-working, and you can easily obtain the desired information, as well as detailed instructions for drawing the plans, from some good book on the subject. a caution against making the framework too light and without sufficient stiffness may not be out of place. one frequently sees canoes, made by young boys, of such flimsy pieces and covered with such weak cloth that one is surprised that they can live in the quietest mill-pond, which is really testimony to the tenacious strength of a canvas-covered boat when properly made. a certain degree of flexibility is one of the desirable features of these boats, but they should always have sufficient stiffness to maintain their general shape in all weathers and in all waters to which a canoe is suited; therefore be sure to make a frame which will keep its shape of itself without relying upon the canvas to hold it together. it is quite common to see these boats which (otherwise well built) lack stiffness lengthways--that is, in the longitudinal vertical section. such boats after a little use become bent up in the middle, or "hog-backed." this is entirely unnecessary. be sure, before putting on the canvas, that your frame is stiff enough lengthways to keep its shape permanently. if by any fault in your planning you find that it is not so, be sure to add extra stiffening braces inside before putting on the canvas, or your boat will probably be a failure.[40] canvas-covered boats should always be kept out of the water and under cover when not in use, as long-continued exposure to the water will be injurious. an easily constructed paddling canoe, 14' or 15' long, and with beam about 30", will first be described. it should be understood by the novice that this first form of construction here given is not that adopted by the professional boat-builder. it is given simply as a process by which one untrained in the more regular methods of construction can turn out a cheap and serviceable canoe, and at the same time acquire experience which will be of use if he should later attempt the more scientific, but also more difficult, details of construction used by regular boat-builders. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. * * * * * care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. [illustration fig. 433.] having made your working drawings for a canoe of the size and proportions which you may think best to adopt, begin the actual work by getting out moulds (fig. 433) upon exactly the same principle as in the case of the flat-bottomed canoe just described, except that they will be of curved outline, as this is to be a round-bottomed boat. get out also a bottom strip or keelson with stemand stern-pieces, which can be alike. [illustration fig. 434.] [illustration fig. 435.] the arrangement and method of fitting these parts is evident from the illustrations. the keelson can be laid along the edge of a plank or some flat surface and blocked up towards the ends to give the desired degree of curvature or rocker. first fit in place the centre mould and then the two at the ends of the well-hole (fig. 434), with the stemand stern-posts (fig. 435). these can be temporarily tacked or stayed in place until you are sure the positions are right. the coaming frame or wash board around the well-hole can now be put on, which will hold the three middle frames securely, and the two deck-strips running lengthways from the well-coaming to the tops of the stemand stern-posts can be attached (fig. 435). next fit the two gunwale-strips, putting in also the remaining moulds or frames. after this the lengthways ribbands are to be fitted around the moulds from bow to stern (figs. 435 and 435a, showing section at end of well). this will complete the shape of the boat. great care must be taken with all this adjusting of the framework, measuring, sighting, and testing in every way you can think of, to see that all the curves are "fair," without sharp or irregular turns, and also to see that both sides of the boat are alike. this is very important. the pieces may be all of the correct lengths, but still the boat may be one-sided, or twisted, or have a list. [illustration fig. 435a.] [illustration fig. 436.] a glance at fig. 436 will show (as an exaggerated example) that pieces of the right dimensions can easily be put together in such a way that the boat may be ill-shaped,--an unfortunate result which is sometimes seen in home-made boats, due to lack of care in testing the angles and curves when putting the work together. the ends of these strips will be more securely fastened to the stemand stern-posts if depressions or "gains" are cut in the posts to receive them (fig. 437), but this is not absolutely necessary if the ends are properly bevelled and carefully screwed to the stemand stern-posts. [illustration fig. 437.] for additional stiffness, insert a series of ribs (fig. 435), from 3" to 6" apart, according to their size and stiffness, from bow to stern. barrel-hooping can be used and if sound is excellent, or strips of ash, oak, or elm, about 7/8" ã� 1/4", can be used. it will not be necessary to bend these around a form. those near the middle can be at once bent into place. as the ends of the boat are approached, the ribs will require to be rendered more pliable before being put in place (see _bending wood_). the ribs can be nailed or screwed to the keel and finally be fastened to the ribbands, at their intersection, with copper nails clinched or riveted. cheaper fastenings can be used, however, but copper is the best. to hold such pieces in place temporarily, clamps can be easily made which will be sufficiently strong for the purpose (see fig. 548). when all these parts are fastened together, the frame will be complete. to make a first-class job, the entire frame should be thoroughly painted, or at least given a soaking coat of oil, or it can be varnished. for the canvas, get firm, closely-woven duck or sail-cloth of good quality and of sufficient width to reach from gunwale to gunwale. it is not necessary or advantageous to get the heaviest-weight grade, but beware of covering your boat with light drilling or the like, which, although you can make it water-tight, will not be sufficiently durable for anything but a boat for temporary use. find the middle of the canvas, lengthways, and stretch it on this line directly along the keel, the frame of the boat being placed bottom up. tack at each end, and then, starting at the middle, strain the canvas around the boat, working along a little way at a time towards each end alternately and tacking to the top or inside of the gunwale as you proceed. do not try to cover the top with the same piece as the bottom. if you can get a large needle and some stout cord, you can pull the canvas into place by lacing the edges across the top or deck of the boat, working from the middle towards the ends. in lieu of a needle use an awl or a nail. by lacing in this way and by manipulating the canvas with the hands you can, if you are careful, stretch it to fit the frame so that it will be smooth to a point considerably above the water-line. at the upper part, as you approach the deck line or gunwale, you may be unable to prevent some fulness, which you can dispose of by pleating if necessary. at the ends some little folding under may also be required, but you need have no great difficulty in adjusting the canvas neatly and so as to make tight joints. it is a good plan to cut a shallow rabbet on each side of the stemand stern-posts, just deep enough so that when the edge of the canvas is folded under and tacked, the surface of the canvas will be flush with the side of the post (fig. 437). small tacks should be used--not large carpet-tacks. copper are best, but galvanized ones can be used. in all parts where leakage could occur, the tacks should be driven closely together, so that their heads touch, seeing that a good coat of lead is laid on the wood underneath. after the bottom of the canoe has been covered, the deck can be treated in the same way. when the canvas is all on, dampen it slightly and paint thoroughly, painting, also, the coaming around the well-hole and the exposed parts of the stemand stern-posts (see _painting_). the dampening is supposed to cause the first coat of paint to penetrate the canvas more thoroughly than if the canvas is quite dry. oil is sometimes applied before painting. after it has dried thoroughly, apply another coat. do not spare the paint, for though the canvas absorbs a great deal, which adds to the weight of the boat as well as to the cost, it is really essential in making a good canvas-covered boat that it be well painted. a light removable flooring, or grating of slats, should be placed on the bottom of the well, resting on the frames. * * * * * to make a canvas canoe with a keel, you have only to make the keel of a piece of 1-1/4" or 1-1/2" stock (with a depth of, perhaps, 1-1/4" or 1-1/2"), thinning it somewhat towards the ends so that it will join smoothly with the stemand stern-posts. it can be fitted to these posts as shown in fig. 438, and screwed directly to the keelson. [illustration fig. 438.] particular care must be taken that the keel be got out straight and that it be fitted exactly on the centre line. in this case the canvas may be put on in two parts, being nailed to the keelson on each side of the keel; or the canoe can be made as previously described and the keel simply screwed on outside of the canvas, the latter being first thoroughly painted. oak is excellent for a keel, but is rather heavy for a light canoe. ash will do. pine can be used. the keel will wear better if got out so that the concentric rings (annual rings) of the wood will be horizontal or parallel with the bottom of the boat and at right angles to the screws with which the keel is fastened on. if these layers incline slightly upward at the bow the keel will wear better. * * * * * [illustration fig. 439.] a more advanced form of construction, and one more in line with the methods of a regular boat-builder, is shown in fig. 439, the essential difference between this and the form previously described being that regular bent ribs are substituted for the frames made of board, and the latter, after serving as moulds around which to build the boat, are taken out, the bent ribs being sufficiently stout to ensure strength and stiffness. if you attempt this method the ribs must be carefully bent (see _bending wood_). oak, ash, or elm is suitable for ribs. if a cooper's shop is within reach you can get the material there. it must, of course, be of good grain and free from flaws. * * * * * the process of construction is similar to that already shown. a suggestion for the arrangement of deck timbers (which can be of oak, ash, spruce, or any strong wood) is shown in figs. 439 and 440, and for putting in a curved wash board or coaming in fig. 440. for the latter a thin piece of straight-grained oak, elm, or ash can be used. * * * * * [illustration fig. 440.] [illustration fig. 441.] an excellent way to make a canvas-covered canoe is shown in fig. 441. the essential principle of this consists in having a stiff gunwale, stiff keelson (inside the ribs), and ribs stout and numerous enough to ensure a permanently strong and stiff framework without the assistance of the lengthways ribbands. the outside is then sheathed with very thin strips of basswood, pine, or any reasonably strong and light wood (perhaps 3/16" thick and 2" or 3" wide), fitting them carefully to the shape, but without any attempt to make water-tight joints. if this boat, which is complete in all respects except that of being water-tight, is then covered with canvas as already described, the result will be a strong, smooth boat, without the irregularities of surface which are a necessary feature of the unsheathed form. this method is adopted in making canvas-covered canoes after the model of the birch-bark canoe, and the result is an admirable boat, which, while perhaps hardly equal to a genuine "birch" of indian manufacture, is certainly the next thing to it for an open paddling canoe. of course, if you can work up your design after the model of a real birch, you will have accomplished as much as you could wish in this line--but to design and construct a good canoe upon the birch model is not an easy thing for the beginner to do, and had best not be attempted until after considerable experience in simpler and less graceful forms. this mode of construction can well be applied, however, to a canoe of almost any type. the sheathing can be painted and the canvas laid on the fresh paint. another form of construction is to omit the keelson and fasten the frames and ribs directly to the top of the keel, having previously cut a rabbet for the canvas (as in case of the stemand stern-posts) on each side of the keel at the top; the canvas by this arrangement being put on in two parts, one on each side of the keel. it is, of course, possible to construct a canoe with nothing but two gunwale-strips, stemand stern-posts, a strip for a keelson, and a number of barrel-hoops for ribs; and such affairs are quite often put together by boys, but they are apt to be of light and flimsy construction and to lack sufficient stiffness to keep their shape after being used for a while. a certain degree of flexibility and lack of rigidity is desirable in a canvas-covered boat, and, in fact, it is to this quality that it owes much of its merit; but it should have enough stiffness to hold its general shape permanently. an extremely simple method is to omit the stem-pieces and simply bend the keelson up at each end to meet the gunwales at bow and stern, where all the lengthways pieces can be fastened to a block, canvas being stretched over the whole as already described. a canoe which turns up so excessively on the bottom at bow and stern has some disadvantages, but still a useful and cheap boat can readily be made in this way. it should have a quite flat cross-section in the middle. most canoes can be sailed on the wind, often very successfully, by having a deep keel--which can be rockered or increased in depth towards the middle--or by adding a centre-board. but the latter is quite a nice operation, particularly so in case of making your first boat (see page 330). * * * * * the holes and the steps for the masts should be arranged before the canvas is put on, fitting extra thwarts across if needed, and it is a good plan to fit tubes for the masts. in case of sailing, the steering can be done with the paddle, or a rudder can be used (in which case a straight stern-post should be put in, for which a knee is good) and lines be led forward to the well-hole from a yoke at the top of the rudder. many arrangements have been devised for steering sailing-canoes, but these details, as well as those for the rigging, can be found in any good book on the subject. if you are a novice, begin with a simple leg-of-mutton sail (fig. 448). * * * * * it is better to buy oars than to try to make them. you may, however, have occasion to make a paddle. a good shape is shown in fig. 442, but you can choose from a variety of forms. [illustration fig. 442.] * * * * * the length can readily be determined from some paddle which suits you or you can experiment with a strip of wood. five inches is a good width, and 5' to 5-1/2' a good length, but these are matters of individual preference. spruce is a good wood for your first attempt at paddle-making. it makes a good paddle and is easier to work than birch, beech, or maple, or any of the harder woods. pine can be used. use a centre line in making your pattern. after the pattern is marked on the wood have the outline sawed at a mill or do it yourself with the turning-saw, or make a series of saw-kerfs to the line with the hand-saw and remove the superfluous wood with the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or chisel (see _paring_). having the outline correct, mark a line along the middle of the edge of the blade, and gradually and carefully shave the surfaces down towards this middle line, also tapering the thickness towards the ends. the draw-knife, spoke-shave, plane, rasp, file, scraper, and sandpaper can be used (see all of these tools in part v. and also _paring_ and _rounding sticks_). great care is needed to trim a paddle nicely to shape. a little hasty cutting may ruin the work. [illustration fig. 443.] the double-bladed paddle can be made of a single piece, or two pieces can be joined by a ferrule (fig. 443). the double-bladed paddle can be from about 7' to 8' or 9' long and the blades are made broader and shorter than that of the single paddle. a couple of round rubber rings on each end of the handle will stop some of the dripping of water from the blades as they are raised. =small sail-boat.=--the boat shown in fig. 444 is a good form for the amateur to attempt, and makes a serviceable craft for sheltered waters. from twelve to sixteen feet is a good length, and the beam should be wide, as shown. the depth can be from twelve to sixteen inches. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. pine is excellent. [illustration fig. 444.] the general principle of construction does not differ from that of the flat-bottomed boats already described, and detailed directions are therefore omitted. the sides should each be of one 3/4" or 7/8" board. the arrangement of the details is obvious. knees can be used to good advantage. the deck should be of wood, the boards (1/2") resting on cross-beams or carlins, reaching from gunwale to gunwale (as already shown) and slightly arched. around the well-hole, brackets can be used (fig. 445). the deck can be covered with canvas. [illustration fig. 445.] this boat, as shown in the illustration, is planked across the bottom like the other flat-bottomed boats already described, but the bottom boards can run lengthways instead, if preferred. in this case knees should be inserted, or cross-frames of some kind, to reach across the bottom and to which the bottom boards can be nailed. the bottom boards should be not less than 3/4" thick and the edges must be carefully jointed (see _jointing_). they can be laid slightly apart and the seams caulked (see page 302). strips of flannel laid in thick white-lead paint can be placed between the edges of the sides and stern and the bottom boards, or the edges can simply be painted. [illustration fig. 446.] [illustration fig. 447.] the construction of the case or trunk for the centre-board can be understood from figs. 446 and 447. by either method of construction the trunk consists of two upright posts, or "headledges," cut with shoulders at the lower end, and sides of board screwed to these posts. a slot is sawed through the bottom of the boat of sufficient width and length to give the centre-board free passage--that is, of the dimensions of the opening at the bottom of the trunk. to cut this slot several holes can be bored close together until an opening is made sufficiently large to start the saw. by the arrangement shown in fig. 446, a plank is taken and a slot is cut in it enough longer than that in the bottom of the boat to include the lower ends of the headledges, which should fit snugly. the sides of the trunk are screwed to this plank from underneath, and the plank is in turn screwed to the bottom of the boat. the headledges can be additionally fastened from the edge of the plank, horizontally. unless the bottom of the boat is straight, the plank must be accurately fitted to the curve on the under side,--not an easy task (see _scribing_ and _paring_). all the joints should be laid in thick white-lead paint, and at the bottom flannel can be laid in the seam, with lead, or caulking can be resorted to. by the method shown in fig. 447, the headledges and sides are fitted to a board on the bottom, or to the keelson, and, after being put in place, strips of plank are fitted lengthways on each side at the bottom and bolted or screwed to the bottom and to the sides of the trunk. the lower edges of these strips must be fitted to the curve of the bottom and the whole made tight, as just shown. much care must be taken with this work to make tight joints. the inside of the trunk should be painted before putting together, and holes be bored carefully for all the screws (see _boring_ and _screws_). the centre-board itself can be of wood or of galvanized plate iron and is pivoted at the forward lower corner, and can be raised and lowered by a rod attached to the after corner. remember to paint the inside of the boat carefully with at least two coats before putting on the deck, and also that copper nails and brass fittings are better than those of galvanized iron (particularly for salt water) if you can afford them. the coaming or wash board can be of 1/2" oak, ash, or elm. the deck can first be laid, lapping slightly over the space to be left open. the line for the coaming can then be marked on the deck, and the projecting wood sawed or trimmed to the line, when the coaming can be bent into place and fastened. the gunwale-strip, like the stern-post, the rudder, and the tiller, should be of hard wood, as oak. hackmatack is good for the stem. the mast should be of spruce. a strong thwart, with a hole in it, can be fitted across between the sides, just under the deck, and a block with another hole fastened to the bottom. the place at which to step the mast must depend upon the style of rig you adopt. one who is used to sailing a boat will not seek for information on this subject in a manual on wood-working, but for the novice it may be well to state that a leg-of-mutton sail (fig. 448) is undoubtedly the simplest, easiest, and safest rig for the beginner, and it will be wise to learn to manage this rig first. the spritsail (fig. 449), with or without the boom, is an easily managed sail, which works well with this boat. either of these rigs can be unshipped in a moment, the mast, sail and all being lifted out when desired. for other styles of rigging you should consult someone used to sailing or some book on the subject. [illustration fig. 448.] [illustration fig. 449.] for the painting, see _painting_, in part v. =small ice-boat.=--the main framework of even the most elaborate ice-boat consists merely of a lengthways centre timber or "backbone" and a cross-piece or "runner-board" (fig. 450), the whole resting on three runners, one of which acts as a rudder. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 450.] [illustration fig. 451.] a small boat can be made as shown in fig. 451. the dimensions can easily be altered. the particular rig given is merely for illustration, for this is not a book on sailing, and you can find all the facts you need about rigging in any good book on the subject. if you are a novice you had best be content with a simple leg-of-mutton sail (fig. 448), which is, for the beginner, the safest and most easily managed. a spritsail (fig. 449) or some other simple form can be used if desired. if you know how to sail a boat, you can adopt such rig as you think best. [illustration fig. 452.] [illustration fig. 453.] first get out the backbone. get a piece of clear spruce, or pine, perhaps 12' ã� 3" ã� 4". a round spar may be used. be careful to select good lumber, as great strain is put upon it. a piece which has naturally sprung lengthways should be placed with the convex edge upwards. next get out the runner-board, perhaps 6-1/2' ã� 2" ã� 9", of spruce. pine is also good, or any strong wood will do. choose a clear, sound plank. if naturally sprung in a bow-like curve, put the convex side upwards. smooth the pieces sufficiently to avoid splinters and roughness. thin the runner-plank on top each way from the centre down to about an inch in thickness at each end, if you can have it sawed at the mill. it is hardly worth while to do this by hand. fasten the runner-board, at exactly the middle of its length, across the backbone, at a point perhaps 6-1/2' from the stern end, with a strap-hanger (fig. 452) screwed up with nuts and broad washers on the under side. if you cannot afford this, put a bolt through both pieces (see _boring_), tightening underneath with nut and washer, and putting cleats on the runner-board (fig. 453). be sure that one edge of the runner-board is straight and at right angles to the backbone. nail a piece of board, 18" long and 3" wide, across the stern end of the centre timber. add the two side pieces _a b_ and _c d_ (fig. 450), of 2" spruce joist, nailing them firmly in place, thus forming the sides of an irregular box (see _nailing_). turn the frame over and nail a bottom on this box, laying the boards crosswise and nailing to the backbone as well as to the sides and end. next, to make the runners, get out six pieces of oak, or other hard, strong wood, 9" ã� 3" ã� 4". mark with the square from the straightened edge of the runner-board the positions for the inner blocks, equally distant from the backbone, screwing them in place (fig. 454), with one screw in each. measure across with a stick from one to the other at each end to see that they are just parallel, and also test their being at right angles to the runner-plank, which in turn must be at right angles to the backbone, in order that the runners may be parallel and not slewed sideways. having tightly screwed these inner blocks, brace them with angle blocks, as shown. the outer blocks can next be fitted, leaving just space enough for the runners to play freely, but not loosely, between the blocks. the holes for the pins for the runners can be bored in the outer pieces before they are screwed on. then, using these holes as a guide, those in the inner blocks can be bored in line. the runners themselves should be carefully made and fitted, for they are a very vital part of the boat. on the large boats they have usually been made of oak, with a shoe of cast iron at the bottom attached by bolts, but this is quite a piece of work for a small boat and you can get the blacksmith to work out the whole runner, with a hole bored for the pin-bolt. make a pattern about 18" or 20" long, rocking _very_ slightly in the middle and more quickly near the ends. the hole for the pin should be back of the middle, so that more of the shoe will be in front of than behind the pin. this is to lessen the shock when the runner strikes an obstruction. the cutting edge may have an angle of about 45â° for trial (fig. 455). if too blunt or too sharp you can alter it. it will take considerable filing to get the edge true, straight, and uniform (see _filing_). finish with an oil-stone. [illustration fig. 454.] [illustration fig. 455.] the rudder-runner can be a little shorter. screw a piece of 2" oak plank on top of the rudder-blocks and on top of this fasten a plate or socket to which is attached a piece of gas-pipe about a foot long, for a rudder-post. at the top of the rudder-post screw an elbow and a short piece of pipe for a tiller (fig. 456). if suitable gas-pipe cannot be found, the blacksmith can fix an arrangement that will answer, but it must be strongly fastened to the rudder-blocks, and there should be some kind of metal bearing between the wooden top of the rudder and the under side of the backbone, if nothing more than a washer. the two surfaces of wood should not rub against each other. wind the handle of the tiller with cord, cloth, or bicycle tape. [illustration fig. 456.] [illustration fig. 457.] stay the bowsprit (or forward end of the backbone) by stout wires to the runner-plank. these can best be of wire rope passed through eye-bolts or attached to iron straps and tightened with turnbuckles, but to save that expense strong wire can be used. notches can be cut at the edges of the runner-plank and the backbone, and wire be wound around to hold rings to which the wire guys can be fastened, but it is hard to make such an arrangement taut and to keep it so. next fasten a mast step with square hole to the backbone (fig. 457), forward of the front edge of the runner-plank. put in eye-bolts at ends of the runner-plank and at the bow for shrouds and a few inches from the stern of the backbone for the main sheet. wire rope is best for the shrouds, but common wire or rope can be used. for the mast and spars use natural sticks of spruce. the sides of the box can be built up higher at the stern with boards, if you wish, to prevent being thrown off by the sudden movements of the boat. a rubber washer under the backbone where the rudder-post passes through is sometimes used to lessen the jar when passing over obstructions. a curved piece of wood fastened on the under side of the backbone just in front of the rudder will act as a fender for the rudder, in case of slight obstructions. the whole boat can be oiled, painted, or varnished if desired (see _finishing_ and _painting_). if you use a cat-rig, spritsail, or other rig without any head-sail before the mast, it would be well to place the runner-plank further forward. [illustration fig. 458.] the latest and best way to brace the frame of an ice-boat is to strain guys of wire rope (fig. 458), tightened with turnbuckles, omitting the side pieces, and fastening a car or box to the backbone, but this arrangement, though lighter and more elastic, is more expensive and not so easy to make for a small boat as the one just described. a somewhat simpler way to arrange the framework is shown in figs. 459, 460, and 461. in place of the runners already described a cheaper arrangement can be made by the blacksmith of 5/8" bar iron, steeled, and bent up at the ends, as shown in fig. 461. a much smaller affair can be made by simply arranging two pieces of joist or plank in the form of a cross (bracing them so far as may be necessary), putting cleats under each end of the shorter cross-piece or runner-board and fastening common skates to the cleats, using another pivoted skate at the stern for a rudder. the runners of the skates should be ground, or filed, as shown above. [illustration fig. 459.] [illustration fig. 460.] [illustration fig. 461.] the details of such a small ice-boat you can work out for yourself by modifying and simplifying according to your ingenuity the suggestions for a larger boat given above. the hardest part to fix is the rudder-post and tiller. some iron arrangement is best, but something can be contrived in the following manner, which is not, however, recommended as very satisfactory. fasten the rudder skate upon a piece of board in which is cut a mortise. into this mortise a short piece of hard wood, like a large broomstick with squared end, is fitted for a rudder-post. the upper end of the rudder-post, squared just like the lower end, is fitted into a mortise cut in the tiller piece. a washer should be placed between the skate-block and the backbone, and the rudder-post should turn freely in the hole in the backbone, but not loosely enough to wobble around. cut the mortise in the tiller and fit to the post before cutting off and shaping the tiller, to avoid danger of splitting. an extra block may have to be put under the backbone at the rudder to level the boat so that the skates will bear properly on the ice, for if the stern is much lower, so that they drag by the heels, the boat will not sail properly. wooden arrangements of this sort are, however, only justifiable as makeshifts, and require good workmanship to be strong and effective. [illustration] =house-boat.=--a house-boat consists of two parts, one of which (the boat) is essentially like the scow or flat boat already described, and the other (the house) is usually much the same as some of the little structures described in part iii. (_house-building for beginners_), however expensively and elaborately it may be arranged and fitted up. the advantages of the house-boat for camping, shooting, fishing, and for some kinds of excursions are too well known to require explanation. it is an excellent thing for two or more to build together. it may not be out of place to suggest that, in the desire to have the house sufficiently large and convenient, you should not be misled into making plans which will necessitate building a large boat. dimensions (on paper) for such things are quite deceptive, and to build a large boat, even of such a simple type as the scow or flatboat, is quite a serious undertaking for the beginner--as regards both labour and expense. * * * * * if you can find a scow or flatboat already built, of suitable dimensions and which is sufficiently tight, or can be made so by caulking, you have only to proceed to build the house upon it. if, however, the boat as well as the house is to be built, you can proceed to build the boat in the way already described (page 299). additional suggestions may be found in figs. 462 and 463. before beginning read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. 462.] two-inch plank should be used for these boats, which are intended to be from 14' to 20' long. after putting together the sides, ends, and bottom, as already described, 2" ã� 4" joists can be laid lengthways on the bottom, as shown, which will afford an underpinning for the house, will distribute the weight over the bottom, keep the floor raised above the water which may leak in or collect from the rain, and also stiffen the structure of the boat. before laying these joists, notches should be cut on the under edges with the saw or hatchet, in several places, to allow the water to pass through, as in the case of the boats already described. [illustration fig. 463.] the illustrations show a general system of construction for the house, which can be followed, or you can make such alterations as you think desirable. in addition to the suggestions in the accompanying illustrations, further details and suggestions will be found in part iii. (_house-building for beginners_). most of the details are matters of personal preference, and can readily be arranged without more detailed description. the roof had best be covered with canvas, put on as one piece (being sewed previously if necessary). if laid in paint and then given two or three coats of paint, much as in the case of the canvas-sheathed canoes already described, a tight and durable roof will be the result. after the edges of the canvas are tacked under the edge of the roof, strips of moulding can be nailed around under the edge. an even simpler way to make the roof is to have it flat, but slanting slightly towards either bow or stern. an inclination of 3" is enough, with tight canvas roof, to shed the water. the remaining details of the construction of the house have already been treated. the interior arrangements you can contrive as desired. either, or both, of the ends can be decked over, or the whole can first be decked over and the house built on the deck. in this case, access to the hull, for stowage, can be had by hatches, or trap-doors inside the house. if both the ends are to be decked, the hull can very well have one or two lengthways divisions of plank, for stiffness and strength,--that is, insert between the ends one or two pieces of the size and shape of the sides, in which case the lengthways joist already spoken of will be omitted. this is a good way. in case of decking, nail a strip of moulding on the outside along the juncture of the house and the deck, so as to make a tight joint, which should be well painted. if one or both ends are undecked, a removable grating of slats (a part of which is shown in fig. 462) will be useful. it is well to have at least one window at the bow end of the house, for the boat will of course lie with bow towards the wind and it will be a good thing when housed in a storm to be able to see to windward, as you cannot well keep the door at that end open, while the after door will usually be sufficiently sheltered to be left open. many modifications of these simple plans can be made. the roof can be extended over either end, which is easily done without altering the system of construction. this is very convenient under some circumstances, and will add but little to the expense. the frame can even be covered with canvas, but this will be inferior to wood, except in point of lightness. a solid roof is best, however, in any case. sweeps must, of course, be provided for rowing, sculling, or steering, and a mast can easily be added, on which sufficient sail can be hoisted to be quite a help in going before the wind. if a mast is used, the door at the bow end of the house can be at one side of the end so that the mast can be close to the house, to which it can be fastened. a rudder can be added, if desired, with a skag. the whole craft should be thoroughly painted (see _painting_). houses are sometimes built on rafts. this will do very well if the raft is a good one, like a float. a float can be easily made, if you have the materials, by laying a thick flooring on logs or heavy timbers and providing greater buoyancy than such a platform naturally has by fastening under it, between the timbers, as many empty and sealed barrels or casks (oil-barrels are good) as may be necessary. when the float is stationary and under ordinary circumstances, there is, of course, no need to fasten the casks in any way except to fence them around so that they cannot roll or slide out, as their buoyancy will prevent their escaping, but it is easy to fasten them by chains or otherwise if needed. this makes an excellent foundation on which to build a house, and has some advantages over a boat for a stationary arrangement, but is obviously not as well suited for moving around as a scow or flatboat. footnotes: [40] unless too heavily loaded, a canvas-covered canoe will float in case of a capsize, but some form of air-chambers is desirable and a safe precaution in any small boat. it is hardly safe to rely upon your ability to build water-tight compartments in the ends of canvas (or wooden) boats, as is sometimes recommended--that is, as a part of the regular construction of the boat. it is not easy for an amateur to do this. it is better to have the air-tight compartments made separately and independent of the boat itself. copper boxes or air-tanks fitted to the space at the ends are the best and the only really reliable expedient, but they are expensive. light wooden boxes covered with canvas and thoroughly painted can be used, as well as galvanised boxes or even varnish cans sealed and painted. any such contrivance can be made tight at first, but is always liable to become leaky (except by the use of copper tanks), particularly as it is usually concealed from examination. part v _common tools and their use, with some every-day operations_ chapter xvi =anvil.=--an anvil is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise. it should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering, rounded (conical) point. an old flat-iron does quite well. =auger-bit.=--see _bits_. [illustration fig. 464.] =awl.=--the _brad-awl_ is the simplest boring tool you will use. unlike gimlets and bits, it does not take out any wood, but merely presses it aside out of the way, which is good for nail and screw holes, because the elasticity of the woody fibres tends to make them spring back and close around the nail or screw, thus helping to keep it in place. the awl should always be a trifle smaller than the nail. bore with the cutting edge across the grain of the wood, on the same principle as in driving nails (fig. 464), lest the wedge shape of the tool cause the wood to split (see _nailing_). press the awl straight down in this position until the point is well into the wood, when you can twist it a little, at the same time pushing it further into the wood. there is always risk of splitting thin wood near an edge, unless you use great care. the brad-awl can be sharpened easily. see _sharpening_ and also _boring_. do not buy combination awls with "tool-chest handles," filled with an assortment of awls and little chisels, gouges, screw-drivers, saws, etc. such affairs are sometimes useful, but the loose tools are apt to become lost or broken, and the money can be used to better advantage in other ways. it is well to have a variety of sizes of awls, fitted into _hardwood_ handles. an awl handle into which awls of various sizes can be fitted, somewhat as a brace holds bits, answers very well, if you have to carry your tools from place to place, but for shop-work it is more convenient to have each awl in a separate handle. the _marking-awl_ or _scratch-awl_ is simply an awl with a round, sharp point used for marking in carpentry, but for very close work a knife or chisel is better. see _marking_. =axe.=--this is such a common tool that it needs no description, and is, moreover, seldom required for amateur work. =back-saw.=--see _saw_. [illustration fig. 465.] [illustration fig. 466.] =beading.=--a tool for scraping beading, reeds, and the like, can be made by filing the reverse of the shape required on the edge of a piece of saw-blade steel, taken from a broken saw or scraper, and inserting this blade in a kerf sawed in the end of a piece of wood (fig. 465). to change the position of the blade, one or both of the screws can be loosened and then tightened after the blade has been adjusted. this tool is pushed forward with both hands, much like a scraper, the shoulder of the block bearing against the edge of the board as in using the gauge (fig. 466). tools for this purpose can be bought. it usually produces the best effect not to carry this beading to the extreme ends of an edge, but to stop a short distance from the ends and with a chisel cut the beads to a square and abrupt end (fig. 305). see _plane_. =bending wood.=--to bend a piece (without steaming or boiling) which is to be fastened so that but one side will show, make a series of saw-cuts of equal depth (fig. 467) across the piece, and partly through it, on the back side (the side which will not show), first running a gauge line along the edge (see _gauge_), that the cuts may be of equal depth. this will practically, so far as bending is concerned, make the piece thinner, and it can readily be bent and fastened in position. the nearer together and the deeper the cuts are the more the piece can be bent--that is, up to the breaking-point. hot water can be used on the face side. such curves can sometimes be strengthened by driving wedges, with glue, into the saw-kerfs after the piece is bent to the desired curve (fig. 468). [illustration fig. 467.] [illustration fig. 468.] to make a small piece of wood pliable, so that it will bend to any reasonable extent (which, however, depends much upon the kind of wood), soak it for some time in boiling water, when it can usually be bent into the desired shape. it must be securely held in position until the moisture has entirely left it, or it will spring back to (or towards) its original shape. this drying will take from several hours to several days, according to the size of the piece and the condition of the atmosphere. there is almost always a tendency to spring back a little towards the original shape, so it is well to bend a piece a little more than you wish it to remain, except where it is to be fastened so that it cannot spring back. wood which naturally bends easily (particularly thin pieces) can often be made pliable enough by simply soaking in cold water, but hot water is usually more effective. anything which you cannot manage with the hot water you can take to a mill or a ship-yard and have steamed in a regular steam-chest, which is really nothing, in principle, but a big wooden or iron box, with a steam-pipe running into it, in which the pieces are kept until the steam has made them pliable. wood is now bent for many purposes by "end pressure," but this is impracticable for the amateur. to bend the ends of pieces like skis, hockies, etc., a big kettle or common wash-boiler full of boiling water can be used. an apparatus for long sticks, as ribs for a canoe, can be made with a piece of iron pipe of suitable size. plug one end tightly and stick it firmly in the ground, so that the pipe is fixed in a slanting direction. put water in the pipe, build a fire underneath, put the sticks in the pipe, stuff a rag loosely in the upper end and the apparatus will be in working order (fig. 469). [illustration fig. 469.] you must often have some sort of form or mould for bending the piece and for holding it while drying. for some kinds of bending, where there is no occasion to be accurate, you can often bend a piece around some corner or common object, as a barrel, log, etc., and tie it in place until dry, or fasten it with cleats, but for nice work you should make a form or mould. if you wish to bend ribs, for instance, which should be accurate in shape, you can cut a piece of board or plank to fit the concave side of the desired curve. fasten this piece upon any flat surface, as an old plank, and bore holes for wooden pins around the curve at such a distance from the pattern piece or mould that the piece to be bent can be firmly wedged against it, as shown in fig. 470; or you can attach blocks instead of pins--any arrangement by which the bent piece can be wedged in place. a strap of hoop iron or other metal or even a thin piece of wood can be placed outside of the stick to be bent, to prevent the wood splitting or splintering on the outside, as it is liable to do if bent much, unless of good quality and straight grain, but there is no need of doing this in many cases. [illustration fig. 470.] [illustration fig. 471.] another way is to have the mould or form in two parts, as the two parts of a board or plank through which the curve has been sawed (fig. 471). the piece to be bent is put between the two forms, which are then pressed together by clamps, wedges, or a lever. this is a good way for short pieces which cannot easily be bent, or which do not readily cling to the required curve. another form of bending-mould is shown (an inverted view) in fig. 472. in this case the pieces to be bent are held in place by easily made clamps. [illustration fig. 472.] [illustration fig. 473.] a simple way to make a form for bending strips is to cut the curve out of a piece of plank, or boards nailed together (fig. 473). the end of the strip is then caught against the cleat and the piece bent around the curve. if it tends to spring off the curve, you must contrive some way to clamp, wedge, or even tie it in place. as a piece must be left on the form until dry and set, if you have a number to bend, it may be better to make a form wide enough to bend them all at once. take any boards, or build a curved addition on the end of a box, and contrive a wider form on the same principle (fig. 474). for ribs, and the like, the stock should be got out so that the annual layers will be at right angles to the direction of the nails with which the pieces are to be fastened, or parallel with the curved sides of the pieces. [illustration fig. 474.] =bevel.=--this is similar to the square, but with a movable blade which can be set at any angle. when permanently fixed at an angle of 45â°, it is called a _mitre-square_. the bevel is useful, not merely to mark any desired angle, but to repeat some angle already formed, to which you apply it, moving the blade until it fits the angle, when the tool can be applied to another piece and the angle repeated. the directions about holding the head of the square close to the edge apply also to the use of the bevel (see _square_). [illustration fig. 475.] to obtain an angle of 45â° with the bevel, place it against the inside edge of the large steel square (fig. 475), setting the blade at such an angle that it will intercept equal distances on both arms of the square. on this same principle, for other angles, observe the figures intercepted by the blade, as shown in fig. 476. note that for this angle the figures are 2 and 4, and you can get the angle again at any time by setting the bevel at those figures. you can also set the bevel by laying off the required angle with compasses on a straight-edged board, to which the bevel can be applied. the angle should be so laid out on the board that it will not be necessary to try to set the point of the compasses exactly at the edge, which is of course impossible. see _bevelling_. [illustration fig. 476.] =bevelling.=--to bevel the edge of a piece with the chisel, draw-knife, spoke-shave, plane, or even knife, first mark parallel lines to work to with a pencil-gauge (see _gauge_) rather than a spur-gauge, so as not to leave a scratch to disfigure the work after the bevel or chamfer is cut (figs. 477 and 485). then pare the edge down gradually to these lines, or prepare the way by first scoring the wood with cuts (fig. 615), being sure to trim off in the direction of the grain; but in bevelling both end and side, as in fig. 478, first cut the end, because of possible chipping at the corner, and in cutting the end you can work from each corner towards the centre. in paring a bevel across the grain, push the chisel as shown in fig. 479, as it is the easiest and cleanest way to cut, and prevents splintering. [illustration fig. 477.] [illustration fig. 478.] [illustration right. wrong. fig. 479.] a simple bevel (figs. 477 and 478) is usually best made with the plane, whenever there is room to use it. plane bevels in end wood from both edges and you can often slant the plane to good advantage like the chisel in fig. 479. see also _chamfering_. =bit-brace or bit-stock.=--this tool requires no description. the _ratchet_ brace is useful for boring in awkward places where it is difficult to use a common bit-stock. there is also a contrivance for extending the bit-brace to bore in places which cannot be reached by the common brace alone, but this you will seldom require. an angular bit-stock, with a "universal angle" adjustment, is useful. by this the bit can be pointed in different directions, while the bit-stock is turned continuously in the ordinary way, thus enabling a hole to be conveniently bored in an out-of-the-way corner. see _boring_. =bits.=--the _auger-bit_ (the sizes of which are arranged by sixteenths of an inch) so commonly used with the bit-brace, consists, at the cutting end, of a spur, two scoring-nibs, and two cutting-lips. you will see from fig. 480 that the spur _a_, acting like a gimlet point or a screw (which it is), starts the bit by drawing it into the wood so that the scoring-nibs _b_ make a circular cut around the circumference. as this cut deepens, the cutting-lips _c_ slice away the wood to be removed in the form of shavings, which are brought to the surface as the boring proceeds. this bit can be sharpened with a file, the scoring-nibs being sharpened from the inside, lest they be made to score a circle too small for the rest of the bit, while the cutting-lips are filed from the under side. [illustration fig. 480.] [illustration fig. 481.] the _centre-bit_ is a useful tool, particularly for very thin stock. the spear-like point _a_ (fig. 481), acting as a centre, the point _b_ cuts a deep ring, and the edge _c_, which is bent so as to form a flat chisel, scoops out the pieces of wood, and so a round and smooth hole is made. this bit does not cut very well with the grain. it can be sharpened with a small oil-stone. it is well to bore a trial hole with this bit in a piece of waste wood when exactness is required, because the spur is not exactly in the centre, so that the hole cut is a trifle wider than the diameter of the bit. the _expansion-bit_ has an adjustable contrivance that enables it to bore holes of various sizes, but such tools are hardly necessary for beginners, though very convenient and often used by carpenters. the _gimlet-bit_ is a common form, but is easily dulled and bent and is likely to split delicate work. the _quill-bit_ is excellent, except for end grain. _shell-bit_, _gouge-bit_, _pod-bit_, _spoon-bit_, _duck's-bill-bit_, etc., are names applied to simple tools good for boring small holes. they are easily sharpened with a stone, work quickly and leave a smooth hole, but do not cut so well in end grain. they are not as much in use as formerly, the twist-drill taking their place for many purposes. _reamers_, or tapering bits (half-round, square, octagonal, conical), are useful to enlarge holes and occasionally to make them conical. reamers for metal are also useful. for other forms of boring implements, see _awls_ and _twist-drill_. see also _boring_ and _countersink_. =block-plane.=--see _plane_. =boards or planks, laying exposed.=--in laying boards or planks to be exposed to the weather, place them (unless they are from the middle of the tree) so as to have the outer side exposed--that is, the side farthest from the heart should be put outside or uppermost. if put the other way the action of the atmosphere, water, etc., will tend to separate and loosen the layers and fibres (fig. 482). [illustration fig. 482.] =boring.=--in boring with the bit-brace, after the bit has gone a short distance into the wood, stop and, keeping the brace in position, test carefully from in front and from one side to see whether the bit is at right angles to the surface. repeat this test and alter the position of the brace as many times as may be necessary until you are sure that the bit is going through at the right angle. a common way to do this is to stand squarely in front of the work and judge by the eye whether the bit is at right angles with the work, and then to stand at either side at right angles to the first position and judge of the angle again. the direction of the bit can be tested more accurately by applying the square. few people can bore accurately without some such test. [illustration fig. 483.] some workmen rest the chin on the left hand on top of the handle of the brace, to steady it (fig. 483), and to increase the pressure, and sometimes the shoulder is applied. to remove a bit from the wood, give the brace a turn or two backward, which will loosen the spur, and then either pull the bit straight out, if it can be done easily without turning the brace, or, as you pull it out, keep turning the brace as if boring, thus bringing out the chips, which, if you remove the bit by turning the brace backward, will be left in the hole. in boring through a board or timber, watch to see when the spur of the bit begins to come through on the other side; when it does, turn the piece over and bore in from that side, or clamp a piece of waste wood on the other side and bore right through into it. either way will prevent splintering or a ragged or "burred" edge, where the bit leaves the wood. in boring a hole of any depth with the grain, _i.e._, in the end of a piece of wood, withdraw the bit, after it has entered the wood a short distance, to clear the chips from the hole, reinsert, bore, and withdraw again, and continue in this way until you reach the required depth. this will save injuring the bit, and will make the boring easier. in boring with small bits, particularly when there is danger of splitting, as with the gimlet-bit, draw out the bit and chips once in a while. when the position of a hole must be exact on both sides of the wood it is well to mark the position accurately on each side and bore from each side until the holes meet. frequently holes must not be bored through a piece, but must stop at a certain depth. suppose you have to make a dozen holes 2" deep. take a wooden tube if you have one, or bore a hole through a block of wood of such length that when pressed against the jaws of the brace two inches of the end of the bit will project beyond the tube or block (fig. 484). then bore until the end of the tube touches the surface of the wood, when the hole will, of course, be 2" deep. metal attachments can be bought for this purpose. see _awl_, _bits_, _twist-drill_. [illustration fig. 484.] to cut a hole larger than any bit you have, bore a series of smaller holes just within the circumference of the desired circle, and trim to the line with the gouge or finish with keyhole or compass-saw. =bow-saw.=--see _saw_. =brad-awl.=--see _awl_. =bruises, to take out.=--small bruises in wood can be taken out by wetting the place with warm water, or even with cold water, and rubbing down the grain with sandpaper if necessary. if that is not sufficient, a hot iron, as a flat-iron, held near the bruise, the latter being covered with wet blotting paper or several thicknesses of brown paper, will often remove a quite large dent. the operation can be repeated until it has no further effect. =brushes.=--it is well to have a brush of some sort for cleaning off work, the bench, etc. a sash brush is good. for most of your painting, shellacing, etc., you will usually get along better with small flat brushes than with large round ones, except for very coarse work. those with flattened handles are convenient. from one to two inches in diameter will usually be large enough, unless for such work as painting the outside of a house, when something larger will save time. for painting small or narrow surfaces, the brushes used for "drawing" sashes are good, and for drawing lines "pencil" brushes will be required. a good brush for glue can be made by soaking one end of a piece of rattan in hot water and then pounding the softened part, when the fibres will separate, making a stiff brush. =bull-nosed plane=--see _plane_. =calipers.=--calipers, which are "inside" or "outside," according to whether they are to find the diameter of a hole or the outside diameter of an object, are very important in some work, as turning, but, though very useful at times, are not nearly as important for the work of the beginner as compasses. =carving-chisel.=--see _carving tools_. =carving tools.=--a few carving tools are often very useful for general wood-work. it is convenient to have these carving tools fitted in handles of a different pattern from your other tools. an octagonal shape is good. a _carving-chisel_ is very useful in working on odd-shaped pieces, because the cutting edge is bevelled on both sides. a carver's _skew_ chisel will be, perhaps, more generally useful for your work than one ground squarely across. a _parting-tool_, sometimes called a "v tool," is occasionally convenient, though hardly a necessity for most plain work. a small _veining-tool_ (like a very small gouge) is often useful. =centre-bit.=--see _bits_. =chalk-line.=--see _marking_. =chamfering.=--a chamfer is the surface formed by cutting away the angle made by two faces of a piece of wood. [illustration fig. 485.] in cutting the _ends_ of a stop-chamfer (fig. 485), take care not to cut quite down to the line at first, as you will be very apt to cut a little too deep and leave a tool mark which cannot be removed. in the case of long stop-chamfers, use the plane whenever you can, so far as it can be used without hitting the wood at the ends. the draw-knife can often be used to remove the wood, being followed by the plane. the plane can be used slantingly, so as to cut nearer the ends, and a bull-nosed plane will cut nearer still, but the extreme ends will have to be trimmed to shape with the chisel or other tool. see also _bevelling_ and _paring_. =chisel.=--the _firmer-chisel_ is meant for light hand-work, for paring off wood and trimming to shape, and can be used for light mortising, though the mortise-chisel is intended for that purpose. it is often an advantage to have the long edges of such a chisel bevelled on the same side as the cutting basil, as it can be used more conveniently in some places. taking off the corner of the basil when grinding, often answers the purpose. the _framing-chisel_ is stouter than the firmer, has a stronger handle to stand heavy blows of the mallet, and is meant, as the name indicates, for framing, mortising, and other heavy work.[41] see _mortising_. [illustration fig. 486.] [illustration fig. 487.] the _straight-bent chisel_ is shaped as shown in fig. 487, and is very useful for cleaning out corners, grooves, and other places where the common firmer-chisel cannot be used to advantage. a _skew-chisel_ is simply ground slanting, instead of squarely across, and is useful for corners and odd work. see _carving tools_. there are other forms, seldom needed by the amateur, as the _corner-chisel_, which is used for cutting or paring angles and corners. those chisels and gouges which have the handles fitted into sockets at the upper end of the iron, instead of the iron being stuck into the handle, and with ferrules at the upper end where they are struck by the mallet are, of course, the strongest for heavy work, although the lighter handles are just as good for light work. do not let your left hand get in front of the edge of the chisel while working, for the tool may slip and give you a bad cut, and in most cases the left hand should be kept on the lower part of the chisel to help control it, which is not easily done with one hand. in some cases, as in paring the edge of a piece directly downward towards the bench, it may be proper to hold the work with the left hand and use the chisel with the right; but as a rule, particularly for beginners, first see that the work is securely fastened or held from slipping by vise, clamp, or other expedient, and then keep the left hand on the chisel, which will steady and guide the tool, and, incidentally, prevent the hand from being cut. see _paring_ and _sharpening_. =circular-plane.=--see _plane_. =clamps.=--long clamps (cabinet-clamps), shown in the accompanying illustrations, are extremely useful in making glued joints and in various clamping operations. many, of different lengths, are to be found in wood-working shops. although much work can be accomplished without them, if you can afford a pair or more of medium length, or longer, they will be very useful. wooden clamps will answer every purpose, although steel ones are better, but more expensive. [illustration fig. 488.] to clamp two or more flat pieces together, as in making a "glue-joint," or in clamping framework, as a door or picture-frame, lay the work across the horses, which should be so placed that their tops will be as nearly level, or in the same plane, as possible, and apply the clamps as shown in fig. 488, always putting pieces of waste wood between the edges of the work and the clamps. place the clamps so that either the flat side of the bar or the corner, as shown, will lie against the surface of the work, thus keeping it from bending towards the bar when the screw is tightened. the number of clamps to be used must depend on the size of the work, but there is not usually much danger of an amateur's work being clamped too securely.[42] if you have to glue a flexible strip, put a stiff piece outside between it and the clamp to distribute the pressure. you will often find by sighting across the surface of the work as you tighten the clamps, particularly in the case of door-frames, picture-frames, and the like, that the surface is winding. when this happens, move one or more corners of the work up or down, as the case may be, in the clamps, and thus take out the winding. a little experimenting will show how to do this. in the case of framed work, such as doors or picture-frames, test the angles with the square as soon as the joints are brought to a bearing. if the angles are not right, as will often be the case, move one end of either one or both of the clamps to the right or left, as the case may be, and you can easily change the angle until the square shows it to be right, when the screws can be tightened and the joints should close accurately. in clamping nearly all kinds of "case" work, such as bookcases, cabinets, boxes, and the like, these directions about moving the clamps until the angles are correct and the work free from winding are applicable. in such cases as that shown in fig. 488, waste no time in trying to get the surfaces _exactly_ flush with each other at the joint before partially tightening the clamps, lest the glue become set. any slight alteration can best then be made by tapping with the hammer near the joint, whenever either piece needs to be raised or lowered, putting a block under the hammer if the dent will not be removed by planing (see _gluing_). the clamps can then be screwed tighter. [illustration fig. 489.] [illustration fig. 490.] in such cases as gluing the joints of a box, put stout blocks or cleats over the joints before tightening the clamps (fig. 489), to distribute the pressure. this applies to all cases of clamping where the pieces to be glued are not heavy enough to resist the change of shape from the pressure of the clamps, and pieces of waste wood are almost always required in any case to prevent bruising of the work. you can contrive home-made clamps out of any strong pieces of wood of suitable length, by nailing or screwing a block at each end (fig. 490), when the work can be tightly wedged to a close bearing by driving home the double wedge shown, using, if necessary, one or more blocks, b, when you use the clamp for smaller work than that for which it was made. by keeping such clamps for future use, you will soon have enough to answer very well until you can afford to buy the regular cabinet-clamps. on the same principle, a simple clamp, derived from the orient, can be made by boring a series of holes in two stout strips--just as the holes are bored in the sides of a ladder, but nearer together. the work to be glued is laid on one of these strips in the same way as shown in fig. 490. the other strip is then placed directly above and stout pins put through corresponding holes outside of the work, which can then be wedged against the pins in the way just shown. another way, which can be applied to many cases, is to put a stout cord, doubled, around the work, and inserting a stick between the two parts of the string, turn it around until, the doubled cord thus becoming shortened, the parts of the work are drawn together. this can only be done where there is room to swing the stick around, as, for example, to tighten the rounds of a chair by drawing the legs together (fig. 491). [illustration fig. 491.] [illustration fig. 492.] you can often apply pressure, when no more convenient means are at hand, by making use of the elasticity of a board or pole. suppose, for example, you need to press two blocks tightly together, as shown in fig. 492. place them on the bench or floor and spring in a board or pole between the top of the upper block and a beam of the floor above, as shown. of course this board must be a little longer than merely to reach between the two points, as it must be sprung into place bent, when in the effort to straighten itself out again it will cause pressure on the blocks. pieces should be placed outside the blocks when scarring of the surface is to be avoided. the pressure can be applied in any direction, always supposing that you have something firm to press against. pressure can often be obtained by a lever, and many applications of the wedge will suggest themselves in your work. even if you have a shopful of clamps and hand-screws and vises, these applications of the simple mechanical powers often come into play (see fig. 390). see also page 71. adjustable wood-carver's clamps can be bought for holding pieces in position on the bench, and are useful, but by no means necessary, as common clamps, or various devices, can be used. the small iron clamps which can be used in place of hand-screws are very useful. for other suggestions about clamping, see _hand-screws_. [illustration fig. 493.] [illustration fig. 494.] =cleating.=--a simple way to join two or more pieces of board or plank to make a wider piece is to cleat them. if short, they can be cleated across the ends. this can also be done to keep a single board from warping (fig. 493). such a cleat should not be glued unless the width is very slight, on account of the expansion and contraction across the board being so much greater than that lengthways of the cleat (see pages 50-53). screws (which are best), nails, or dowels should be used, as they will give some play to the pieces. a groove can also be made in the cleat, into which a tongue on the end of the board is fitted. grooves can be cut in both cleat and board and a tongue or spline inserted (fig. 494). these are operations best done by machinery. this end-cleating does very well on small work and where the tendency to warp is not too great. for heavier work, as doors, cleats on the side are better, but they are sometimes in the way, and not always desirable on the ground of looks. this is a strong way. side cleats should be fastened with screws (see _screws_) or clinched nails (see _nailing_), but not with glue, for the same reason as in the case of end cleats. if the cleat is wide enough, do not put the screws in a straight line, but "alternate" them (fig. 368). see _jointing_ and _doors and panels_. =clinching-nails.=--see _nailing_. =compasses.=--wing compasses, or those with arc and set-screw, are easy to adjust accurately and will not slip, but, whatever kind you get, be sure that the points stay where you put them and do not spring away or wobble around. the chief uses of this tool are to strike circles, to lay off angles and arcs, to take off measurements from a rule or some object, to lay off measurements, and to "scribe" in places where a gauge can not be used (see _scribing_). in using compasses, particularly those which are not set by a screw, hold them and swing them around by the top at the hinged joint, rather than grasp them near the points, which may cause them to move or slip. [illustration fig. 495.] circles or circular arcs can be struck roughly, as you doubtless know, with a string and a nail at the centre, the string being loose around the nail. this method is not very accurate, for obvious reasons, and is only suitable for rough work. a more accurate way is to drive two nails through a strip of wood at a distance apart just equal to the radius of the required circle, one nail being driven into the wood to act as the centre, the other doing the marking (fig. 495). instead of the marking nail a hole can be bored for a pencil. you can use a stick of this sort repeatedly by changing the position of the centre nail, or of the marking point. the same can be done with a brad or stout pin and a pencil, using stiff paper, card-board, or zinc instead of a stick. by such expedients you can do a great deal of work without buying compasses. =compass-saw.=--see _saw_. [illustration fig. 496.] =corner-blocks.=--these are merely small pieces of pine, or other wood which holds glue well, with two adjacent surfaces at right angles. hot glue is applied to them and they are rubbed into interior angles of cabinet-work, to strengthen and stiffen the work (fig. 496), and are very useful for this purpose. they are got out in short pieces, lengthways of the grain, and can be freely used in places where they will not show, as inside of the base-board in fig. 304. the shape can be varied according to the conditions of the joint. apply hot glue plentifully, place the block where it is to go, and rub it back and forth several times, when it can be left for the glue to dry. =corner-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =countersink.=--this tool, to be used with the bit-brace, for enlarging the outer part of a hole, thus forming a cavity or depression for receiving the head of a screw (fig. 497), is quite important, as being much more convenient than to use gouge, chisel, or knife for the purpose. see page 205. [illustration fig. 497.] the rose form of countersink is common and good. the clark double-cut countersink (for wood only) cuts smoothly and is easily sharpened. a countersink for metal is useful. =cracks, to stop.=--see _holes_, _to stop_. =cross-cut saw.=--see _saw_. =cutting-pliers.=--a pair of these will often be useful in connection with wood-working operations. =dents, to take out.=--see _bruises_. =dividers.=--see _compasses_. =doors and panels.=--it is important to have some understanding of the theory of framing panels, doors, and the like. the simplest form of door is, of course, a piece of board. this will do for some cases, but it is liable to warp or wind,--if a large door, sometimes to such a degree as to be useless. it is also, if large, liable to swell or shrink so as to be either too loose or too tight, and to break. cleating can be resorted to (see _cleating_), but will not prevent the swelling and shrinking, nor is a cleated door especially ornamental. besides, there are limits to the width of ordinary boards. several boards can, however, be joined, edge to edge, and cleated on one side, in which way a large door can be made (fig. 405), and, if the boards are not fitted too closely together, there may be no trouble caused by the swelling and shrinking. another way to make a very _strong_ door is to make it of two thicknesses, or layers, one running up and down and the other crossways, or diagonally, the two thicknesses being firmly nailed or screwed together. [illustration fig. 498.] [illustration fig. 499.] [illustration fig. 500.] [illustration fig. 501.] [illustration fig. 502.] [illustration fig. 503.] all such arrangements are, however, suited for the rougher class of work. when we come to nicer work we must have something more scientific, that will swell and shrink as little as possible and that will look better. so, instead of using a broad flat surface with the boards all running one way, we try to overcome the faults of the flat door by framing the pieces together. suppose, for a theoretical case, that you make a door like fig. 498. it will not warp or curl because of the cleats at the top and bottom, but it will swell and shrink in width because there is such a wide surface of board to be affected by the atmosphere, etc., and it may become winding. to lessen these objections the middle part of the board can be removed--all but a strip at each edge (fig. 499). it will not now swell and shrink much in width because most of the board has been removed. this frame will hold its shape quite well, but it is only a frame, not a door. how can you fill up this open frame to make a door, so as to avoid the trouble about warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking? first, however, as this frame is considerably taller than it is wide, you will readily see that it will be a better arrangement to make it as shown in fig. 500, with the cross-pieces between the uprights, according to the usual custom in such cases. suppose, now, that you fill up the open space with a _thin_ board, fastened on one side (fig. 501), instead of the thick wood which occupied the space at first. the thin board will tend to warp and twist, but, being thin, it will not exert force enough to change the shape of the thick frame. that will prevent the warping and winding from doing much harm. if the screw-holes in this thin piece are reasonably loose, they will allow play enough for the board to expand and contract without putting any strain on the frame. this arrangement does not, however, look very nice on the side to which the board is screwed, though it can be used in some situations. suppose, finally, that you cut a groove around the inside edge of the frame of the door (fig. 502) into which this thin board can be fitted loosely, making the groove deep enough to give the board room to shrink and swell in width without dropping out or pushing against the frame. you now have a complete door (fig. 503), and the warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking will do as little harm as possible. that is all there is to the theory of framing doors, panels, and the like. [illustration right. wrong. fig. 504.] the panel should fit closely into the groove, but at the same time be loose enough to slide in and out as it expands and contracts, and should not be wide enough to reach to the bottom of the grooves, but room be left for all possible change in width, as shown in fig. 504, which shows sections on the line ab. all this is important and has many applications to other things than doors. it is not very uncommon for amateurs, ignorant of these simple principles, to make a door-frame properly, but in fitting the panel to make it the full width of the space from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite, and also to make it such a snug fit in the groove as to be stuck tight, all with the idea of making such a good fit as to prevent any of the gaping cracks so often seen, but really taking the very course to ruin the work. so important is it that the panel should have play, that it is quite common in nice work to rub wax or tallow around the edge of the panel, lest some of the glue from the joints of the frame should cause it to stick when the frame is glued up. if the panel is badly fitted or stuck, it may buckle or split, or the frame be split or forced apart at the joints. there are many more elaborate ways of arranging the details of door-framing and panelling (too numerous to be described here, as they will not often be required by the beginner); but if you understand the general principles upon which this simple door is put together, you will understand the principles upon which all panelling is based; and, though you may never do much of it, it is quite important to have a clear understanding of the theory, which is really quite simple--for it has many applications which may save you much trouble, labour, and expense. the best way to fasten the frame of a door together is by mortise and tenon (see _mortising_). this method is almost invariably adopted for house doors. dowelling is often used for smaller doors, but is inferior to the mortise and tenon. a common way nowadays to make light doors, and such as are not to be subjected to much strain, is to run the grooves in the stiles through to the ends and cut tongues or short tenons on the ends of the rails to fit these grooves, as shown in figs. 508 and 509. the whole door, panel and all, can thus be quickly got out and fitted accurately with a circular saw at any wood-working mill, without any hand-work being required, except the smoothing of the pieces and the putting together. in this way you can have a door made for a small sum, smoothing and putting it together yourself. such a door is not fitted, however, to stand great strain. a house door made in that way would last but a short time. any heavy door, or one to have much strain, or liable to be slammed, should be framed with mortise and tenon. you can have grooving for a door-frame done at the mill very cheaply and do the mortising yourself, or you can have the mortising done by machine at slight expense. sometimes the grooving and mortising are combined,--an excellent way (fig. 592). in using any of these methods mark distinctly one side of each piece for the "face" and lay out all the work from that side only. if the job is to be taken to a mill, see that the work is all gauged from the face side. [illustration fig. 505.] [illustration fig. 506.] in laying out such work never cut off the stiles (fig. 505) to length at first. leave them too long (fig. 507). the projecting ends will be useful when you knock the frame apart for gluing, after first putting it together to see if everything fits. besides, the extra length makes the ends stronger for the mortising and less likely to split out. the rails in door-framing and panelling are usually wider than the stiles. in laying out a door or panelled frame, place the stiles together, with the inside edges uppermost, and square lines across the edges to mark the positions for the rails (fig. 506). carry these lines across the faces of the stiles, and mark the rails and stiles with some symbols to indicate the way they are to be fitted together (fig. 507). [illustration fig. 507.] the whole should be put together once to see that everything is right before beginning to glue. before putting together permanently, the panel and the inside edges of the frame (the edges which come next the panel) must first be planed and smoothed, as this cannot well be done afterwards. then fit the panel in the grooves of the rails (fig. 508), glue the tenons of one end of the rails and the grooves or mortises of the corresponding stile (see _gluing_), taking care not to put any glue where it may cause the panel to stick, and fit these parts into place (fig. 509). drive the rails home. then glue and fit the other side of the frame in the same way (fig. 510)--all being done as quickly as possible. finally clamp the frame securely (see _clamps_). the tongued and grooved joint represented in the accompanying illustrations is not as good as a mortise and tenon, as already stated, but is shown as a simple way for making a light door. leave the work to dry, and when dry remove the clamps. saw off the ends of the stiles, and dress off the surface of the frame with the plane (see _plane_), after which you can smooth with scraper (see _scraper_) and sandpaper (see _sandpaper_), and the door or panel will be done. when there is objection to the end of a tenon showing on the outside edge of the stile, and a blind mortise is not desired (see _mortising_), the end of the tenon can be cut a little short and the mortise-hole on the edge plugged with a piece of wood, with the grain running the same way as that of the stile. fit the piece with a very trifling bevel on the edges, glue, drive tightly into place, and when dry smooth off (fig. 511). [illustration fig. 508.] [illustration fig. 509.] [illustration fig. 510.] [illustration fig. 511.] it is hardly worth while to work out the grooving or grooved and tongued joints by hand in these days when it can be so cheaply done by machinery. if obliged to do it by hand, you should have the proper plane for the purpose, as it will be very difficult and slow work otherwise. a panel is sometimes made flush with either side of the frame, by having a deep rabbet on that side, as in the case of a desk lid, for instance, but this is a form which can well be avoided by the beginner. =dovetailing.=--this is an operation requiring considerable skill to do well and, with the exception of an occasional single dovetail, is not frequently required in the work of the beginner. it is, however, a valuable, workmanlike accomplishment and a thoroughly scientific method, of which the amateur should have some understanding, even if he should never use it. [illustration fig. 512.] [illustration fig. 513.] the _common_ form, such as is used in joining the sides of a box (fig. 512), can be done as follows: mark the lines _ab_ (fig. 513) completely around each piece, at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of the stock. lay off the lines _cd_ on the end of the piece a. lay off the oblique lines _ec_ on both sides of the piece. with the back-saw cut by these oblique lines (_ec_) to the lines _ab_. fasten the piece in the vise, end upward, for the sawing. with the chisel, cut out the parts to be removed (marked _m_), as in cutting a mortise (see _mortising_), undercutting very slightly at the end (fig. 302). when this cutting has been cleanly done, lay the piece a on the end of the piece b in the way it is finally to go, so that the pins just cut will rest exactly in position across the end of the piece b. mark around the pins, forming the oblique lines _fg_, from the ends of which square the lines _gh_ on both sides of the piece. remove the wood as before, taking care not to cut on the wrong sides of the lines which mark the pins, or the dovetailing may come together too loosely. when exactly fitted, apply glue, fit together, and when dry smooth off with plane, scraper, and sandpaper, as may be required. [illustration fig. 514.] _lap_ or _drawer_ dovetailing (fig. 514) is similar to the preceding form, but the ends of the pins or dovetails on the piece forming the side of the drawer are shortened, and the recesses in the front piece which are to receive them are not cut through. first the side piece a (fig. 515) is marked and cut on the principle just shown, the pins being shorter; then the piece b is marked and cut to fit. practised workmen in dovetailing usually (unless symmetry of the pins is required) determine the bevels for the pins of the first piece by eye, but the beginner would best not attempt to lay off angles or saw by eye. [illustration fig. 515.] _mitre_ dovetailing (_blind_ or _secret_ dovetailing) is used in cases where it is desired to conceal the dovetails, the result looking like an ordinary mitred joint, but this is difficult work for the beginner. =dovetail saw.=--see _saw_ (_back-saw_). =dowelling.=--dowels are merely round sticks of different diameters and usually of hard wood. they can be bought ready made and can be used instead of nails or screws, or instead of mortising, dovetailing, etc. they can be used simply as pins or in many cases can be split and wedged, though the holes must be tapered with a gouge if wedges of much thickness are to be used (fig. 516). [illustration fig. 516.] a common use of dowels is to fasten the frames of tables, chairs, bedsteads, and various domestic articles. the use of dowels for such purposes is not to be recommended, however, although very common in cheap work and in much work which is not cheap in price. the mortise and tenon is usually much to be preferred. dowelling, to be really good, has to be skilfully done, while it is a very common way to stick the work together in any manner that will look right on the outside. a dowelled joint is not, as a rule, as scientific a form of construction as a well-planned mortise and tenon,--a statement which you can easily prove for yourself by comparing some article of your grandmother's or great-grandmother's time, and which is still strong, with some modern dowelled chair, which is in so many cases all to pieces and thrown on the woodpile after a short term of service. the gaping joints and dropping apart of modern dowelled work can be seen on every hand. there are some cases, however, where the use of dowels is scientific and just what is required. for example, split dowels, wedged dovetail fashion like wedged tenons, are often very useful (see _mortising_). [illustration fig. 517.] [illustration fig. 518.] to find the centres for boring, so that the holes bored in the two pieces shall be in line, you can cut off the heads of some small wire brads so that they will be pointed at both ends. stick the brads into one piece where the centres of the holes should be. then press this piece against the other in the position it is to take when the work is done and the brads will of course prick holes in the second piece exactly corresponding to those in the first piece (fig. 517). instead of brads, small shot can be used in a similar manner. it is well to take a round-pointed awl, or some such tool, and carefully prick a small hole with it at each of the points marked. this is to start the spur of the bit exactly at the point, as the spur sometimes has a way of working off to one side, so that the hole may not be in exactly the right place. the hardest part, however, is to bore the holes exactly at right angles to the surface, as a slight deviation in either or both may make a bad angle where the two holes meet. you can sometimes lay the pieces flat on the bench and arrange boards or blocks so as to guide the bit straight. the dowels must be thoroughly dry. it is better to have them a trifle too large, rather than too small, for you can easily trim them down to a snug fit. scratch them lengthways with the toothed-plane, or with the edge of a file. countersink a little hollow around the opening of each hole (see _countersink_), to catch the surplus glue which would otherwise form a rim around the dowel (fig. 517). before gluing you should fit the work together once, as it is very awkward to make changes after the gluing is begun. when the parts fit accurately, take the joint apart for gluing. brush a little glue around the inside of one of the holes, dip one end of a dowel in the glue and drive into place. wipe off the superfluous glue and repeat the process with each of the dowels in that half of the joint. leave this to dry a day, or more if you can. then clean any hardened glue from the dowels and glue them, as before, into the other piece, this time putting glue on the flat surfaces which are to come together. the whole should be firmly clamped and left to dry (see _gluing_ and _clamps_). dowels are sometimes used in joining the edges of pieces, as in fig. 518, and in many other joints too numerous to be specified (see _joints_ and _jointing_). dowelling looks very easy, but it is usually hard for the beginner to bore the holes straight and to make the pieces fit accurately. =dowel-plate.=--a steel plate with various holes of such sizes that pins made by driving blocks of wood through them will drive snugly into the holes made by the corresponding bits. this is useful in fitting dowels. =drawers.=--the making of well-fitting and smoothly running drawers is an operation requiring much skill--more skill than can be expected of the beginner, or, in fact, than is attained by the average workman. the beginner should, however, have some understanding of the work, even if he does not attain a high degree of skill in its execution. bear in mind that it is much easier to make a drawer which is narrow and long (from front to back) run smoothly than one which is wide across the front, but shallow from front to back. the more accurately the case which holds the drawers is made, the easier it is to make smoothly running drawers. in good work having more than one drawer, a horizontal frame is fitted beneath each drawer for it to run on. these frames, as well as the whole case, should be free from winding, and it is also important that the stock for the drawers should be true. the front and sides of a drawer should be got out to fit very snugly in their places. the piece for the back is narrower than the front piece, to allow for the bottom (fig. 521), and is often cut off at the top also. the front, sides, and back can be put together with any suitable form of joint. dovetailing is by far the best way, but it is difficult for the beginner (see _dovetailing_). the joints shown in fig. 519 can very well be used for ordinary work. these can be quickly made by machinery (see _joints_). see also _gluing_ and _clamps_. [illustration fig. 519.] a groove for the bottom must be cut on the inside of the front and of the sides (fig. 520). the insides of the pieces must be smoothed before putting the drawer together. when these parts are fitted, slip the bottom (previously fitted) into place. it should be got out with the grain running across the drawer, or parallel with the front (fig. 521), and should be glued at the front edge _only_, the rest being free to swell and shrink, which saves the drawer from injury. [illustration fig. 520.] [illustration fig. 521.] be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom will assist in this) and free from winding. when put together and dry, carefully smooth the front and the sides. a little trimming with the plane may be required to make the drawer run freely, but care should be taken not to plane away too much. a drawer which is a trifle larger at the back than at the front will run better than if larger in front, as it will be less likely to bind or catch. small slides, between which the drawer runs, are fastened at each side outside the drawer, at the bottom, and must be adjusted carefully. thin blocks or "stops" can be fastened on the cross-frame so that the inside of the drawer front will strike against them when the drawer has been pushed in as far as it should go, or the drawer can be stopped at the back. a simple way to attach a drawer under a shelf, bench, or table is shown in fig. 143. the contrivance shown in figs. 141 and 142 can sometimes be used in place of small drawers. bayberry tallow is excellent to rub on the sides of drawers. [illustration fig. 522.] [illustration fig. 523.] =draw-knife= or =draw-shave=.--the draw-knife or draw-shave is very useful for slicing off large pieces and for trimming wood into odd shapes. it can be obtained with folding handles, adjustable at different angles, for use in places which can not be reached by the blade of the old-fashioned draw-knife; but the latter is good enough for all ordinary purposes. choose a medium-sized or large one. it is in principle simply a knife or very wide and short-bladed chisel with a handle at each end, and can be used with the flat side or the bevel against the wood as the character of the work may require. having but a short bearing surface to guide its course, it is very prone to follow the grain and cut deeper than you wish, so you must take special pains to cut with the grain, stopping and cutting the other way, whenever necessary. attachments can be bought for guiding the draw-knife in chamfering and such cases. the draw-knife can often be best used with an oblique stroke--either drawing it sideways across the work at the same time that you pull it towards you (fig. 522), or holding it obliquely across the work and pulling it straight towards you (fig. 523). it is one of the most dangerous tools if carelessly left lying around, and should be kept hung up out of reach of all small children. see _paring_, _bevelling_, and _chamfering_. =draw-shave.=--see _draw-knife_. =drill.=--drills for metal only are often useful to the wood-worker, but the one most important for the amateur is the twist-drill. see _twist-drill_. =drill-stock.=--there are various patterns of drill-stocks, some of them automatic, for holding drills of different sizes for small holes. _hand drills_ with revolving handle, like an egg-beater, can be used for small drills. see _bit-brace_. =duck's-bill-bit.=--see _bits_. =expansion-bit.=--see _bits_. =file.=--the file is a piece of hard steel with rows of ridges or teeth cut obliquely on the surface. when cut in one direction only it is called _single_-cut, but when there are two oblique rows of teeth crossing each other it is called _double_-cut. these ridges incline towards the end or point of the tool, so that the file, like the saw, plane, and scraper, cuts when pushed forward. files for wood have wider teeth than those for metal, so do not use a wood file on metal or a metal file for wood. the slab-sided shape (fig. 524) is perhaps the most useful, if you can have but one file. a round "rat-tailed" file is also useful, and various other shapes if you can have a variety. for metal, the triangular, flat, the half-round, shown in fig. 525, and the rat-tail are best. files are very important for smoothing or rounding edges and curving surfaces. [illustration fig. 524.] [illustration fig. 525.] before beginning to file, be sure that the wood is firmly secured so that it will not slip and so that you can use the file with both hands. hold the tool with the right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end with the left hand, thumb uppermost (fig. 526), or with the fingers or palm. to file squarely across, push the tool steadily and evenly straight forward, without rocking up and down, and pressing only on the forward stroke. [illustration fig. 526.] in filing rounded surfaces, a rocking motion is often helpful and the way and direction in which to file in such cases must depend upon the shape of the work and the grain of the wood, as you will quickly learn. see _rounding-sticks_. press lightly the first time you use a new file, until the fine edges of the teeth have been worn a little, as a violent filing on the first strokes may damage the cutting edges of the teeth. when a file becomes clogged with wood-dust or other substances, soak it in hot water a little while and then brush with a stiff brush. a _file-card_ is useful. a piece of dog-fish skin, if you can obtain it, cuts somewhat like a file or coarse sandpaper, and is useful for curved surfaces where you wish to use the tools after smoothing. =filing.=--see _file_. =filing (of saws).=--see _sharpening_. =finishing.=--to acquire a high degree of proficiency in finishing indoor wood-work requires long training and practice, but the simpler processes can be undertaken to good advantage by the beginner. there are a number of ways from which to choose. simply rubbing thoroughly with linseed oil gives a good, soft, permanent finish, which some prefer to anything else, but you should be sure that all superfluous oil is rubbed off. do not hang a recently oiled book-shelf or cabinet against the wall-paper of the room, for fear of defacing it. an oil finish, unless rubbed a good deal, has the disadvantage of getting soiled and collecting dust and dirt, but it is easily sandpapered and renewed and is certainly in better taste than a coarse, shiny, cheap varnish. an old-fashioned way is simply to apply a mixture of turpentine and beeswax, rubbing it as long as your strength and patience will allow. melt some beeswax in a can or saucepan and, when melted and taken from the stove, pour in enough turpentine to make it the consistency of paste. then apply with a brush or cloth and rub in and clean off the excess with a stiff brush or cloth, scrubbing the work as you would a stove. this makes a beautiful finish, soft and lustrous. it shows spots, however, and, though it is so easily applied, it requires continual renewing and rubbing to be kept in good condition. to make a hard and durable coating on the surface of the wood some kind of varnish is required. there is nothing better than shellac for the purpose of the amateur. it is not very hard to use, and there is certainly nothing which gives a finish of nicer quality. the surface dries quickly and the coat hardens more rapidly than most kinds of varnish. for some cases, as a boat, it is well to shellac first and finish with good varnish.[43] shellac is cut (dissolved) in alcohol, and can be bought prepared, but it is better to cut it yourself, to diminish the chance of adulteration with cheaper substances. orange shellac will do for most of your work. into an open-mouthed bottle put some of the shellac (which comes in flakes and looks somewhat like glue) and pour over it enough grain alcohol (95 per cent. grade) to somewhat more than cover the shellac. cork the bottle and leave in a warm place until the shellac is cut. shaking will hasten the process. wood alcohol can be used and is cheaper, but work done with it is not so good. it is a deadly poison taken internally and on account of the fumes it is best not to use it for a long time in a close room. if the tawny tint of the orange shellac is objectionable, white (bleached) shellac can be used, but this it is well to buy already prepared. it is a little harder to use than the coloured kind. use a flat bristle-brush and not a soft camel's-hair brush, unless for the last coat. one from one inch to two inches wide will be probably suitable for most of your work. for large surfaces, however, a larger brush is better. after using, always clean the brush thoroughly with alcohol. always shellac in a warm, dry place, free from dust--never where it is cold and damp; but on the other hand do not leave the work close to a hot stove or it may blister. the shellac should be quite thin. it should flow very freely from the brush. of the two extremes, it is better to have it too thin rather than too thick. three or four thin coats give a much better result than two coats of thick, gummy shellac. never try to thin it with anything but alcohol. keep the bottle corked to prevent evaporation of the alcohol and to keep out the dust. before beginning to shellac, see that the work is free from dust. pour a small quantity of the shellac into a small dish of glass or earthenware, not of tin. before applying to the wood, wipe the surplus shellac from the brush on the edge of the dish, so that it will not drip, and then lay on the coat as evenly and smoothly as possible, working from the top or from one end or side, and with the grain, so far as possible.[44] do not apply the brush at first exactly at the edge of the surface, lest the shellac collect too thickly at the edge, but apply the brush first a little way on the surface and _then_ work from the edge. work quickly and lightly. begin and end the strokes of the brush gradually--lighten them at the end--so as to avoid a "lap" when the strokes begin again. do not work over the coat after it has begun to set or try to patch up spots. simply lay it on as well as you can and let it go at that. if it is not right you will know how to do better next time. give each coat plenty of time to harden before applying another--twenty-four hours is none too long. do not put on five or six coats in a day as is sometimes done. the outer coat hinders the drying of the shellac underneath, by keeping the air from it,--just as with paints,--and the way to do durable work is not to put on a fresh coat until the previous one is thoroughly dry and hard. shellac dries very quickly so that you can touch it, but does not get really hard throughout for some time, so do not be in haste to put on a second coat.[45] if there are holes, cracks, or defects of any kind to be filled up, this is the time to do it--after the first coat is hard. one way to do this is to hold a hot iron close to a piece of shellac directly over the hole, which will be filled with the melted shellac. the surplus can be carefully pared off after it is hard. another way is to use wax coloured to match the wood. the wax can easily be coloured by melting and adding a small quantity of whatever dry colour--burnt umber, for instance--may be required. do not use putty in such cases. when the first coat is hard, skim over the surface with very fine sandpaper (00), to remove any roughnesses, and apply the second coat. this is sometimes sufficient. if not, sandpaper and shellac again, and a fourth time if necessary. when you have a sufficient "body" of shellac on the wood, you can much improve the quality of the surface by rubbing it down with powdered pumice-stone and oil, which will remove the "shiny" effect and leave a softer and finer surface. to do this, take a bit of felt or haircloth, and wet it with thin oil (kerosene will do, or petroleum, or linseed oil thinned with turpentine or benzine, but the latter is dangerous to have around), take up a little of the pumice, and carefully and evenly rub over the surface, with the grain, renewing the oil and pumice as may be needed, or they can be sprinkled on the work. but be careful to rub evenly and not too long on any one spot, for it will be hard to repair the damage if you should rub through to the wood. wipe the whole off thoroughly with soft cloth. this process will be sufficient for most amateur work. for some work simply rubbing down with the finest sandpaper wet with oil is enough. in using sandpaper for rubbing down nice work, split it--that is, remove the outer layer of paper, which will leave the sanded layer thin and pliable and less likely to scratch or rub through the finish. a handful of tightly squeezed curled hair can be used. if varnish is to be used over the shellac as in case of a boat, simply sandpaper the shellac and do not rub with pumice and oil. with fine-grained wood, such as cherry, the process given above is all that will be required, but with coarse, open-grained wood, like oak, a good many coats will be needed to fill the pores and give a smooth surface. therefore a "filler" is often used to fill the pores of the grain. this is cheap and can be bought in the form of paste (either light or dark), which you can apply according to the directions on the can. rub it into the wood thoroughly, let it stand until it begins to set, or stiffen, then rub it off with a bit of burlap or any coarse material, _across the grain_ (lest you wipe it out of the pores). after it has become hard enough, sandpaper, and clean off any that may remain on the surface. then shellac as described. the filler can have the shade of the wood, or sometimes, as in oak, the figure of the grain can be brought out finely by using a filler somewhat darker than the hue of the wood. be sure to clean off the filler thoroughly, using a tool to clean out the angles and corners, or the finished surface will have a cloudy or muddy appearance. the general directions given for shellacing apply also to the use of varnish, but varnishing is in some respects harder for the amateur to do well. consult the dealer about the kind of varnish and the brush best suited to the particular piece of work you have in hand. the final coat of varnish can be rubbed down with pumice or tripoli and water. rotten-stone used with oil (petroleum is good) is excellent for giving a soft polish. french polishing is often attempted by the amateur, but it should be learned by taking a lesson from a practical polisher, and not from a book. the general idea of the process is as follows: a wad or pad of wool is made and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol may be necessary. this wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean linen, a drop of oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from sticking, and the pad is then quickly passed over the surface with a circular motion, or with longer strokes in the form of the figure 8, or in some cases simply back and forth. after doing this for a while a very thin coat will have been deposited. this is allowed to dry for a short time, when the process is repeated, again and again, until a sufficient body of the polished finish has been formed. the details of the process vary with different finishers. it is quite easy to polish a small flat surface or such an object as the arm of a chair, but it is much harder for an amateur to successfully polish a large flat surface, like a table-top, except after much practice. a first coating of shellac applied with the brush and skimmed over with sandpaper will save labour in the polishing process. before refinishing old work it should, if the surface is in bad condition, be scraped down to the wood, using the scraper and finishing with sandpaper. a chisel (used like the scraper) is sometimes convenient to remove a thick body of old varnish. if the surface does not need scraping, it should be cleaned, either by washing with soapsuds or it can be scrubbed clean with the finest sandpaper, split, using oil or water as the case may be, but seeing that the work is wiped off perfectly dry before applying a new coat. pumice can be used, as already described, and a stiff brush, like a nail-or tooth-brush, is excellent for cleaning out corners and carved work. for simply brightening and cleaning furniture, a mixture of equal parts of linseed oil and turpentine with a minute quantity of japan is excellent. it should be well rubbed and carefully cleaned off. this will make scratches and bruises less conspicuous, and will make the article look fresher for a time, but it is only a cleaner and not a substitute for refinishing. =firmer-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =fore-plane.=--see _plane_. =framing-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =gauge.=--there are many kinds of gauges in the market, but they all depend on the same principle, having a block, head, stock, or fence, to slide along against the edge of the wood, and a bar, beam, or stem, which slides through the block, can be set to project from it at any required distance, and which has near its end a spur or marking point (fig. 533). the stem has the divisions of a rule marked upon it, so that the spur can be readily set at the required distance. in some gauges the spur or marking point is sharpened to an edge parallel with the head, rather than to a point, as it is more certain to make a clear, sharp line, and is best when slightly convex on the side toward the head (fig. 527). this gives the spur a tendency to run the line _away_ from and not toward the edge where the head is, thus helping to keep the head close up to the edge. sometimes a round point is used, and occasionally a knife point or blade for cutting thin stock into strips; and sometimes a wheel with sharpened edge. a form of gauge adapted for gauging from curved as well as straight edges is also made. do not trust the accuracy of the scale marked on a common gauge, for if the spur is at all out of place, as is sometimes the case, you cannot rely upon the scale. test by measuring from the head to the spur with the rule. [illustration fig. 527.] the _mortise-gauge_ has two spurs, one of which is movable and can be set at any required distance from the other, so that two lines can be marked at once, as for a mortise. this is a time-saving tool, and very convenient, but not a necessity for amateur work. there are gauges with long beams or stems and with long heads for gauging across wide spaces, but when you need anything of the sort you can easily make it and use with it either pencil, awl, or knife, as may best suit the case in hand. if you wish to draw a line two inches from the edge of a board, for example, you can mark off two or more points at the required distance and with a rule and pencil draw the line through these points. if you were to make the points so near together as to touch, you would have the line without needing the ruler. this is what the gauge does. it makes a continuous measurement and a continuous mark, which is of course the line required. the only gauge you need for rough work is a rule (or even a stick) and a pencil. to draw a line, for example, two inches from the edge of a board, take the rule in one hand, and lay the end flat on the surface of the board so that it laps over two inches from the edge (fig. 528). place the forefinger underneath, against the edge, so that the end of the rule will remain two inches from the edge, and simply slide rule and finger along the edge, holding a pencil at the end of the rule with the other hand to make the mark. the finger must be kept evenly pressed against the edge. this is only suited for rough work, or for getting out stock approximately to shape, and of course cannot be depended upon for accurate measurement. [illustration fig. 528.] [illustration fig. 529.] [illustration fig. 530.] something more accurate, with which you cannot get splinters in your finger, can easily be made, when needed, in this way. to run a line two inches from an edge, for example, and parallel to it, simply take any short stick and cut a piece out of it at one end so that the distance from the shoulder to the end will be just two inches, as shown in fig. 529. apply this to the edge of the piece and slide it along on the same principle as the rule and finger, being careful to keep the shoulder pressed up to the edge and the pencil or knife held firmly against the end. instead of cutting out a piece you can nail one piece on another (fig. 530). the latter is better for straight work because the head or fence is longer and so can be more securely pressed against the edge. an objection to this gauge is the need of making a new one for every measurement, but where there is occasion to keep repeating a measurement it is particularly convenient and quickly made. [illustration fig. 531.] [illustration fig. 532.] for another home-made gauge (fig. 531) cut a recess in one side of a block just wide enough to hold the rule and just deep enough so that the flat side of the rule will project a trifle above the surface of the block. on this side of the block fasten a small strip, with a screw, so that when the two pieces are seized in the hand the rule will be held fast at the point to which it is adjusted. this is more accurate than to use the hand alone. you can readily contrive such arrangements, which will be quite accurate if carefully used, but it is not worth while to spend much time over such makeshifts (except in case of necessity), for a fairly good gauge can be bought for a small sum. [illustration fig. 533.] the gauge is usually an awkward tool for the beginner to use. he finds it hard to keep the stock firmly against the edge while sliding it along, and lets the spur dig or plough deeply into the wood--the spur tends to follow the grain of the wood and when the grain runs toward the edge the result is often as shown in fig. 532, the stock being pushed from the edge. the stock is then pushed back and the wobbly process continued. to avoid these errors, the gauge, held well in front of you in one hand, should be tipped or inclined from you so that the spur will be drawn along the surface (fig. 533) and will make but a slight scratch. then, keeping the stock or head _firmly pressed_ against the edge, push the gauge steadily from you, watching carefully to see (1st) that the spur does not begin to dig into the wood instead of lightly scratching it, and (2d) that the head does not slip away from the edge. this will prevent the point catching or jumping and will insure a good mark, which can easily be deepened by going over the line a second time if necessary. it is easier to mark a line when the spur is near the head of the gauge than when it is run out to some distance. the guiding power of the fence or head is greater over a point near to it than over a point at a distance, from which you can readily see that, conversely, the longer the head or fence, the easier the gauging becomes--that is, for _straight_ lines, which is much the most common use of the gauge. in gauging from a curved edge, a long fence, unless curved, would be impracticable. where it will injure the work to have the gauge marks show (as when the work is to be finished with shellac or varnish), be careful not to carry them farther than necessary, as very slight scratches show plainly after finishing. otherwise, in cases where the marks will not show or do no harm, as in rough framing, it is as well to run them past the required points, as it is quicker to do so and the juncture of lines which cross is more distinct. gauge from the same side of the wood in laying out mortises or any lines intended to be in the middle of a piece of wood, or at a fixed distance from one edge, else if the edges are not exactly parallel (as is often the case) the markings will differ. see also _scribing_. =gimlet.=--the gimlet is useful, cheap, and good for boring where the hole does not come near the edge, but near the edge or in thin wood great care must be taken to prevent splitting. if necessary to use it in such a case, keep turning it backwards for every turn ahead and do not try to force it through the wood. it is better, however, to use some other tool if you can (see _bits_ and _twist-drill_), for the tapering form of the gimlet gives it a wedge-like, prying action upon the woody fibres. =gimlet-bit.=--see _bits_. =glazing.=--an old chisel can be used to clean off old putty before setting glass. on new work, see that the rabbet or shoulder where the putty is to go is primed with lead paint before putting on the putty (see _painting_). you can buy glazier's points, to hold the glass in position under the putty, for a trifle, or very small brads can be used. no special directions are necessary for using the putty. to set common glass in furniture, as in bookcase doors, it is better to fasten it in place with small strips, not pressed too tightly against it. strips of plain moulding are good. to set plate glass in furniture, the same means can be used for small pieces, but large plates, as for a mirror, should be held in place by little strips of soft pine, one or two inches long, bevelled on one side. the other side being glued, these strips can be lightly pressed into the crack around the glass. these short pieces, glued to the frame on one side and with the bevelled side wedging the glass into place, hold the latter securely, but, owing to the softness of the wood, not too rigidly. =glue.=--see _gluing_. =gluing.=--glue is made from refuse animal matter, and also from parts of fishes, the latter being known as fish glue. it comes in sheets or cakes or flakes, to be dissolved and used hot, or already prepared in liquid form. the majority of practical mechanics prefer the former (_i.e._, "hot" glue) for nice work, although the use of liquid glue has increased much of late years. hot glue is probably preferable if all the conditions are just as they should be, but if not so, liquid or "cold" glue may be better. buy the best grade. it is the cheapest for good work, and you will not use enough to make the price much of an obstacle. the only _sure_ test by which to buy glue is to get a little and see how it holds. a good way to prove the quality of your glue is to soak it over night, or as long as may be necessary, in whatever quantity of water you think it will absorb. the more it will swell without dissolving, the better the quality. _poor_ glue will dissolve. you cannot positively tell good glue by the colour, for there are many kinds (and for more than one purpose) and many makers, but whatever the colour, the glue should be clear looking and not cloudy or muddy. do not use glue that has a mouldy or otherwise disagreeable or offensive smell or a bad taste. to prepare hot glue, break the glue into small pieces, and soak it in all the cold water it will absorb for perhaps twelve hours, when it will have become swollen and softened and will look and feel somewhat like jelly. then put it in the inner glue-pot (see _glue-pot)_ and cause the water in the outer vessel to boil for several hours. it is quicker to dissolve the glue at once without soaking, but the result does not seem to be quite as good as by the former method. the glue to be right for use must be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or stream, without collecting in drops like water, and you can tell something about its being in condition to use by testing it between your fingers. do not weaken its strength, however, by diluting with more water than is necessary. it is important to keep the glue and the glue-pot clean, and if the odour from your glue becomes offensive at any time clean out the glue-pot and make fresh. glue loses strength by repeated meltings, so do not dissolve too much at a time, and after heating it over two or three times throw away any that is left in the glue-pot, cleaning the latter thoroughly. on work which you are very particular about mix fresh glue each time.[46] you can make a good glue-brush of a stick of rattan. soften the end in hot water and pound it with the hammer until the fibres separate. for corners, cracks, holes, and the like use sticks, which you can whittle to any required shape. although apparently too simple an operation to need much explanation, and often ignored in books on wood-work, as if anyone could of course glue two pieces together, the operation, to be really successful, calls for more knowledge of the principles involved than beginners or amateurs usually possess. do not daub a thick layer of lukewarm glue on the pieces, and then slap them together as you would make a sandwich, after the usual domestic fashion. done in this way the pieces often stick for a while, but there is nothing certain about it. we have seen that wood is full of little holes (pores, as they are commonly called), or spaces between the fibres (see fig. 6). the glue becomes worked into these little pores and that is what gives it such a firm hold on the wood, somewhat as plastering is forced (purposely) into the cracks between the laths. so you must have the glue thin, that it may fill these little cavities and get a "grip" on the wood; you must have it hot, that it may the more easily penetrate these open spaces before it becomes chilled; you must have the wood warm, that the glue may not be chilled and begin to set before it has a chance to penetrate the interstices of the wood; and you must press the pieces together so hard as to expel the body of glue from between them, forcing it into the pores and squeezing outside what will not go in, to be wiped or scraped off afterward. for what you want is not to have the two pieces held together by a layer of glue between them, lightly sticking to each surface and separating the two in proportion to the thickness of the layer; but to have the two surfaces as close together as possible, held so by the tenacity of the glue reaching from the cavities of one surface to those of the other. the closer the surfaces are forced together the better, as the glue will be less exposed to the atmosphere. you will see from all this that gluing should be done in a warm room of an even temperature. while with hot glue it will not do to change the relative positions of the pieces after putting together, you can have considerable time to get them in position if the liquid or cold glue is used. where several places in the same piece of work have to be glued together at the same time, it is frequently very hard to get around with the hot glue before that first applied has begun to set, unless you have help. in such cases, cold glue is a great convenience. if your shop is not warm or if you cannot have your glue hot, you had better use the liquid glue. it takes much longer to set than the other. in cold weather it should be slightly warmed. it can be thinned with vinegar or acetic acid, or what you wish to use at once may be thinned with water. do not pour water into the can of glue, as it will not keep so well. you will also readily see that it is much easier to make good glued joints in soft wood than in hard, for the former is more readily squeezed to a fit by the clamping, while with the latter it is quite essential that the pieces should fit with extreme accuracy before clamping (see note under _clamps_). before beginning to glue have everything laid out, fit the pieces together, clamp them up just as if you had put on the glue, and see that everything comes together right--_i.e._, rehearse the gluing process before using the glue itself. this is a very important point, particularly when there are several pieces to be glued, for you will have no time to waste after you have begun to use the glue. do not spread the glue on too thick. take the dirt off both pieces, then, while putting the glue on one, have the other warming slightly at the fire. the moment the glue on the brush leaves the glue-pot it begins to cool. if it fairly begins to set before you get the two pieces together, your joint will not be good. you will have to take it apart, scrape off all the old glue, and begin over again. so you will see there is no time to be lost when once you begin and it will be too late then to correct any mistakes in the fitting of the wood-work. good workmen always put the work together and take it apart again before gluing. do not wipe off the glue which squeezes out from a glued joint (unless for some special reason) nor wash it off with water. let it harden, and clean it off after the joint has set. it helps protect the joint. do not be in haste to unclamp your work. when to release it depends on the kind of wood, the kind of work, and the circumstances under which the gluing is done, and no exact time can be set. if for some temporary and unimportant purpose and in soft pine, for instance, you can unclamp in a few hours or even less, but for important work, which is to hold permanently, twelve hours is scarcely time enough even for soft wood and hot glue, and twenty-four hours is none too long, for though the glue dries quickly to the touch, it takes considerable time to get thoroughly hard. it is safer to allow more time for hard wood. the thickness of the stock makes a difference also. large junks and blocks and boards glued flatways require more time than 1/4" stock, thin strips, or little splinters. you can tell something by the condition of the glue that is squeezed from the joint. liquid glue sets much more slowly, and twenty-four hours is soon enough to release the work under average conditions. the warmth and dryness of the air make a good deal of difference. under unfavourable conditions more than forty-eight hours may be required. if for any reason you cannot clamp a joint, after applying the glue rub one piece back and forth upon the other a few times. rub wax, soap, or tallow on any part which must not be stuck by surplus glue which may exude from a joint, as in the case of a panel which may become stuck by the glue used in fastening the frame (see _doors and panels_). to glue two pieces where the surface is to be planed or trimmed at the joint, do not glue them together after they are planed or trimmed, but glue them first, and plane or trim them afterwards, taking care to have the grain of the pieces run in the same direction (see _jointing_). to glue pieces end to end, or as in a mitre,--that is, "end wood,"--first size with thin glue to stop the pores, else the glue will be quickly soaked up. then, after allowing this coat to stand, glue in the ordinary way. but glued joints in end wood are seldom good and are to be avoided. a great deal of glued work comes apart, and a great many mistakes in putting work together are caused by not understanding, or not bearing in mind, the way wood expands and contracts and warps and winds from heat and cold, dryness and moisture. this is an important matter if you wish to do good gluing. do not think that all that is necessary is to have your wood dry and that then you can glue the pieces together in any relative positions. veneers or thin pieces are sometimes successfully glued with the grain of the pieces running at right angles, as seen in chair seats, but as a rule avoid gluing wide pieces together with the grain running at right angles. see _laying out the work_, in chapter iv.; also _jointing_. =glue-pot.=--this can be bought of copper, iron, or tin. a medium-sized one is more useful than a very small one. have a cover to keep out dust and loose particles. if obliged to make shift without a proper glue-pot, always use two dishes like a regular glue-pot, with water in the outer one, on the principle of the double boiler used for cooking, else the glue will be sure to burn and be spoiled. two cans, such as are used for tomatoes or other vegetables, can be used on a pinch, one being larger than the other and fastened in place with wire or in some way to keep the smaller can from moving around too much; but a regular glue-pot is much better. see _gluing_. =gouge.=--this tool is similar to the chisel, except for the curvature across the blade. the common gouge has the bevel on the convex or outer side and is known as an "outside" gouge. this is the more useful for ordinary work. the "inside" gouge has the bevel on the inner or concave side. although very useful for many purposes, it is less important for general work and is harder to sharpen. gouges are of various degrees of curvature, fig. 534 showing a "flat" and a "quick" curve. those of moderate depth and curvature will be more useful for your work than very deep or very flat ones. [illustration fig. 534.] [illustration fig. 535.] in using the common or "outside" gouge, light, short strokes should usually be made, for only the bevel of the tool bears on the wood, which makes this gouge quite hard to control. you can often apply the principle of the sliding or sideways cut in using the gouge, as with the chisel, to good advantage. you can roll the gouge around with your hand from side to side so as to make it cut slantingly. this is particularly useful to give a clean cut when gouging across the grain (fig. 535). in some cases, in working out a moulding, for instance, you can hold the tool at an angle with the work and get a better result than to push it straight forward lengthways (fig. 536). [illustration fig. 536.] be careful not to scoop out little hollows below the required depth of the cut, and keep the direction of the grain in mind the same as with the chisel. the little inequalities left by the gouge can be reduced easily by the file, curved scraper, or glass and sandpaper. see _sharpening_. =gouge-bit.=--see _bits_. =grindstone.=--when you get to the point of having a grindstone, get one which is somewhat soft and fine, for if too coarse it will produce a rougher edge than is desirable for your tools. do not allow your grindstone to become softened in spots by being left partially immersed in a trough of water, as it will wear away irregularly. with the best of care a stone will, however, become untrue after continued use, not merely in its circular outline, but the face will become hollowed and uneven. it must then be trued, either by some one of the contrivances now made for the purpose, or by simply turning the stone into the correct shape by holding the _end_ of a piece of soft iron, as a piece of pipe, against the surface, without water, moving the iron as occasion requires, until the stone becomes true. =grooving.=--grooves of different dimensions are often required for various purposes in wood-working. by far the best way, as a practical matter, is to take the work to a mill and have the grooving done by machine, which is not expensive. it can be done by hand with the planes devised for the purpose (as the plough), but though these are valuable tools, they are largely superseded, or becoming so, by machine-work, and it is usually fully as well for the amateur to take such work to the mill as to buy the tools. in some cases the sides of the groove can be sawed by the hand-saws and the material removed by the chisel, but this is not easy if the groove is long. pieces are sometimes clamped beside the line to guide the saw and sometimes even attached to the saw itself, or to a piece of saw-blade. the lines for the groove can be scored with the knife or chisel and the wood between removed by the chisel, much as in cutting a mortise. in nice work, as fitting a shelf in a bookcase, it makes a better joint not to fit the entire end of the shelf into a groove, but to cut a tongue or wide tenon on the end of the shelf, with a shoulder at each side and the front edge, to fit into a corresponding groove, as shown in fig. 284. =half-round file.=--see _file_. [illustration fig. 537.] [illustration fig. 538.] [illustration fig. 539.] [illustration fig. 540.] [illustration fig. 541.] [illustration fig. 542.] =halving.=--this joint shown in fig. 537 is a common, simple, and good way of joining two sticks when they cross at right angles or obliquely. place the sticks in position and mark the width of each upon the surface of the other, using a knife or chisel for scribing. with small sticks the wood can be removed with the knife, first cutting a notch at each side and then paring off the wood between (fig. 538). with large pieces the lines should be marked by the square, the depth (one-half the thickness of either piece) by the gauge. the lines at the outside of the space can then be sawed down to the gauge line, taking care to keep just on the inside edge of the line. the wood between can be pared out with the chisel down to the gauge lines. when the halving is at the ends of the pieces or at the end of one piece (fig. 539), the process is the same, except that the wood can be entirely removed by the saw. other forms involving bevelling and dovetailing are shown in figs. 540, 541, and 542. this principle of the lap joint is often carried a little further and we have the open mortise and tenon (fig. 543), which can successfully be applied to a mitred joint and can also be dovetailed, and boxes are now made by machine with the corners entirely made up of a continuous series of these joints (fig. 544). see _joints_. [illustration fig. 543.] [illustration fig. 544.] =hammer.=--the hammer is made in many forms, but the common kind used by carpenters will usually answer your purpose, and is too familiar to require description. for general use select one of medium size and weight. remember that the face of the hammer-head, although harder than the nails it is meant to drive, is not intended to pound every piece of hardened steel you may run across, nor to break up boulders when you are after minerals. for the use of the hammer see _nailing_. =hand-screws.=--hand-screws are of great use in clamping work that has been glued and for holding pieces in any required position. wooden hand-screws are probably the most generally useful, but a couple (or more) of the simple iron clamps will be of great service at times, as they can be used more advantageously than the wooden ones in some kinds of work. get medium-sized hand-screws rather than small ones if you can, as they will be generally more serviceable. [illustration fig. 545.] [illustration fig. 546.] [illustration fig. 547.] to open or close a hand-screw, hold it at arm's-length in front of you with a handle in each hand, and with a twirling motion revolve it toward or from you, as may be required, to increase or decrease the opening between the jaws. the screws should be greased or rubbed over with black-lead, soap, or bayberry tallow. to hold two pieces together with uniform pressure is of course necessary for gluing and various other operations, but a little practice will show you how to adjust the hand-screws so that the jaws will bear on the wood evenly. the main point to remember is to keep the jaws parallel. the final tightening is given entirely by the outer screw, so, in adjusting the screws, leave the jaws open a little at the tip as in fig. 545, that when the final pressure is put upon the outer screw the jaws will bear on the wood with an even pressure (fig. 546). if the jaws were adjusted to bear evenly before tightening the outer screw, the final result would be as shown in fig. 547. [illustration fig. 548.] in clamping together finished work or pieces which could be injured by the pressure, always put pieces of waste wood between the work and the hand-screws. in case of delicate work, like carving or mouldings, a piece of _soft pine_ placed between the surface and the hand-screws or clamps will enable considerable pressure to be applied without injury to the work. a simple home-made clamp, suitable for such work as temporarily holding in place parts of the frame of a boat, for instance, is shown in fig. 548. see _clamps_ and also figs. 66 and 647. =hatchet.=--the hatchet is too familiar to need description. a common, medium-sized hatchet, that can easily be swung with one hand, is all that the beginner will ordinarily require, although there is quite a variety of hatchets and axes for various purposes. the main thing in the use of the hatchet, besides keeping your fingers out of the way, is to look sharply after the direction of the grain of the wood, as it is not easy to stop a blow in the wrong place, for the hatchet is not so easily controlled as some other tools. experience is the best teacher in the use of a hatchet. for removing superfluous wood with the hatchet, see _paring_. =hinges.=--there are many varieties of hinges for various purposes. the common kind, like that shown in fig. 135, had best, for neatness' sake, on moderately heavy work, be narrower than the thickness of the stock, so as not to extend across the edge. the hinge should be sunk in the wood of one or both of the parts to be hinged--in the case of many boxes, for instance, one half of the hinge when shut is usually sunk in each part, but in some kinds of work the whole thickness may be sunk in one part. the hinge can be held in position on the edge (in the case of the box) so that the centre of the pin on which it turns is in line with the back of the box, or sometimes a little outside. marks can be made with the knife or chisel at the ends of the hinge, and the recess in which it is to fit marked with the square and gauge. this wood should be removed with the chisel, first making cross cuts to break up the grain, as in fig. 614. fit the other hinge or hinges in the same way. next lay the lid exactly in position on top of the hinges and mark by them and cut the recesses in the top in the same way. hold the hinges in place with two or three screws each and see whether the cover opens and shuts as it should. make any needed alterations, and finally screw the hinges firmly in place. another way is to place the lid exactly in position (shut) and mark directly from the hinges, on both box and cover at the same time, the points from which to lay out the recesses. it will be well to look at a properly fitted hinge for a similar purpose before beginning your work, since one rule cannot be laid down for all cases. for strap-hinges, t-hinges, and the like, see page 247. =holes and cracks, to fill.=--the simplest way to stop holes, cracks, checks, and the like, in painted work, is with putty, always applying it _after_ the first coat of paint and never before (see _painting_), but this method should not be used for other than painted work, and the nicer the work, the less desirable the use of putty becomes. for nice work, as furniture, which has not been finished, small holes or cracks are often stopped by putting a daub of hot glue on the smooth end of a piece of wood of the same kind as the article, and with a sharp chisel, held nearly at right angles with the surface, scraping off fine wood-dust, which, mixing with the glue, forms a paste with which the crack can be more than filled. when hard, the surplus can be pared and scraped off. plaster of paris (calcined plaster), mixed with very thin hot glue, is excellent for stopping cracks and holes of considerable size. it can be mixed with water only, but this is not as good. [illustration fig. 549.] fitting in a plug of wood is a good way when the hole is of such shape that you can do so, making the grain of the plug run the same way as that of the piece to be plugged. taper the plug slightly, so that when driven in it will fit tightly and not be flush with the surface, but project above it (fig. 549). dip in hot glue, and drive well in. when dry smooth off. if the hole is irregular, trim to some shape to which you can fit a plug. in nice work take pains to have the plug a good match for the rest of the wood. slight cracks at the end of a piece can often be plugged and at the same time secured against further splitting by sawing directly down the crack, so as to remove it and substitute a straight saw-kerf. in this kerf a slip of wood can be fitted and glued. wax, and also melted shellac, can be used to stop holes and cracks in finished work. for this, see under _finishing_. =jack-plane.=--see _plane_. =jointer.=--see _plane_. [illustration fig. 550.] =jointing.=--this term is applied to the act of straightening and making true the edges of two boards or planks which are to be joined to make a tight joint, with glue or otherwise. it is, also, popularly applied to straightening the edge of one piece only, as to "joint" the edge of a board. this you will often have to do, and for jointing two edges which are to be glued particular care will be required. assuming that the edges have been got out nearly straight, the only plane you will require is the fore-plane,--or better, the jointer, or even the "long" jointer if the piece is long and you are fortunate enough to have these tools,--and it should be set fine, although if the edge is very crooked and you have to work off much superfluous stock, the iron can be set to make a coarse shaving at first. in shooting or jointing edges it is customary to hold the finger under the sole of the plane as a guide (fig. 550). this helps in regard to the common fault of tipping the plane sideways so as to plane off more on one side than on the other (fig. 551). this trouble may be aggravated by a wrong position of the left hand on the fore part of the plane in case you use a wooden plane (see fig. 624 for correct position). keep testing across the edge with the square (fig. 640). the shooting-board can be used to advantage for short pieces (see _shooting-board_), and attachable guides can also be obtained. [illustration fig. 551.] the jointing should be done with long, deliberate, steady strokes. any hasty, hit-or-miss slashing away with the plane will be sure to result in a bad joint, and you can easily get the edge into such shape by three or four careless strokes that it will take you a good while to get it straight. try also to avoid planing the edge rounding, from end to end (see _plane_, figs. 635-637). sight along the edge. also test with straight-edge, looking toward the light. if any shines through, the edge is not yet accurate and the process must be resumed. if you are jointing two edges, as for a "glue-joint," first examine the pieces to see which edges will best go together, according to the purpose for which they are intended. look at the end grain so as to arrange it in different ways if you are building up a piece of selected parts (fig. 559). if merely joining two or more boards to make a wider one, notice the way the grain runs lengthways, and the way it crops up to the surface, for you will have, for everything but the roughest work, to plane the surface over after the joint is glued, and if the grain runs in two or three different ways it will be harder to make the surface smooth. there are cases, however, in handsomely figured wood, as quartered oak or mahogany, where you will arrange the grain in the way that will look the best, but in such cases you expect to go through extra labour for the sake of having the article as handsome as possible. with soft, straight-grained white pine or whitewood, these matters are of less importance. when you have the pieces laid together in the best way, mark on the surface right across the joints (fig. 552) so that you will know how to put the pieces together, for you will forget how they were arranged after you have moved them around a few times. [illustration fig. 552.] [illustration wrong. right. fig. 553.] joint each edge separately. for nice work it is well to joint the edges of the successive pieces alternately from opposite sides,--that is, if in planing the edge of the first piece the marked (or face) side of the board is _towards_ you, plane the edge of the next piece with the face side of the board against the bench, or _away_ from you. this helps to counteract the result of any tendency to tip the plane to one side or any inaccuracy in setting the plane-iron. see _shooting-board_. then, putting one piece in the vice with the jointed edge upwards, lay the other edge upon it in the proper position and see if the two edges touch throughout. if not, one or both must be planed with thin, careful strokes until they do fit, for the joint will not be good unless the edges coincide. remember, however, that it takes more than merely touching to make a good joint. the _surfaces_ of the boards must be in line (in the same plane). of course this really depends upon the edges being square. test by holding a straight-edge, the square, the edge of the plane, or anything straight, against the surface of the boards (fig. 553).[47] do not be misled by the directions you may see in "amateur" books and magazine articles which tell you, for cases like this,--when you wish to glue up the lid of a desk, for instance,--to plane and sandpaper your boards carefully on the sides and then fit the edges together, after which you "have only to glue the edges and the job is done." that is not the right way to make a glued joint, as you will find out for yourself after you have planed a few dozen boards the second time. the skilled workman seldom attempts to do this except in repairing or some case where the surface of the pieces must be preserved. the practical work-man's way (which is the way for you), is to glue first and plane afterwards. the best way, practically, is to glue up the rough boards before they have been planed at all, and then have the whole planed down as one piece by machine to the required thickness. of course you should get the surfaces as nearly in line as you can, to avoid needless planing afterwards, but give your special attention to making the joint hold (see note under _clamps_). sometimes the edges of boards to be glued are purposely planed, hollowing lengthways, so that the two pieces touch at the ends, but do not quite come together in the middle, the idea being that a clamp at the middle will force the joint together for its whole length and will give a stronger result than to attempt to make both edges exactly straight. if there is to be any open place in the joint before gluing, it is better to have it at the middle than at the ends, but there is a difference of opinion as to whether there is any advantage in springing boards to fit in this way. before gluing hardwood edges, it is well to tooth them over with the toothed-plane, if you have one. (see _plane_.) see _plane_, _gluing_, _joints_, _cleating_, _dowelling_, etc. =joints and splices.=--there are many kinds of splices and joints used in the different branches of wood-work, a few of which are here given. [illustration fig. 554.] the common square butt-joint (fig. 554) is the simplest way to join two pieces at right angles, as in making a box or frame, and is used for all common work. glue is of but little use with this joint. rely wholly on nails or screws. [illustration fig. 555.] to make a better joint, cut a rabbet at the end of one piece and you have a joint (fig. 555) which shows less end wood, and can be helped a good deal by gluing, on account of the shoulder. [illustration fig. 556.] another way is shown in fig. 556. some strength and stiffness is gained by the tongue and groove, but a groove near the end introduces an element of weakness. [illustration fig. 557.] a much stronger way and a tighter joint (fig. 557) is often used for cisterns, water-tanks, and horse troughs, but the projecting ends are objectionable for most purposes. see _halving_, _mitring_, _dovetailing_, and also _box-making_, page 219. in nailing any such joints as those just shown, remember to always bore holes for the nails wherever there is danger of splitting. see _awl_, _bits_, _boring_, _nailing_. there are many ways, besides those just mentioned, for joining sticks and timbers at right angles, which is something you will often have to do, whether for a kite or some small framework or for the timbers of a building. to join two or more boards or planks to make a wider surface, several methods can be used. cleating, though strong and suitable for all such work as drawing-boards, rough doors, and the like, is often undesirable, both on account of the looks and because the cleats may be in the way (see _cleating_). the simplest way, without cleats, is to glue the jointed edges (see _jointing_ and _gluing_). dowels can be used with this joint (see _dowelling_), or grooves can be cut and a strip or spline or tongue inserted (fig. 558). this last way can be done at the mill quicker and better than by hand. the edges can also be halved, or a rabbet cut in each edge from opposite sides. the boards can also be "matched" (see page 46), in which case it is not usual to glue them. all of these joints can best be made by machine. [illustration fig. 558.] [illustration fig. 559.] to avoid the warping and change of shape to which wide pieces are subject, particularly when they are not middle boards (see chapter iii), they are often built up of selected narrower pieces (fig. 559). this is done for many things,--the frames of machines, the tops of sewing-tables, drawing-boards, chopping-blocks, etc. masts, bows, fishing-rods, and the like are sometimes built up of selected pieces, the idea being that a better result can be obtained by combining selected smaller pieces, that flaws and defects (which are apt to occur in larger pieces) can be avoided, and that sometimes the grain can be arranged to better advantage. this is doubtless true, but there is always the objection that glued joints may give way. if you can get a piece which is practically perfect, it is probably in most cases better than a glued-up combination, for it is not easy to improve on nature when you can get her best specimens; but unless you can get _first-class_ stock of the dimensions required, it is better to "build up" with smaller pieces of selected stock. where the ends of two pieces come together and you wish to make a close joint, you will, of course, saw the pieces off as squarely as possible, using the square or perhaps the mitre-box. if you mark and saw them with exactness, and if everything about their arrangement is straight and square and true, the ends will come together exactly and make a close joint, but as a practical matter this frequently will not happen, however careful you may be. for nice work, the workmanlike way in such cases is to plane or pare the ends until they fit, but for rougher work the expedient of sawing the ends to fit can be resorted to. to do this, put the ends together as they are to go (fig. 560), keep them from moving, and saw straight down through the joint. as the saw will leave a kerf of uniform thickness, the pieces can now be pushed together and the ends will fit, unless the joint was very much open, in which case you have only to saw again, and if necessary repeat the operation until the ends fit. this is a very useful expedient in case of need, but should not be relied on as a regular way to make joints, lest it engender a careless and inaccurate method of work. this applies also to joints which meet at any angle. [illustration fig. 560.] [illustration fig. 561.] in some cases, where only one side of each piece shows, as in laying floor-boards, it is usual to undercut the ends slightly--that is, to make the joint a little open at the bottom, which gives a tight and neat joint on the side which shows (fig. 561, which is exaggerated). another way to make an end joint is by bevelled scarfing or splaying (fig. 562). you will see the ends of the clapboards on old houses joined in this way, and it doubtless makes a better joint in many cases than the common square or butt-joint, but it is more work. strips of moulding are often cut in this way. [illustration fig. 562.] [illustration fig. 563.] [illustration fig. 564.] there are many ways of splicing two or more pieces so as to get greater length, many of them, such as are used in bridge-building and roof-framing, being quite complicated. you will rarely, however, in such work as you will do at first, have occasion to do more than nail strips (fish-plates) on the sides of the pieces or make a halved splice or scarfed joint (fig. 563). the latter is often made longer than that shown and fastened in various ways. a joint for a brace is shown in fig. 564. see _cleats_, _doors_, _dovetailing_, _dowelling_, _gluing_, _halving_, _mitring_, _mortising_, _nailing_, etc. =keyhole saw.=--see _saw_. =knife.=--an excellent knife for shop work is a sloyd knife. a good shoe-knife will do very well. this is better for shop work than a jack-knife. it will not close on your fingers for one thing. for general purposes, however, a pocket-knife is the best thing, as you cannot carry a sloyd knife around with you. in buying it get a good plain knife with not more than two or three blades and of the best steel you can afford. do not waste money in trying to get your whole kit of tools into the compass of one jack-knife handle. in selecting a knife, open the blades and sight along the back to see that each blade is accurately in line with the handle, as they are sometimes fastened at a slight angle, which weakens the knife. an immense variety of work can be done with a common pocketor jack-knife, which is the best _emergency_ tool for either the beginner or the skilled workman. one great thing about whittling is that you cannot rely on squares, rules, or compasses to get your work right, but must be independent, think quickly, look sharply, and rely on your own faculties. a knife is so easy to sharpen that there is not much excuse for using a dull one. see _sharpening_. in cutting, always keep your left hand _behind_ the blade, and as a general rule cut _from_ you, for the tool may slip and cut you instead of the wood. there are cases where you have to cut towards you, but there is never any need of getting your left hand in front of the cutting-edge. =level.=--a spirit-level is important for some work, but not often necessary for the beginner, as a substitute can easily be made. a horizontal or level line being at right angles with a vertical line, a home-made level can be made by using the principle of the plumb-line, as shown on page 96. when the plumb-line hangs freely on the line _ab_, which is at right angles to _cd_, the latter line (_cd_) must of course be level. the frame should be several feet long for levelling large work, as it can be adjusted more accurately than if small. =linseed oil.=--see _finishing_ and _painting_. =locks.=--use locks of good quality or none at all. never put very cheap locks on good work. there are many varieties of locks, some to be screwed on the outside of the wood, others to be sunk in recesses cut in the side of the wood, others still to be let into mortises--chest-locks, door-locks, cupboard-locks, drawer-locks, etc. to fit a chestor box-lock (not a mortise-lock), place the lock in the right position, mark around the part required to be sunk in the wood, which can be cut away with gouge and chisel, the keyhole having been bored quite through the wood and trimmed to a neat outline which will conform to the shape of the key. when the lock has been screwed in its recess, put the "hasp," or part which is to be on the lid, into its place in the lock, just where it will be when the chest is locked. then close the lid, and by slightly pressing you can make a mark on it to show where to put the hasp. sometimes you can mark the place with a pencil, or by putting transfer-paper between the hasp and the wood, or by rubbing blackened grease on the plate of the hasp. the plate of the hasp should be sunk in the lid to be flush with the surface, and may then be screwed on, bearing in mind the thickness of the lid when selecting the screws. a mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way, but let into a mortise (see _mortising_). to fit a common drawer-lock, determine the place for the keyhole and place the lock in position on the inside as before. with a pencil mark the outline of the box-part of the lock, which bears against the wood. cut away the wood within this line, making a recess slightly deeper than the thickness of the box-part of the lock. the hole must be bored for the key, as before. put the lock into place and mark the outline of the outer plate, not merely on the inside of the drawer front but also on the top edge. cut away the wood with the chisel to let the plate sink flush with the wood. when the keyhole is shaped, try the lock and if it works, screw it on. close the drawer and turn the key hard to raise the bolts (the tops of which have been previously rubbed with blackened grease, such as can be scraped from an oil-stone, or using transfer paper), which, pressing against the wood, will mark the places for the mortises into which they are to slide. cut these mortises and the drawer can be locked. the variety of locks and their arrangement in regard to fitting is so great that it will be best for you to examine a well-fitted lock for the same purpose that the lock you have to fit is intended, for one rule cannot be given for all cases. =mallet.=--the mallet, which is merely a hammer with a wooden head, is made in various forms and sizes, from the big beetle of the wood-chopper to the ladies' carving mallet. it is used to strike the wooden tool-handles. for heavy work a mallet with the handle put through the head from the outside, like the handle of a pickaxe, is good because the head cannot come off. a rounded head with the handle on the end (like a potato-masher) saves having to notice how you hold it, as it is equally effective in any position. a mallet of this type can be turned all in one piece. hickory or lignum-vitã¦ or any dense, hard wood is good for a mallet. you do not gain force by using the mallet instead of the hammer, but the softer and more yielding blow of the mallet saves the tool-handle. =marking.=--for all rough work the ordinary carpenter's pencil, sharpened flatways, like a screw-driver, is the most convenient and durable instrument. for nicer work, where you need more accurate lines, the common round pencil (medium hard or rather soft) is all you need, but for nice, close work (such as marking accurate joints), a knife, the corner of a chisel, a marking-awl, or a scriber of some sort is necessary. there is no need to buy any tool for this, although they are to be had--nothing is better than a common pocket-knife or a chisel. keep your pencils sharp by rubbing them on a piece of fine sandpaper, or an old file. [illustration fig. 565.] in scribing with the chisel, the edge is drawn along with one corner slightly raised and the flat side next the straight-edge, holding the tool either like a pencil or for deeper scoring as in fig. 565. in all marking and scribing, whether with pencil, awl, knife, chisel, or other tool, be sure that the marking edge is kept close up to the rule, straight-edge, or square, as it will often tend to follow the grain of the wood and run off the line, and will sometimes force the straight-edge or square out of position if the latter is not held firmly. do not try to stop lines which meet at a given point, but let them cross one another when they will not show in the finished work, as it is quicker to do so and the crossing of two lines marks a point more accurately than a dot. for work to be finished, however, scoring the surface with lines should be avoided wherever they will show, as they will become conspicuous after the work is finished. [illustration thin rule--fine work. fig. 566.] [illustration thick rule--rough work. fig. 567.] in marking lines with a _straight-edge_ or ruler you must be careful that it does not slip. if it is long you can put weights on it. to mark a line _accurately_ through given points, the ruler should not quite touch the points, but be pushed almost up to them and equally distant from each (fig. 566). this will give you a clear view of both points so that you can be sure that the pencil or whatever you mark with will go as nearly as possible through the centre of each. bearing the pencil against the edge of the ruler, you can slant it a trifle till the pencil-point will just coincide with the given point on the wood, and, keeping the same inclination, move the pencil along the ruler, and it should also go through the second given point. this applies to a regular ruler with a comparatively thin edge, and to fine work only. in marking by a thick edge, or where extreme nicety is not required, you will of course put the straight-edge right up to the points and run the pencil-point along in the angle (fig. 567). besides marking lines, the straight-edge (in some form), is used to determine whether a surface is true. see _straight-edge_. for rough, off-hand marking, particularly on undressed stock, chalk is often best. sticks, shaped like school-crayons, of graphite or some black composition, are good for rough marking. the _chalk-line_ is used for distances too great to be covered conveniently by a straight-edge and in places where the latter could not so well be used. the chalk-line is a chalked cord drawn taut between the two points to be connected. it is better to use a small cord than a large one, and blue chalk is often preferred to white. fasten one end of the cord with a loop around an awl or nail at one end of the desired line, and from this point chalk the cord, holding it between the thumb and the chalk so that the cord will bear on the flat side of the chalk in such a way as to wear it away evenly without cutting it in two. then draw the chalked cord tight to the other end of the desired line and, holding the end down with one hand, lift the cord from as near the middle as practicable with the thumb and forefinger of the other hand and let it snap back on to the surface. the cord should be raised squarely from the work and not pulled slantingly to one side or the line will not be straight. =marking-awl.=--see _awl_. =marking-gauge.=--see _gauge_. =matching-plane.=--see _plane_. =measurements and measuring.=--for various suggestions, see _rule_, and also pages 47, 48, 50, 167 (footnote), 244, and 261. =mirror-plates.=--a good way to fasten such articles as mirrors, cabinets, etc., to the wall is by mirror-plates, which you can buy or make yourself of brass. these should be sunk in the wood so as to be flush with the back side of the shelves. after being fitted, they should be taken off during the process of finishing the work. =mitre.=--see _mitring_. =mitre-board.=--see _mitring_ and also page 92. =mitre-box.=--if you can afford it, an iron mitre-box which will cut at various angles will be very useful. you can make one yourself of wood. you can get a carpenter to make you one for a small sum, but the iron ones are better. see page 90. =mitre shooting-board.=--see page 94. =mitring.=--a common joint is the mitre (fig. 568). its only advantage is that it shows nothing but a line at the angle and the "end wood" is entirely concealed. it is a weak joint at best, even when made by a skilled workman, and is particularly hard for an amateur to make well. the slightest variation in one of the corners of a frame or box throws the whole structure out of shape and in attempting to correct the error the other joints are apt to be opened, and if the whole is finally got together in a fashion it is often after bother enough to have accomplished much good work in some other way. [illustration fig. 568.] [illustration fig. 569.] [illustration fig. 570.] the mitre is particularly unscientific for wide pieces used flatways (fig. 569), as the inevitable expansion and contraction of the pieces is very apt to cause an open joint. if the wood is not quite dry, so that it shrinks, the joint may open permanently toward the inside corner, for when the wood shrinks in width the pieces will become narrower and so separate at the joint, leaving a crack, tapering from the inner to the outer corner. even if the wood is thoroughly seasoned it will expand and contract more or less. when it expands, the joint will tend to open at the outer corner (fig. 570). when it contracts it will tend to open, as just shown (fig. 571), at the inner corner. [illustration fig. 571.] [illustration fig. 572.] [illustration fig. 573.] of course there are some cases, as in making a picture frame of prepared "mouldings," when mitring is the only way in which the frame can be put together, and there are some other cases in which it is the most proper and suitable joint, but as a general rule, for amateur work, particularly in framing where strength is a consideration, avoid the mitre. other and better forms for anything like a box are shown in figs. 554, 555, 556, 557. the mitre is sometimes strengthened for box work and the like by fitting a spline or tongue with the grain running across and not lengthways of the joint (fig. 572.) this, properly glued under pressure, makes a good joint and one much superior to the plain mitre. but, though easy to do with machinery, it is a slow and careful job to make such a joint by hand, and if a case arises where you wish it done you had best take the work to a factory, where a circular saw is all that is needed. the principle of halving shown in figs. 539 and 543, can also be applied to a mitred joint. saw-kerfs are often made (figs. 573 and 574) into which small strips are tightly fitted and glued. this is a good way and easily done, once having got the mitre properly put together. a combination of the mitre with the joint shown in fig. 555 is shown in fig. 575. see also _dovetailing_ and _joints_. [illustration fig. 574.] [illustration fig. 575.] [illustration fig. 576.] to lay off a mitre, or the lines by which to cut the intersection of any two pieces at any angle, a simple way is that shown in fig. 576. the pieces are laid one above the other at the desired angle. then the points of intersection are marked on each edge. lines connecting these points will give the desired angles for sawing. the square can be used to help in determining the points accurately and to project them to the upper side of the top piece. =mortise and tenon.=--see _mortising_. =mortise-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =mortise-gauge.=--see _gauge_. =mortising (mortise and tenon).=--if you can get out two pieces and fit them together accurately with a mortise-and-tenon joint, and do the work well, you will be competent to handle a great many of the difficulties of ordinary wood-work. you will often have occasion to use this joint. the mortise is the hole in one of the two pieces to be joined. the tenon is the pin or projection in the other piece, shaped to fit the mortise. [illustration fig. 577.] [illustration fig. 578.] [illustration fig. 579.] to lay out a mortise and tenon (fig. 577), select and mark the working faces for each piece. first take the piece in which the mortise is to be cut (fig. 578). square two lines, _ab_ and _cd_, across the face and the same distance apart as the width of the piece on which the tenon is to be cut. carry these lines across the side x (_ae_ and _cf_) and also across the side opposite to x (that is, the side where the tenon will come through). next take the tenon-piece (fig. 579) and measure from the end a distance a little greater than the width of the face of the mortise-piece, and at this point square a line, _gh_, across the face of the tenon-piece. continue this line, _gi_, around the piece, with the square. now take the gauge and, setting it at the distance from the face settled upon for the mortise, scribe the line _jk_ on the side x and also on the side opposite x. also from the face of the tenon-piece, without changing the gauge, mark the line _lm_ on the side x, on the opposite side, and on the end. set the gauge to measure from the face to the other side of the mortise,--that is, add the width of the mortise to the figure at which the gauge was set,--and scribe another set of lines, _op_ and _rs_, in the same manner as before, remembering to gauge all the time from the same face. in the coarser kinds of work, where marks on the surface do no harm, the gauge marks can be run across the other lines, as being easier and more distinct, but in fine work, especially that which is to be finished, care should be taken not to make scratches that will be seen when the work is finished. the parts to be cut away are indicated by cross marks (fig. 580) and it will be seen at once that the tenon and mortise are laid out correctly. [illustration fig. 580.] to cut, take first the mortise-piece and fasten it securely by vise or clamp in a convenient position. the simplest way to remove the wood is to bore a series of holes with a bit of a diameter as nearly the width of the mortise as you have (fig. 580), but a trifle smaller. this removes a large part of the wood with but slight danger of splitting. the rest can easily be trimmed away to the lines with the chisel, taking care not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the mortise when the latter is blocked with chips or firm wood, or the wood may split off at the side of the mortise. to cut out the wood with the chisel only (or to trim the ends of the mortise after using the bit), bear in mind the way the chisel acts when you drive it into the wood. if both sides of the chisel were bevelled (as is the case with carving chisels), it would tend to go straight down into the wood, and if held vertically would make a vertical cut (fig. 581), but the chisels you use for mortising are flat on one side and bevelled on the other. being one-sided in this way, the edge of the tool is forced by the inclined bevel to slide off, so to speak, more or less, in the direction of the side which is flat. you can prove this easily by holding a chisel across the grain of a board and driving it in. if you hold the tool lightly, you will see that as you drive it in it will incline to cut under, always on the side which is flat (fig. 581). [illustration fig. 581.] [illustration fig. 582.] this shows how to go to work to cut a mortise so as to keep the sides square and true. if you put the chisel at the end, flat side outward, the cut will tend to run under and make the hole too large below the surface. if you turn the tool the other way, it tends to slip in towards the middle of the mortise. so, to cut out the wood, take a chisel just a trifle less in width than the mortise, and, beginning near the middle of the mortise, hold the chisel as in fig. 582 and make successive cuts, working toward the end, first in one direction and then in the other, giving the chisel handle a slight pull toward the centre of the mortise each time you move it, to loosen the chips (fig. 583). you can thus work safely toward the ends, which will be left slanting (fig. 584). [illustration fig. 583.] [illustration fig. 584.] [illustration fig. 585.] after cutting about half through the piece in this way, turn it over and repeat the process from the other side, the result being a hole like that shown in fig. 585. now turn the chisel around with the flat side toward either end of the hole, and you can pare down the ends to the line without danger of undercutting (fig. 585). care must be taken not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the grain until the hole is practically cleared of wood, or the side of the mortise may be split off. use the chisel lengthways of the grain only at the end of the process, to pare the sides of the mortise evenly, with light strokes, down to the line. in all the use of the chisel, take pains to hold it vertically as regards the _sides_ of the mortise--that is, do not tip it over sideways, or the mortise will be slanting or too wide at the bottom. the common firmeror paring-chisel can be used for all light mortising, but for heavy work the regular mortising-chisel should be used (see _chisel_). to cut the tenon, simply saw carefully on the line _gh_ and its opposite (fig. 579) and then on the lines _lm_ and _rs_. be careful not to cut beyond the line, so as to make the tenon too small. it is easy to trim it a little with the chisel if it is too large. cut a little bevel around the end of the tenon, so that it will drive through smoothly without catching and tearing the sides or ends of the mortise. when it goes through properly and the tenon and shoulder fit snugly, the projecting end of the tenon can be sawed off after the whole job is done. the tenon should be just large enough to drive through with a slight pressure and fit snugly without any wobbling around. it should not be so tight as to require much force to drive it home, or there will be danger of splitting out the sides of the mortise. [illustration fig. 586.] [illustration fig. 587.] [illustration fig. 588.] there is no absolute rule as to how wide to make the mortise and tenon in proportion to the width of the pieces. it depends on the kind of work, the kinds of wood, the kind of strain to be put on the joint, and various circumstances too complex to be gone into here. if the tenon is very thin it will be weaker than the sides of the mortise (fig. 586). if very thick, the sides of the mortise will be too thin and will be weaker than the tenon (fig. 587). one third of the width is as thin as a tenon is often made. it will then sometimes be weaker than the sides of the mortise, as you can see from fig. 588. but it all depends on what the joint is for. if it is to stand violent wrenching, the tenon in this case might break before the mortise-cheeks, and had best be made a little thicker, with the sides of the mortise a little thinner; but, on the other hand, if the joint is merely to hold the tenon-piece in position, as in case of a post resting on a sill, one third is plenty wide enough for the tenon, as it will be best not to weaken the sill by cutting any larger mortise than is necessary. sometimes the tenon-piece is simply let in to the other piece for its full width. this is called housing (fig. 589). two thirds of the width of the piece is thicker than you will be likely to have occasion to make a tenon, as this leaves the cheeks of the mortise very thin. it is wholly a matter of judgment (between, say, one third and two thirds of the width), according to the conditions of each job. [illustration fig. 589.] the length to which a mortise can safely be cut is also a matter of judgment according to circumstances. if the tenon is thin, the mortise can be longer than if the tenon is thick, as the cheeks will be thicker and stronger, but, as a rule, avoid trying to make very long mortises, unless the tenon is very thin and the wood very strong, as there will not be strength enough left in the cheeks of the mortise (fig. 590). six times as long as it is wide is about as long as it is well to make a mortise under ordinary circumstances, though, as just said, it all depends on the conditions of the particular piece of work. [illustration fig. 590.] [illustration fig. 591.] when a wide piece is to be mortised into another piece, two or more tenons are sometimes cut, thus avoiding too long a mortise, but this will not do for very wide pieces, unless some of the tenons are fitted loosely, for the expansion and contraction of the wide piece may cause it to buckle or split if all the mortises fit snugly (fig. 591). in such cases as a door-frame or when the end of a board is to be fitted into the side of a post, a tongue and groove is often used in addition to the tenon, and this (known as "relishing") is a good way to do (fig. 592). [illustration fig. 592.] [illustration fig. 593.] the mortise and tenon given above is a very simple form. sometimes the tenon is short and does not go through (fig. 593). this is a common form, and is used a great deal in the best work. it is sometimes called blind mortising, the tenon being known as a "stub" tenon. mortise and tenon joints are sometimes merely fitted together, but can also be glued (see _gluing_), pinned, wedged, or dovetailed and fastened with a key. to pin a mortise and tenon, simply mark a point with square and gauge upon each side of the piece containing the mortise (fig. 593), fit the tenon in place, and bore in from each side (or in rough work bore right through from one side until the spur appears on the opposite surface) (see _boring_). then drive through a snugly fitting pin and trim off the projecting ends. the pin should be slightly pointed before driving, on the same principle that the end of the tenon is bevelled. it is not necessary to round the pin. an eight-sided one is just as good. do not use too large pins. in ship-building, bridge-building, and old-fashioned house-framing pins and treenails from 1" to 1-3/4" or more in diameter, are used. dowels of various sizes will usually answer for such framing as you may have to do (though a rift-pin is stronger). for such work as pinning a joint in a chair, you will not need anything larger than a 1/4" hardwood pin. you must use judgment as to how near the edge to place the pin. if you put it too far from the edge, its hold on the tenon will be weak and the end of the tenon may break out (shear). if you put it too near the edge, the sides of the mortise may tear or split out. [illustration fig. 594.] [illustration fig. 595.] sometimes, particularly in timber work, to insure a snug fit at the joint, "draw-boring" is resorted to (fig. 594). the hole for the pin is not bored through the tenon as just shown, but is bored a trifle nearer the shoulder of the tenon than the other holes (in the mortise-piece). the result is that when the pin is driven through it draws the tenon-piece down to a snug fit at the shoulder. but this has to be done with judgment. if the hole in the tenon is too much out of line, driving the pin through tends to split (strictly speaking to _shear_) the end of the tenon, and too much strain is put on the pin. in the mortising just shown, there are only two shoulders where the tenon begins--that is, the tenon is made by only four cuts. this is good for all common or rough work. in nice work a shoulder is also cut at each edge of the tenon (fig. 595). this makes a neater-looking joint, as these shoulders cover the ends of the mortise completely. when the joint comes at the end of the mortise-piece, the tenon can extend to the edge on the outside and the mortise be cut clear out to the end, forming an open mortise-and-tenon joint (fig. 543), or a wide shoulder can be left on the outside of the tenon--the tenon itself being made narrower (fig. 596). this course is adopted in doors and frames of various kinds (see fig. 334). [illustration fig. 596.] [illustration fig. 597.] [illustration fig. 598.] [illustration fig. 599.] [illustration fig. 600.] a good way to fasten tenons is to wedge them. this can be done whether the tenon goes through the mortise-piece or only part way, as in a blind joint. the wedges can be driven between the tenon and the ends of the mortise (fig. 597), or, as is often better, driven into cuts made in the tenon itself, thus spreading the tenon toward the end, dovetail fashion, making it extremely difficult, or impossible, to pull it out of the mortise. before wedging, the mortise should be cut under or enlarged toward the side on which the tenon comes through (fig. 598). the wedges can then be dipped in glue and driven as in fig. 599. to spread the tenons themselves, one or two or even three saw-cuts should be made in the tenon, lengthways and farther than the wedges will extend (fig. 600). the tenon and mortise having been properly glued, the tenon is fitted in place, and the wedges, previously prepared of some strong wood and tapering quite gradually, are dipped in the glue and driven down into the saw-cuts, thus spreading the end of the tenon into a dovetail until it fills the mortise (fig. 601). it is often best to drive the outer wedges nearer the edge of the tenon than is shown in fig. 600, lest the tenon-piece be split. [illustration fig. 601.] [illustration fig. 602.] the process is much the same when the tenon does not go through the mortise-piece (fig. 602). the mortise is undercut as before, and saw-cuts are made in the end of the tenon. the wedges are carefully planned and cut so that, when the tenon is finally in place, they will be of the right size to spread it so as to fit the mortise. the wedges must not be too long, so as to interfere with the tenon being driven home or to break off. when you are sure the whole will go into place and fit snugly, glue everything, start the wedges in the cracks, and drive the tenon quickly to place. this will of course drive in the wedges, which will spread the tenon at the end and fix it firmly. in fact, if well done, you cannot get it out again. there are other forms of mortise and tenon, but they will be seldom required by the amateur. see _joints_. =nailing.=--to drive nails, hold the hammer near the end of the handle. do not, as is often done by boys and amateurs, grasp it close to the head. the nearer the end of the handle you take hold, the harder blow you can strike, just as the longer the handle, the harder the blow. use light strokes--mere taps--in starting the nail. after you are sure it is going straight you can then use more force to drive it home. do not try to sink the nail-head quite flush with the wood. leave that for the nail-set. you may think that any slight depression you may make if the hammer strikes the wood will be too slight to be seen, but that is not so, as the slightest dent or depression will probably show in finished work. the head of the hammer should be swung back and forth through an arc of a circle of which the wrist is the centre. do this carefully and steadily and you will send the nail in quicker and straighter than when you flourish the hammer wildly around in the air and bring it down with a ferocious bang somewhere in the vicinity of the nail, as boys of all ages have been known to do. now, remembering that the hammer-head will (and should) swing around in an arc of which your wrist is the centre, you must see that your wrist is in such a position that the hammer-head can strike the nail squarely--that is, the hammer-handle, when the head rests squarely on the nail-head, must be in a line parallel with the flat surface of the top of the nail (fig. 603). if the wrist is much above or below this line, the nail will be struck slantingly, and either be driven crooked or bent (fig. 604). [illustration fig. 603.] [illustration fig. 604.] first place the hammer in the correct driving position, and then swing it back and forth as nearly in the same curve as you can. practise this motion a little on a soft piece of board to see how squarely you can dent the board and how nearly you can hit the same dent with successive strokes. frequently a nail does not drive straight, but becomes bent and goes in the wrong direction. if you withdraw it do not, as a rule, try to drive another in the same hole, but start it in another place. sometimes a nail will be bent because the face of the hammer-head has glue or grease on it. in such a case rub it on a piece of fine sandpaper or in the ashes or the ground. holes should always be bored when there is any chance of splitting, or when _slender_ nails are driven into _hard_ wood (lest they bend), but remember that the hole, particularly in the inner piece, should not be quite as large as the nail. with nails having large heads it does not matter in hard wood if the holes in the outer piece are about as large as the nails, provided the latter drive tightly into the inner piece. [illustration right. wrong. fig. 605.] the hole made by a brad-awl is better, when it does not split the wood, than one made by a bit or drill, because it does not remove the wood but merely presses it aside, so that when the nail is driven the fibres tend to spring back to their original position and close in around the nail, helping to hold it in place. in driving the old-fashioned nails, which have two sides parallel, while the other two incline toward the point or taper, they should be used on the same principle on which you use the brad-awl. if placed the other way, the wedge shape of the nail will tend to separate the fibres and split the wood (fig. 605). with nails having two sides smooth and two rough, as you pick them up you can tell by the fingers which way to hold them, the rough sides going across the grain and the smooth sides with it. nails will drive into hard wood easier if you touch the points to grease, tallow, lard, or soap. [illustration fig. 606.] [illustration fig. 607.] [illustration fig. 608.] _"toe" nailing._--if you wish nails to hold as much as possible, toe them--that is, slant them (fig. 606). you can see at a glance that the board will be held much tighter than if the nails were driven straight up and down. of course you cannot always drive nails this way, and there are many cases in which you would gain nothing, but it takes only a moment longer to toe nails, and it is often very useful where you wish to be sure that the work will hold together. there are many cases where you cannot nail any other way, as when you fasten a stud to the top of a sill (fig. 607), and you can see at once that it is advantageous. of course this is not a good method for work which you may wish to take apart again. slanting the nails helps to draw one piece tightly up to another, as is often desirable for a tight box or a floor (fig. 608). you can increase this effect, after you have driven the nail part way in, by drawing the hammer towards you as you strike, or in the direction towards which the nail points, thus bending the upper part of it toward the other piece, which tends to make a tight joint. _clinching nails._--the way to clinch nails is simply to drive them through against a heavy hammer, or any solid metal object, held on the other side. as the point comes through it is gradually turned over or hooked around into the wood and when the head is driven home the point will be firmly embedded in the wood. another way is to simply strike the projecting ends with light, slanting blows. this will gradually bend or curl the point over to one side, and as it bends over you can pound more directly downward until the hooked end of the nail is buried in the wood. clinching is very useful for many purposes, as in nailing cleats on a shed door. it is usually best to bend the nails over in the direction of the grain, rather than across it. whether to clinch or toe the nails must depend on the work. clinching is better for anything that is to be slammed or subjected to violent treatment, while in many cases toeing is better, and frequently you cannot reach the points of the nails to clinch them. _blind nailing_ is resorted to in order to have a clear, smooth surface, as in floors laid with matched-boards. each board is nailed just above the tongue, with the nails slanting through the solid part of the board (fig. 609). this holds the board down and tends to force it closer to the adjoining board. the grooved edge of the next board entirely conceals the nailing and leaves an unbroken surface. [illustration fig. 609.] [illustration fig. 610.] another form of concealed nailing, known as "_sliver_" nailing, is sometimes practised in inside work (sometimes in putting up "inside finish"). a little shaving is raised with the gouge (an _inside_ gouge is best) or a narrow chisel, where the nail is to go, and curled away sufficiently to drive and set the nail (fig. 610). hot glue is then dabbed into the groove, the shaving (which is only raised at one end and not detached from the wood) is pressed back into place, and the spot rubbed with sandpaper drawn around a flat block until the shaving is firmly glued where it belongs. this takes but a moment or two, and when the work is finally smoothed and finished the place cannot be detected, if the operation has been properly done. this is convenient to know in case you have to drive a nail where there is objection to its being seen. see _withdrawing nails_. =nails.=--there are many kinds of nails, many more than is worth while to specify here, as you will probably use those of wire for most of your work. when another kind would be preferable (as is the case for some purposes) it will be specified. the nails in common use before the introduction of those of wire were known as "cut," being stamped from a sheet of metal, and "wrought," the latter kind being much older and originally forged by hand into shape, one by one (hence the name), but now commonly made by machine. the expressions three-penny, eight-penny, ten-penny, etc., indicate the length, and come from an old custom of so designating the lengths, but you need only to call for them by the length, as 2 inch or 2-3/4 inch, in order to get what you want, and you can easily select whatever degree of stoutness you need. copper or galvanised nails and tacks will be needed for your boat-building, copper being preferable, particularly for salt water. [illustration fig. 611.] =nail-set, or punch.=--the nail-set, for sinking nail-heads below the surface, is quite important, and it is well to have a large one and a fine one. the end of the set or punch must not be allowed to become rounding or it will be all the time slipping off the nail-head and punching holes in the surrounding wood. a slight conical depression in the end of the set is good. do not use a file for a nail-set, for the end is too hard and will dent the face of the hammer-head. when setting nails, hold the nail-set firmly against the little finger, placing the latter on the wood close to the head of the nail, as shown in fig. 611. this will keep the set from slipping off the nail-head and damaging the work. =nippers.=--a pair of these will often be of use in wood-working operations. =odd-jobs.=--a very simple combined tool known as "odd-jobs" can be used as a marking-gauge, mortise-gauge, scratch-awl, try-square, t-square, depth-gauge, mitre-square, spirit-level and plumb, inside-square, and beam-compass. it is well suited to much amateur work, and is cheap. =oil.=--sperm oil is good to use with your oil-stones. kerosene is good. lard oil can be used. all thick and gummy oils should be avoided. never use linseed oil or any similar vegetable oil, as it is not a good lubricator, and gums the stone. glycerine thinned with turpentine or alcohol is sometimes used, and even turpentine alone. for oil for finishing and painting, see _finishing_ and _painting_. =oil-stone.=--it is very essential to have a good oil-stone. they can be found of many degrees of fineness. those of very fine and hard grain, which give a keen edge but cut very slowly, will not be found so well adapted to your use as those of moderate coarseness and softness, which cut faster. the stone known as red washita is good to use for wood-working tools, as it cuts rapidly. it should be free from hard spots. the arkansas stone produces a very fine edge, but is of so fine texture that it is not so well adapted for your tools as a coarser stone, unless you happen to find a quick-cutting one. the turkey stone will produce a keen edge, but is not so good for your use. some stones (and excellent ones) cut best with water. when first trying a new stone use water, and if the surface does not become at all glazed or polished it will not be necessary for you to use oil. the stone should always be kept covered when not in use, to protect it from the dust and dirt. set it in a block with a cover or make a box for it. always wipe it clean after using, to remove the paste of ground stone, steel, and oil left on the surface. when an oil-stone becomes unevenly worn, it can be trued by rubbing it around on a sheet of sandpaper fastened on a flat surface, like the side of a board. water can be used in this operation. in addition to the ordinary flat oil-stone, slips of stone of various shapes are useful, a common and useful form being that shown in fig. 612, wedge-shaped on one edge and convex on the other. if you have v-tools, carving gouges, or other tools sharpened on the inside, you must have slips of stone of various shapes with which to sharpen them. see _oil_ and _sharpening_. [illustration fig. 612.] =painting.=--you can paint your work very satisfactorily--perhaps not quite as well or quickly as a skilled painter by trade, but well enough for all practical purposes if you observe carefully a few simple principles. if you disregard them and think, like many amateurs, that anyone can paint right off the first time without any knowledge or thought, your painting will be botch-work. keep your work well painted. it is cheaper in the end to paint frequently and keep the work protected from the decay and damage due to exposure--not to speak of the better appearance. do not use cheap paint, unless, of course, for some cheap or temporary purpose, and it is most important that the first or "priming" coat should be of good quality. if you are obliged to use inferior paint at all, use the best for the first coat and the poorer quality outside rather than the reverse, but it is economy of money and time to use good paint throughout. prepared liquid paints are the simplest, handiest, and cleanest for amateur work, and (if you do not try to economise on the quality) the best for you to use for many purposes, but for outside work (work exposed to the weather) you can probably do no better than to use the best quality of white lead and oil,[48] coloured if desired, which costs less, is more durable, and which you can easily mix yourself, or buy already mixed of a painter. if you need but a little, you can get a pot of paint with suitable brush at a paint shop, returning what you do not use and paying by weight. but if you have much painting to do, it is better and cheaper to have your own brushes and paint. the prepared paints of any colour you can also buy in the form of paste, to be thinned when used, which is usually cheaper than the prepared paint in liquid form. the white lead you can buy by the pound, ground and already thinned with oil, or, what is perhaps more reliable, ground in the form of paste ready to be thinned with oil or, if for inside work, with turpentine. white lead, which is also the basis or an ingredient of the prepared paints, is a poisonous and unhealthful substance. there is, however, but slight danger (practically none) from such painting as you will do. but it is well to wear old clothes when you paint, and carefully wash the hands and face as soon as the work is done, and in case of continued indoor painting to see that the room is well ventilated. the mere odour from a can of paint is enough to make some people feel ill, as you may know, while it can be used for a long time by others apparently without harm. in regard to coloured paints, the simplest way is to buy your colours ready mixed in oil, to be thinned for use, or in liquid form of any desired colour, prepared to use upon opening the can. you can, however, colour or tint your paint yourself with various dry colours, which you can buy in the form of powder at the paint shops for a few cents. it takes but very little of most colours. do not stir these dry colours directly into your paint, but first mix them with oil or turpentine. it requires considerable knowledge of colours and their combinations to know how to mix different colours or shades to produce some particular shade, or to match some tint, but when the exact shade makes no difference you will have no great difficulty in producing the colour you wish. test the shade of your paint on a piece of wood. the way it looks in the paint-pot is often very deceptive. in making a shade darker, especially when tinting white paint, be careful to add but a very little of the darker pigment at first and be sure that it is thoroughly mixed, or you will be likely to find after you have begun to paint that you have a much darker shade than you intended. it is surprising how small a quantity is sometimes needed to tint a whole canful of white paint--the merest dab of chrome yellow will tint a quart of white paint to a good cream shade. remember that it is much easier to add a little more colour if the result is not dark enough than to lighten the shade if too dark. linseed oil (either raw or boiled) is required with which to mix the lead and thin it to the proper consistency. raw oil is best for outside work that is exposed to the weather, as it is more penetrating and more adhesive, although slower in drying than boiled oil. boiled oil does very well for inside work where it is not exposed to the weather. there is some difference of opinion, however, in regard to the use of the two kinds. turpentine is also used for thinning paint. it makes the paint flow easily and is freely used for that reason, but it probably detracts from the durability of all paint if used lavishly and should never be used for outside work. it is commonly used for inside work and causes the paint to work more freely and smoothly from the brush and to dry more quickly. it gives the paint that dull, soft, or "dead" appearance often desired in inside work, instead of the shiny surface which is produced when mixed with linseed oil alone. it is usual to add to the paint something else, known as a "dryer," to cause it to dry more quickly. japan is one of the best of these preparations, but be careful to use very little of any form of dryer, as it is undoubtedly injurious to the durability of the paint and liable to cause cracking and checking. avoid all kinds of "chain-lightning" dryers. do not add a dryer to the colour until just before you use the paint and only to the amount you are to use at one time. another ingredient, which is not injurious to use, is zinc, but zinc paints are considered inferior. red lead is commonly used to paint iron and is considered very durable for that purpose. black japan varnish is often used. iron must always be dry and it will be better to have it warm also. be sure that your work is thoroughly dry before beginning to paint, else the wood will be liable to decay, or the paint to peel, or both. do not paint wood before it is thoroughly seasoned. look the work over carefully and see that it is ready in all respects, before applying the paint. see that the surface is free from dust. look over the work for any knots or streaks of resinous or pitchy matter and wash them with a coat or two of shellac, to "kill" the turpentine and prevent its oozing through and spoiling the paint. try to mix enough, and only enough, paint for the coat you are about to put on, but do not mix a great quantity in advance with the idea of keeping it on hand. the first coat should be thin rather than thick--with plenty of oil to saturate the wood. the oil will be quickly drawn into the wood, and you can readily see that the first coat should be thin to properly soak into the surface. if thick, the paint will not be sufficiently absorbed, but the oil will soak in quickly, leaving too much residue of the pigment on the outside. work this first coat well into the wood. take up but little paint, and draw the brush carefully over the edge of the pail,[49] or over a wire stretched across the top, to remove any superfluity of paint, and begin the painting at the highest part of the work, or the part farthest from you, to prevent spattering or dripping paint over the freshly covered surface. begin, also, at one end or side of the surface, working toward the other end or side, drawing the brush back and forth both ways to distribute the paint as evenly and smoothly as possible, and try not to leave any part of a surface untouched until another time, or it will be likely to show a "lap" where you end and begin--that is, if you cannot cover the work entirely at one time, leave off where there is some natural line or break in the work. finish the side or the end and do not leave off right in the middle of a flat surface. this does not matter quite so much in the priming, but will show plainly in the later coats. after this coat has had time to dry thoroughly, carefully putty the holes and cracks. remember never to use the putty until after at least one coat of paint has been applied and dried. the reason for this is that the fresh wood will quickly absorb the oil from the putty, leaving it dry and crumbly, while if a coat of paint has been put on first and dried, the wood will be already charged, so to speak; the pores will be more or less choked up and the bulk of the oil will remain in the putty. paint with the grain of the wood, or the long way of the work, using a large brush for large surfaces and finishing all corners, mouldings, and edges with a small brush. in doors or panel-work first paint the panels, then the rails, then the styles (see fig. 505). you will thus follow the construction of the work and the grain of the wood, and where you daub the paint beyond the part you are painting (as you will have to do), the daub will be wiped out neatly when you paint the next part. paint joints in outside work, tenons and mortises, shoulders, etc., before putting together, with good white lead. it is not always customary to paint the hidden parts of joints before putting together, particularly in cheap work, but it is well to do so in all work which you wish to have endure, in all framework exposed to water and the weather, and in boat-building. exposed work quickly decays at the joints and seams because the water and dampness collect in such places and do not run off or evaporate as readily as from a smooth surface, so the more you can protect these hidden parts with paint, the better, and the labour is but slight. when you have paint left in the paint-pot which you wish to keep for use another time, pour just enough raw linseed oil over the top to cover it completely. this thin layer of oil will exclude the air and keep the paint from hardening. when you wish to use it again, pour off the oil or stir it into the paint, according to whether the latter requires more oil or not. when you get through painting, if you are going to do more in a short time, it will do to leave the brush in the paint, but do not leave it standing or resting on the bottom of the can, as that tends to bend the ends of the bristles and get the brush out of shape. rig a wire hook on the handle and hang the brush so that the bristles will be covered by the paint, but without touching the bottom. if you are not going to use the brush again for some time, it should be cleaned and put away. turpentine is often used, but kerosene answers every purpose. be careful to wash out all the paint, however, as a very little left between the bristles will stick them together so as sometimes to ruin the brush. another way to keep brushes which are in use is to hang them from the handles in a can partially filled with oil, the whole being kept covered. water can be used instead of oil. arrange it so that the hairs will be just covered. the first coat especially should be given plenty of time to dry, for it is the _foundation_ and _basis_ of the whole operation and the firmness and durability of the painting depends much upon it. each succeeding coat should have plenty of time to dry before applying another, bearing in mind that applying a second coat, before the first is fully hard, excludes the air from the under layer of paint and causes it to dry much more slowly than if left exposed as it should be. in such cases, the outside surface may often seem to be dry and hard while the paint underneath remains comparatively soft. when the first layer finally does dry, the tendency is to crack the surface of the outside, which has dried first. you can find an extreme illustration of this point in some old paint and varnish shop where some convenient place on the wall has been taken against which to slap and work brushes. you can find daubs of old paint and varnish, sometimes an inch thick, made up in this way of hundreds of layers slapped on before the previous ones were dry, the inside remaining soft in some cases after twenty years. paint dries, as a rule, more quickly in a warm temperature than where it is cold, and more quickly where it is dry than where it is damp. so, if you are obliged to paint where it is cold or damp, you will be justified in using more dryer than where it is warm and dry. sandpaper _nice_ inside work after the first coat and between each two successive coats. pumice can be used for old inside work to be repainted. steel wool can also be used. keep a rag with you, when painting, to wipe off the spattering which you will be sure to make. it is not easy to get daubs of paint off after they are hard. turpentine will take the paint from your hands, but common kerosene will clean them satisfactorily when the paint is fresh, and is probably better for the hands. =panels.=--see _doors_ and _panels_. =panel-saw.=--see _saw_. =paring.=--in paring or trimming a piece of wood to a line, if there is much surplus wood to be removed, you can sometimes chop pretty boldly with the hatchet until you get near the line, provided you watch the direction of the grain carefully to see that the split cannot run up to the line; sometimes you can chop safely in one direction but not in the opposite (fig. 613), but as a rule keep well away from the line for the first cut. even wood that appears to be quite straight-grained will often split differently from the way you expect. [illustration fig. 613.] [illustration fig. 614.] [illustration fig. 615.] to trim a piece of wood, like the edge of a board, down to a line, with a hatchet, for instance, you can first score the piece with a series of short cuts, stopping short of the line, to break up the grain of the wood, and then trim these loosened chips off down to the line with the plane, chisel, draw-knife, or whatever tool may be suitable. the main point is to cut in such a direction that the grain will not cause the cuts to extend farther than the line or to run into the main piece of wood (fig. 614). the same principle can be applied often in trimming and removing superfluous wood with a chisel, a draw-knife, or a knife. the cuts can often be made with the saw to better advantage (fig. 614). it takes a little more time to make these cross-cuts with hatchet, knife, chisel, or saw than to whack away furiously lengthways, as if you were chopping kindling, but after you have spoiled a few pieces by splitting beyond the line you will conclude that the former is the more workmanlike and reliable way. this same principle is applicable to making chamfers or bevels with a chisel or knife (fig. 615). you will find frequent occasion to apply this principle of breaking the grain into small pieces before making the final cuts in many kinds of work. it is in constant use in "roughing out" carving. [illustration fig. 616.] to trim to a curve as shown in fig. 616, begin at the edge just _outside_ of the end of the curve and work _with_ the grain from _a_ to _b_. it is often a help in such cases to first remove part of the wood with the saw, as on the lines _bc_ and then _ef._ finally trim the curve smoothly close to the line. frequently this can be done to better advantage with the work held in the vise instead of lying horizontally on the bench. [illustration fig. 617. right. wrong.] paring off superfluous wood down to a given line or trimming off an irregular edge with the chisel is very easily done provided the grain of the wood is straight, or runs in the same direction, even if slanting, as in fig. 617, because you can then cut with the grain. it is often better, however, to cut across the grain, or diagonally, with the chisel, as the wood is less likely to be split by the tool. when the grain runs in several directions, and keeps cropping up to the surface and dipping down again as shown in fig. 701, it becomes more difficult to pare the surface smoothly with the chisel. in such a case remember the sliding or drawing stroke and traverse the surface with a diagonal crossways motion (fig. 619) that will trim off the fibres with a slanting stroke without causing them to be torn up. slant the cut so that if the wood should tend to split, it will be in the direction of the part cut away and not towards the piece to be kept--_i.e._, so that the chips will split and not the body of the wood. reverse the chisel and cut in the opposite direction when a change in the direction of the grain requires it. some pieces are, however, so extremely irregular that you cannot do this, but must slice away the best that you can and leave the rest to other tools. in cutting off a corner or rounding or bevelling an edge you can use the slanting cut (fig. 620). [illustration fig. 619.] [illustration fig. 620.] in using the chisel for paring, let the left hand, which is nearer the cutting-edge than the right, act as a brake or countercheck or drag to check the progress of the tool. it is largely by the varying balance of these two forces--the pushing forward of the tool with the right hand and the checking and controlling with the left--that correct and effective control of the tool is gained. the left hand should in many cases rest upon or grasp the wood as well as the blade. see _chisel_. =paring-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =parting-tool.=--see _carving tools_. =pencil.=--see _marking_. =pincers.=--there are various kinds of _pincers_, _pliers_, and _nippers_. a pair of common pliers and also cutting nippers will be very useful. =plane.=--a plane is in principle (roughly speaking), as you will readily see, nothing but a chisel stuck through a block of wood or iron. small or narrow surfaces may be smoothed to a certain degree by the chisel, the knife, or even the hatchet, but for large surfaces something is needed which can be more exactly controlled than the knife, ax, or chisel, held in the hands. so, to hold the chisel firmly in one position and to apply force to it more advantageously, it is firmly fixed in a block of convenient size and shape and becomes a plane. a very short block will prevent the chisel cutting deeper at one point than another, but the tool will follow the irregularities of the surface and, though it may make the surface smooth, it will not make it level, or flat; so the block is made longer, that it may not go down into all the little hollows, but plane off only the higher parts. the two essential parts of a plane are the _iron_ and the _stock_. the bottom surface of the stock is called the _sole_ or _face_ (_ab_ in fig. 621), the wedge-shaped hole where the iron goes is called the _throat_ (_c_), and the slot at the bottom through which the edge of the iron projects is called the _mouth_ (_d_). [illustration fig. 621.] bear in mind that the shape of the cut made by the plane will be a reversed copy of the shape of the cutting-edge. if the edge is rounding, the cut will be hollowing. if the edge is hollowing, the cut will be rounding. if the edge is straight, the cut will be straight. if the edge is nicked, ridges will be left on the wood. if buying new, you will do best, as a rule, to get iron planes, though very good ones can be had with wooden stocks, but with the convenient appliances of the iron planes. some workmen still prefer the old wooden planes, but it is better to buy iron ones. [illustration fig. 622.] [illustration fig. 623.] the _jack-plane_ is used for coarse work and to rough off the surface with large shavings, ready for the other planes. fourteen or fifteen inches is a good length. the edge of the iron is not ground squarely across, like the chisel, but is rounded slightly so as to cut deeper in the middle (fig. 622). heavy shavings can be cut and the rough outside of a piece of wood taken off quicker and easier than with a more squarely ground iron, but it does not leave the surface smooth, as the strokes of the jack-plane form a series of hollows and ridges (fig. 623, exaggerated). after taking off the rough surface with the iron projecting considerably, you can of course set the iron finer, and by going over the work several times you can take off the worst of the ridges, but without a great deal of labour you can never get a really smooth surface with a plane that cuts hollows. a common use of the jack-plane is for "traversing," or planing across the grain, which is often the quickest and easiest way to reduce a surface to the desired shape, and for cleaning off where pieces have been glued together. if you should use a jack-plane to do the work of a fore-plane, have it ground more squarely across like the fore-plane. if you use an old-fashioned wooden plane, take the handle in your right hand, laying your left over the top and side, just a little in front of the iron, with the thumb towards you and the fingers on the farther side, as shown in fig. 624. this position allows you to bear weight on the fore part of the plane when necessary and to control the tool to the best advantage. this applies to the old-fashioned wooden planes. if your plane is iron, there is a handle or knob for the left hand which you simply grasp in a natural way. push the jack-plane forward steadily an arm's-length. then stop and start afresh for another arm's-length stroke. when drawing the plane back tip it on the farther edge. the cap or break-iron can be set quite far back from the edge for rough work, about one eighth inch, but much nearer for finer work. [illustration fig. 624.] in these days when almost everything is planed by machinery with greater or less smoothness, you will probably not have much use for a jack-plane unless you find you have a good deal of rough planing to do yourself. [illustration fig. 625.] the _fore-plane_ or _trying-plane_ is longer and larger than the jack-plane. eighteen to twenty-two inches is a good length. it is used to straighten and level the surface after the worst roughness has been taken off. the surface having been roughed off by the jack-plane, the fore-plane is not required to take off such heavy shavings and the iron is therefore ground squarely across like a chisel, but very slightly rounded at the corners (fig. 625). it is held in the same way as the jack-plane, but the stroke should be long and steady, for the fore-plane, which is long, will straighten the surface, and smooth it also. the iron can project more for soft and loose-grained woods than for hard, and the cap or break-iron should be nearer the edge for hard woods. the _jointer_ (22" to 30" in length) or _long jointer_ (from 24" to 30"), is still longer than the fore-plane and correspondingly more accurate for making a surface level and true, or for shooting the edges of boards. twenty-four inches is a good length. it is very useful for making joints to be glued, and is used in the same way as the fore-plane, the stroke being continued steadily the whole length of the piece if possible. the _smoothing-plane_ is used, as its name indicates, for the final smoothing of the surface, so far as it can be done with a plane. it is from five to ten inches long. it is an invaluable plane to the amateur, and the beginner can get along very well for a great deal of work with no other, for stock can be bought ready planed and can easily be trued and jointed, when necessary, at any wood-working mill or shop at slight expense. [illustration fig. 626.] a plane with a short stock, as the smoothing-plane, will make your work smooth, but it is hard to make it straight and level or true with such a tool, because, being short, it will follow the larger irregularities of the surface and will only plane off the smaller inequalities. it will go up and down over the hills and valleys of the wood, so to speak, while a longer plane cannot do this, but will cut off the tops of the hills until the surface is made level, as shown in fig. 626. the smoothing-plane is therefore merely to _smooth_ the surface after it has been straightened by a longer plane, or in cases where smoothness only is essential and it is not required that the surface should be true. small pieces can, of course, be straightened and trued by the smoothing-plane alone. a wooden smoothing-plane can be held as shown in fig. 627. an iron plane can be used by laying the hand naturally over the knob for the purpose. [illustration fig. 627.] the _block-plane_ is small and is meant chiefly for planing across the ends of pieces (for planing "end-grain"), but it is also frequently useful in other directions. the iron is usually set at a more acute angle with the face of the stock than in the other planes and with the bevel upwards, and the width of the mouth is often adjustable, which is a convenience. a block-plane is made which can, by means of a detachable side, be used as a rabbet-plane. the block-plane makes a quite good substitute for a smoothing-plane for amateur work and is a very useful little tool. the _toothed-plane_ is about the size of the smoothing-plane, but the iron is corrugated or scored with grooves lengthwise, so that one side of the cutting-edge of the iron, instead of being smooth, is notched into little teeth somewhat like a fine saw or the edge of a file, and the iron is inserted in the body of the plane almost vertically. this plane makes scratches all along its course instead of taking off shavings. it is used in veneering and in gluing other surfaces. it can frequently be used to good advantage to break up the grain where two edges or surfaces are to be glued together, so that the glue may hold the two rough surfaces together more strongly, upon somewhat the same principle that the plastering on a lathed wall holds its place tightly through the hold it gets on the cracks between the laths, intentionally left for the purpose. the toothed-plane is used for this purpose in veneering. the idea upon which this tool is based originated with the orientals, who have for ages scratched or toothed the joints of their wood-work. it can also be used to subdue a refractory piece of crooked grain which you wish to get smooth, but which may crop to the surface in such a way that you cannot plane it without chipping the grain. by scratching the surface thoroughly in all directions with the toothed-plane set very fine, the obstinate fibres can be broken so that the surface can be smoothed with the scraper, not using the smoothing-plane. as a matter of fact, however, if you cannot smooth a piece of wood, the trouble is _usually_ with the edge of the plane-iron or its adjustment, or with your manner of planing, for a _very keen_ edge is supposed to be able to cut the most obstinate grain, unless, of course, the wood is extraordinarily hard. the _bull-nosed-plane_ has the iron close to the fore end of the stock, to work into corners and awkward places which cannot be reached by the smoothingor block-planes. the iron is reversed. a very small plane (perhaps four inches long) of this kind is useful. the _circular-plane_ is used for planing curved surfaces, the sole being now made of a thin, flexible metal plate and adjustable so that either concave or convex surfaces can be smoothed. it is very useful at times, but is not essential for an amateur. the _rabbet-plane_, which is used to cut rabbets, as the name indicates, is a useful tool, but in most cases you can dispense with it by having rabbets cut at a mill. a _router_, for cleaning out and smoothing the bottoms of grooves and depressions, is very useful at times. there is a variety of other planes for special purposes, as the _plough_, _matching-planes_, _hollow_ and _round planes_, _beading-planes_, etc., as well as various _combination_ and "_universal_" _planes_. many of these are excellent, but, as a rule, are not important for the amateur in these days, as the work they do can be so easily and cheaply done at a mill. you will seldom feel the need of buying any of them, unless you live where you cannot reach a factory. [illustration fig. 628.] [illustration fig. 629.] you will find it important to bear in mind the purpose of the cap or dull iron screwed upon one side of the cutting-iron, in what are called "double-ironed" planes. a plane with a single iron, like a chisel, will cut satisfactorily and easily for straight-grained, soft wood, and for hard wood when planing with the grain, but many pieces of stock are difficult to plane, because the grain does not run in the same way, but turns and twists, cropping up to the surface and dipping down again in all sorts of curious and perplexing ways. in planing them the wood is likely to be continually chipping or tearing and breaking off below the surface, instead of planing smoothly like a piece of straight-grained pine, leaving dents and rough hollows over the surface. the natural tendency of the plane-iron is to split the wood in front of the iron in such cases (fig. 628). to remedy this the plane has a double iron. an iron or cap with a dull edge is screwed on to the face of the cutting-iron (fig. 629) so as to help bend and break off the shavings before the split gets fairly started (fig. 630), when the iron can cut it smoothly off. the thickness of the shavings is greatly exaggerated in the cuts for the sake of illustration. [illustration fig. 630.] the cutting edge is said to have "lead" in proportion to the distance it is in advance of the cap-iron. the cap can be set some little distance from the edge for the jack-plane, as far as an eighth of an inch, but with the fore-plane and smoothing-plane it must be set quite close to the edge, the distance varying according to the character of the wood. the more crooked or cross-grained the wood, the nearer the dull iron is brought down towards the edge of the sharp one. the nearer the edge, the smoother the result, but the harder to work the plane. [illustration fig. 631.] something more than the break-iron is required, however, to insure breaking the shavings. there must be an angle, against which they can be broken, close in front of the cutting edge and above the shaving. this angle is the forward edge of the mouth or slot in the sole through which the iron projects (fig. 631). thus the width of the mouth makes a difference in the smoothness of the surface, for a narrow mouth is necessary to ensure the shaving being readily broken by the cap. with a wide mouth, the shaving will not be broken by the cap in time, because there is no corner against which to break it. with straight-grained wood this does not make so much difference, but with crooked and broken grain narrowness of mouth is quite essential to a smooth surface, provided that the opening is wide enough to allow the shaving to pass through freely. rough and knotty wood requires the mouth very narrow and the iron set very fine (_i.e._, projecting but very little from the sole) and the cap quite near the edge. the modern iron planes have simple appliances for setting or adjusting the projection of the iron from the sole and thus regulating the thickness of the shaving. if, however, you are obliged to use the old-fashioned wooden planes, you raise the iron in the same way that you loosen it for removal, by lightly tapping on the top of the fore end of the stock, keeping hold of the plane with the left hand so as to prevent the iron falling through if loosened too much. when the iron is raised enough, fix it in place by tapping on top of the "chip" (fig. 621, _e_) or wedge which holds it in place. to lower the cutting edge, loosen as before and, checking the edge with the finger, let it project the required distance, which you can tell about by looking along the sole (fig. 632), and fix in place by tapping the "chip" as before. this is the process used in removing the iron for sharpening and replacing it, the chip being removed as well as the iron. any carpenter will show you the operation. always hold the plane in the left hand in all these adjusting operations. do not strike or tap any part of it while it rests on the bench or on anything solid. to smooth a rough piece of wood, use first the jack-plane, to remove the rough surface and superfluous wood, and then the fore-plane, to straighten and smooth the surface. if there is no need to have the surface true, but only smooth, you can omit using the fore-plane and follow the jack-plane at once by the smoothing-plane. with ordinary machine-planed stock you do not usually need the jack-plane, though it is sometimes useful in reducing a piece of wood to a given shape. before beginning to plane, see that all dirt or grit which might dull the tool is brushed from the surface. turn the plane over and sight along the sole (fig. 632), not merely to see that the iron projects to the required degree, but also to see that it projects equally, lest one side or corner of the iron should cut more deeply than the other, and thus make a groove or scratch on the wood (fig. 633). the latest iron planes have appliances to adjust any inequality of this sort, but if your plane is not so arranged a little tapping on one side of the upper end of the iron will correct the trouble. try the plane on a waste piece before beginning on nice work. [illustration fig. 632.] plane with the grain, as a rule, and the fibres will be cut off cleanly where they crop up to the surface and your work will be left smooth. if you plane against the grain, some of the fibres will tend to splinter or chip off just below the surface before they are cut off (fig. 634). stand behind the work with the plane before you. plane with the arms (and from the shoulder), not with the whole body. try to shove the plane straight ahead, also to plane as equally and evenly as possible over the surface; for while it is comparatively easy to get a surface smooth it is quite another thing to keep it true or to make it true if warped or winding. [illustration fig. 633.] the natural tendency, and a common fault, is to begin and end the stroke as shown in fig. 635. rolling the body back and forth, instead of pushing steadily with the arms from the shoulder, aggravates this trouble. the result of this way (which is unconscious at first) is that the surface after planing is apt to be as shown in fig. 636. to prevent this, press down with the _left_ hand on the _forward_ part of the plane during the _first_ part of the stroke, and with the _right_ hand on the _rear_ part of the plane during the _last_ part of the stroke (fig. 637). [illustration right. wrong. fig. 634.] in planing wood which is dirty or rough, it is best to lift the plane from the work when drawing it back for a fresh stroke, or to draw it back so that only the point touches the board, or to draw it back on edge, but in planing small surfaces of clean wood it is not usually worth while to take this precaution. [illustration fig. 635.] [illustration fig. 636.] [illustration fig. 637.] in planing pieces with crooked grain, turn the piece when practicable, so as to plane as much of it with the grain as you can. but many pieces are so crooked in grain that you cannot do this. so at times it is well to turn your plane sideways to get a slicing cut and cross the grain at an angle (fig. 638); but as a rule the plane should be pushed straight forward. a few drops of oil rubbed over the face of the plane will make it run more smoothly, particularly on hard wood. [illustration fig. 638.] test the accuracy of your planing of broad surfaces with a straight-edge, the blade of a square, or the edge of the plane itself (if straight). by applying such a straight-edge across the surface or lengthways or diagonally you can tell whether your work is straight and true (fig. 639). also "sight" with your eye. if the surface is large or long, winding-sticks can be used (see _winding-sticks_). in planing edges test lengthways with the eye and straight-edge of some sort, and crossways by applying the try-square (fig. 640). (see _jointing_.) [illustration fig. 639.] it is, of course, harder to plane a broad surface, as the side of a board, than a narrow one, as the edge. when planing a flat surface, as a board, be careful not to plane off more at the edges than elsewhere (fig. 641), as you will be quite likely to do if you allow the plane to tip sideways over the edge instead of keeping the sole parallel with the flat surface. [illustration fig. 640.] when planing across end-grain with the block-plane or smoothing-plane, either secure a waste piece of wood at the side where the planing ends, to prevent the edge chipping off, as shown in fig. 642, or plane from both edges toward the middle (fig. 643). the use of the straight-edge will give the necessary clue to the process of making warped surfaces true. (see _truing surfaces_.) [illustration fig. 641.] [illustration fig. 642.] whenever you make nice articles from wood planed by an ordinary cylinder planer, the wood will seem quite smooth just as it is, but do not neglect to smooth it carefully so as to take out all the "planer-marks" or those little corrugations across the grain left by the machine will often show clear across the room as soon as the work is finished. see pages 44, 45, and 46, and also _sharpening_. [illustration fig. 643.] =planing.=--see _plane_, _jointing_, _truing surfaces_. =plank, laying.=--see _boards_, _laying_. =plough.=--see _plane_. =plumb.=--you can make a plumb-line by merely hanging any weight at the end of a cord, when the cord will of course be vertical as soon as it stops swinging (fig. 644). for convenience in using hang the cord on a board as shown in fig. 130. when the cord hangs exactly on the line or at the apex of the notch the edge of the board will be vertical. a long board will give a more accurate test than a short one in most cases, just as a long plane will make a straighter edge than a short plane, for the long board will bridge over the irregularities of the surface to be plumbed. for example, to take an exaggerated case, the post plumbed as at _a_ (fig. 645) is vertical, taken as a whole; while the same post plumbed as at _b_ leans over, because the short board happens to be placed where the surface of the post is not straight. [illustration fig. 644.] [illustration fig. 645.] [illustration fig. 646.] when the plumb-line is used to determine a point exactly over or under another point, as in surveying, the bob is shaped with a point like a top (fig. 646). for making the plumb, see page 96. (see also _level_.) =pod-bit.=--see _bits_. =punch= (=for nails=).--see _nail-set_. =putty.=--common putty is (or should be) a mixture of linseed oil and whiting of about the consistency of dough. a mixture of white lead worked in with the whiting is, however, superior for some purposes, and is better when but one coat of paint is to be put on after the puttying. to colour putty, stir the colouring matter in a little oil and then work and knead it into the putty until the whole is coloured. keep putty under water. do not leave it wrapped in the paper in which you may take it from the painter's, for the oil will be absorbed by the paper and the putty will quickly become dry and hard. use a square-bladed putty-knife for flat surfaces, and do not use your fingers. see also _holes, to stop_. =putty-knife.=--an old case-knife can be used (better if reshaped squarely across or to an obtuse angle), or, in fact, any knife, but a regular putty-knife is best. =quill-bit.=--see _bits_. =rabbet.=--a rabbet is a recess or rectangular groove cut lengthways in the edge of a piece of board, plank, or other timber (fig. 284). it is usually better for the amateur to get such work done at a mill, when practicable, rather than to do it by hand. the rabbet-plane is, however, a very useful tool to have. in some cases, as at the end of a piece, the saw can be used, the lines for the rabbet having been carefully marked with a knife or chisel. the chisel can also be used to make a rabbet, much as in cutting a mortise, taking pains when driving the chisel down next the line not to cut under or jam the wood beyond the line. in the final trimming to the line, the chisel should be held with the flat side toward the line. in removing the wood with the chisel, it is often best to pare across the grain rather than with it (see _paring_). a strip of wood can be clamped across the piece exactly on the line as a guide for the saw and the sawing be done with the heel or rear corner of the saw, keeping the latter close up to the gauge stick, and pieces are sometimes even clamped to the saw itself to guide it, but such arrangements, though useful expedients under some circumstances, are hardly the most workmanlike methods. =rabbet-plane.=--see _plane_. =rasp.=--the rasp--only used for wood--is a sort of coarse file, but instead of ridge-like teeth it is studded with projecting points, which tear off the wood more quickly, but also more roughly, than the file. it is extremely useful to remove surplus wood and to get curved objects roughly into shape. one good-sized half-round (or "slab-sided") rasp will be a great help. see _file_. =rasping.=--see _filing_. =reamers.=--see _bits_. =repairing furniture.=--to repair thoroughly--to make things as strong as when new and to leave no sign of the mending--often requires more skill and ingenuity and more general knowledge of wood-working than to make new articles. skill in repairing comes not merely from general knowledge of wood-working, but from experience and ingenuity in applying your knowledge to new problems. you will rarely have two jobs of repairing just alike, even if of the same kind, and the variety is almost endless. it is, therefore, impossible to give rules to cover all the different cases. in fact, to attempt to give complete directions for repairing would be to describe the majority of operations used in wood-working, and the reader is referred to other parts of the book for whatever information it may contain. suggestions on one or two points may, however, be of use. suppose the arm of a chair comes off, after having been stuck on with glue perhaps a dozen times. how is it usually mended each time it comes off? the family glue-pot, containing the dregs of all the glue used since it was bought, is put on the stove, a little water poured in, and as soon as the glue gets warmed into a thick paste a lot of it is daubed on to the joints, on top of the thick coating they already have, and the arm pushed as nearly into place as it will go. it is then usually left for a few hours and sometimes even tied on with a string while the glue dries. of course it sticks for a while and then the usual result follows. now how should you go to work to do this properly? first clean off all the old glue. this is important. you want to put the fresh glue on the wood, not on top of the old glue; but do not scrape away the wood in getting off the glue so that the parts will no longer fit. next, see whether the pieces will fit together as they should. if they will, then contrive some way to clamp them in place while the glue is drying. sometimes hand-screws will do this, sometimes clamps, sometimes a rope twisted, and often it will take all your ingenuity to contrive any arrangement, but clamped they must be if you wish to be sure of a good job. [illustration fig. 647.] the pieces often make an angle with one another, or are curved, so that the clamps or hand-screws will not hold, but slip as fast as you tighten them. in such a case the method shown in fig. 647 can often be used. screw a hand-screw firmly on each side of the joint, rubbing chalk on the insides of the jaws to help prevent slipping, and putting on the hand-screws so that the jaws will be parallel. then, by using two other hand-screws, those first put on can be drawn towards one another and the joint firmly closed. then proceed to glue the parts as with new work. for the way to do this see _gluing_. in patching old work with new wood, pains should be taken to have the wood match as well as possible, and, as a rule, pare or trim the new pieces after they are glued in place rather than before. staining to match the older parts is often required (see _staining_). see also _holes, to stop_. the repaired joint may never be quite as strong as a new one, therefore it is well to reinforce it with a block glued and screwed on the under or inner side, in cases where this can be done without injuring the appearance, as inside of the frame under a chair, sofa, or table. it is not uncommon, particularly in work which has come apart several times, for the tenons to be too small. if you can glue on thin pieces to make the tenon larger, trimming them afterwards to fit, it will be the best way; but if the conditions do not admit of this, a little muslin, laid in glue, can sometimes be wrapped around the tenon as the latter is fitted to place. the same can sometimes be done with round pins or dowels. the expedient of splitting and wedging tenons and dowels can often be applied in repairing (see _mortising_ and _dowels_). sometimes you may find it necessary to use screws in places where the heads will show. in such cases first make, when possible, a neat round or square hole with bit or chisel of sufficient diameter to admit the head of the screw and deep enough to allow a shallow plug to be inserted after the screw has been set (see _holes, to stop_). the hardest part in finished work is to make the patch match the rest of the work. see also _gluing_, _clamps_, and whatever other operations may be required. =ripping-saw.=--see _saw_. =rivets.=--in heading rivets hold another hammer or piece of metal, or have someone else do so, against the head of the rivet while upsetting the other end. =rounding sticks.=--it is often required to round sticks for poles, masts, spars, arrows, and a great many other purposes. first plane the piece until it is as nearly _square_, in section, as you can make it. then use the form shown on page 95, which will hold the squared stick firmly while you plane off the corners, making it _eight-sided_. be careful not to plane the corners off too much, for the eight sides of the stick should be as nearly alike as possible. next, if the stick is large enough, plane off each of the eight corners so that it will be _sixteen-sided_. this is about as far as you can go in this way, unless the stick is very large. set the plane quite fine for taking off these corners or you may plane off too much before you know it. the rest of the rounding you must do with light, fine strokes, testing by eye and by passing your hand over the work (for you can judge a great deal by the sense of touch). the rasp and file can often be used to good advantage. the spoke-shave is good for the final smoothing, followed by the scraper or glass (both of which can be curved) and sandpaper. the latter can be used crosswise as well as lengthwise. cut it in strips and pull it back and forth around the stick, much as bootblacks put the final polish on shoes with a strip of cloth (fig. 648). [illustration fig. 648.] to hold large sticks for this final shaping and smoothing you can put them in the vise, but if there are several, and large, it is better to contrive some way to hold them after the fashion of the centres of a lathe. for one centre, drive a nail or screw through a block or stick of wood and screw the block in the vise (fig. 649). make the other centre in the same way and fasten it at such a distance from the first centre that the stick will just fit in between the two. just how to fasten this second centre will depend on the length of the stick to be rounded and the arrangements of your shop, but you can easily contrive some way to hold it. the stick held between these centres will be clear of everything and can be turned around without trouble. the middle can be supported, if necessary, by a piece of board or a strip lightly nailed to the bench-top. masts and spars should be "natural sticks," if possible, and the final shaping and smoothing will be all they will require, for which some such apparatus as that just described will save time and trouble. [illustration fig. 649.] to round small sticks, as spars for model boats, arrows, etc., the same process should be followed so far as the small size of the sticks will allow, as you can of course shave more accurately with the plane, on account of the long guiding sole, for the same degree of effort, than with any "free-hand" tool like the knife. but when the stick is quite small it is hard to hold it firmly, and it is also too much covered by the plane. in such cases turn japanese. fasten the plane bottom-up in the vise (or even hold it in your lap if you have no vise) and pull the stick along the sole of the plane instead of pushing the plane over the stick. but _look out for your fingers_ when you do this, for a plane-iron in this position has a great appetite for finger-tips. in filing a short, round stick, one end can often be rested on the bench and the stick turned around towards you as you file. a good way to finish the shaping of such small sticks is to hold your knife with the edge downward close against the side of your leg just above the knee. then pull the stick up steadily between your leg and the knife. the leg acts as a sort of gauge to steady both the stick and the knife and with care you can cut a very even shaving in this way. one very important thing to bear in mind in _all_ these rounding operations is that you will rarely find wood with absolutely straight grain, except in "rift" stock or natural sticks (and in these there are often seemingly unaccountable twists and crooked streaks); so you need to _keep constant watch_ of the direction of the grain, for even a slight turn of the stick will often bring the grain wrong with relation to your tool, and one false cut running in too deep, or even across the stick, will spoil the work. =router.=--see _plane_. =rule.=--a rule with which to lay out your work and measure your stock is one of the first tools of which you can make use. a two-foot rule, folding once, is the most convenient for shop-work, but the more common kind, folding to six inches in length, is more convenient to carry around away from the shop. one brass-bound (with brass edges) is more durable, but hardly as convenient to use as the common cheap kind, which will answer every purpose until it breaks. [illustration fig. 650.] to mark distances with the rule for accurate work, lay the rule on edge so that the divisions marked on it will touch the wood and not be an eighth of an inch above it, as they are when the rule lies flat (fig. 650). you can thus mark the points more accurately. =sandpaper.=--the fineness of sandpaper is indicated by numbers--00 (the finest), 0, 1/2, 1, 1-1/2, 2, 2-1/2 and 3 (the coarsest). you will use the fine and medium numbers more than the very coarse ones, and will seldom require coarser than 1-1/2. test sandpaper, when buying, by rubbing the sand a little with your hand to see if it is securely stuck on, and tear the paper a little to see if it is strong. never use sandpaper until all the cutting with the tools is done. sandpaper _with_ the grain, except for work which is to be painted. the proper use of sandpaper, as a rule, for such work as you will do, is merely to give a little extra smoothness, to take out little scratches, to round edges, and the like, but _not_ to cut away the wood and scrub it into the shape you wish. to use it much, except to skim over your work, is apt to get you into a slovenly style of working, and the result will lack the sharp accuracy of good work. do not rely on the sandpaper to remove the defects in your work. do the work right and you will need but little sandpaper, except in a few operations which will be specified when there is occasion. [illustration fig. 651.] for flat surfaces it is well to fold the sandpaper over a flat block of cork or wood (fig. 651), the edges of which have been slightly rounded. if the surface is curved, the block should be curved correspondingly. a piece of thick rubber or leather which can be bent to fit the surface is excellent. care should be taken not to round the corners and edges of the work when sandpapering. in sandpapering any very delicate piece of work, when the edge might get rounded or the surface scratched by the stiffness of even the finest sandpaper, as in rubbing down finished work, split the paper, which you can easily do by removing the outer layer of paper from the back, when the remaining part to which the sand adheres will be much softer and more flexible. =saw.=--saws are used for cutting across the grain and with the grain and there are various kinds for special purposes. the _cross-cutting saw_ is used, as the name indicates, for cutting across the grain of wood and for ordinary work. the blade is usually thicker at the teeth than at the back, to stiffen it and to enable it to pass through the wood more freely. from 18" to 24" is a good length for a cross-cutting saw (or more commonly called _panel_-saw) for your work, with about eight to ten teeth to the inch. examine the teeth (fig. 652) and you will see that they are pointed and sharp, somewhat like the point of your knife, and that they cut across the fibres much the same as your knife does when you hold it upright and draw it across a board. [illustration fig. 652.] [illustration fig. 653.] you will notice, also, that the teeth are alternately bent outwards,--one tooth being bent out to one side, the next to the other side,--this spreading of the teeth (which is called the "set") making the saw wider at the points of the teeth than elsewhere. you will also notice that the sharp cutting edge of each tooth is on the outside. this set, and the way the teeth are sharpened, makes the cut wider than the thickness of the blade, thus giving the saw "clearance" and enabling it to slip back and forth easily and without "binding" (fig. 653). as a practical matter of fact, however, it is nothing uncommon for a saw to bind in the cut, either from not sawing straight or from the wood closing on the saw (see fig. 695). the teeth not only cut or break off the fibres in parallel lines at the points of the teeth, but also tear off and remove the bits of wood (_i.e._, the sawdust) between these parallel cuts. the degree to which the teeth are set and the number of teeth to the inch depend upon the use to which the saw is to be put and the kind of wood to be used. of course the finer the teeth the smoother the cut. cross-cut saws are usually sharpened differently for soft and for hard wood, but little set being required for the latter, while the former needs a wider set to give the blade clearance, because the fibres of the looser-textured soft wood are bent aside by the tearing action of the saw teeth and are not so cleanly cut off as in the hard wood. we have examined the teeth of the cross-cut saw and have seen that they cut across the grain of the wood very much as the point and edge of a knife, and that the fibres, being cut or broken or torn off in fine pieces, are removed from the kerf by the teeth. now to saw in the direction of the grain, instead of across it, we use a saw based on a different principle. as we used little knives to cut across the grain, so we use little chisels to cut with the grain. look at the teeth of the _ripping-saw_ and you will see that they are little chisels sharp only at the end (fig. 654), though not as acute as chisels for obvious reasons. these sharp ends, which are square (fig. 655, showing set) or may be oblique, cut or tear off the fibres, and the front edges of the teeth push the pieces out of the cut. the teeth of the cross-cut saw are filed so that the front cutting-edge is _drawn_ across the wood in the most effective way, much as you would draw the knife-point across, while the teeth of the ripping-saw are pointed forward at a more acute angle so that the cutting-edge is _pushed_ through the wood, somewhat as you push a chisel. [illustration fig. 654.] [illustration fig. 655.] [illustration fig. 656.] the ripping-saw cuts only on the down stroke. it is not suitable for use directly across the grain, as it tears the fibres when pushed across them much more than the cross-cut saw. the ripping-saw usually has larger teeth than the cross-cut saw. from 5-1/2 to 8 points to the inch will do for your work. the ripping-saw usually cuts best when held slanting rather than at right angles with the board (fig. 656), as you can easily understand when you think how a chisel works best in paring at the end of a board. if the cut closes up after the saw so as to "bind" it, drive a wedge (or even a screw-driver or chisel) into the crack so as to open it enough for the saw to work freely. binding of the saw from this cause is very common in making long cuts. when you come to a hard knot in splitting you can sometimes gain by taking the cross-cut saw to cut through it. you will probably get most of your splitting done at a mill and will not have to depend on hand ripping-saws so much as your grandfathers did. the _back-saw_ should have, for your use, from 10 to 16 teeth to the inch and be perhaps 12 inches long. the blade is very thin to insure a finer and more accurate cut than can be made with the common saw, and therefore requires care in using. it has a back (whence the name) made of a thin piece of brass or iron put on so as to give the blade the necessary firmness. this is an exceedingly useful tool, with which and a common panel saw you can do a great deal of work without any other. the back-saw must be used with care, for the blade is so thin that a little wrenching will spring it out of shape in spite of the strengthening back. in the _compass-saw_ the blade is very narrow, being about one inch at the broadest part and diminishing gradually to about a quarter of an inch at the other end. it is about fifteen inches long and is employed in cutting curved forms. as the blade is narrow and tapers towards the back and the teeth have a wide set it will cut a small circle. notice that the teeth of the compass-saw are a sort of a compromise between those of the ripping and cross-cut saws, which enables them to cut freely either way of the grain, as is of course necessary in sawing curves. the _turning-_ or _bow-saw_ is much better for any work with which the bow will not interfere, and is a very useful tool at times. get one with handles which turn so that the blade can be turned to saw at an angle with the frame. you will need a few extra blades of different widths. the main thing to be borne in mind is to make the cut square with the surface. it is easier to follow the line than to secure a cut at right angles to the surface. the _keyhole-saw_, which is even smaller than the compass-saw, is used for cutting quicker curves, as for a keyhole. it has a handle like that of a chisel, with a slot cut through from end to end. there is a screw on one side, so that the blade may be fixed at any length, according to the size of the hole to be cut. a good kind, which can be used for both compassand keyhole-saws, has a handle into which various blades can be fitted. [illustration fig. 657.] compassand keyhole-saws are difficult for beginners to use without bending, twisting, or breaking their thin and narrow blades. most of your curved sawing can be done better with a turning-saw or at a mill by a bandor jig-saw. if done at the mill, have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the sawing. a common way to test saws, when buying, is to take the handle in one hand and bend the point of the saw around in a curve sideways and then let the blade spring back, which it should do without being permanently bent or sprung. [illustration fig. 658.] do not saw from one side of the line. have your eyes above the line so that you can look on both sides of the saw (fig. 657). this will help you to keep the saw-blade at right angles with the surface of the wood. hold the saw firmly with the forefinger pressed against the side of the handle to help guide and steady it (fig. 657). having placed the saw just at the outside edge of the line and on the farther side of the piece, seize the wood with the left hand and hold the thumb against the blade (_above_ the teeth) to help start the cut in the right place (fig. 658). aside from the danger of the saw jumping and damaging the wood unless guided by the thumb, it is liable to cut your left hand. you can make a little notch with the knife or chisel on the outside of the line, to help start the saw, in the case of nice work, if you wish. cut straight in just on the line and then make a sloping cut to meet this from outside the line (fig. 659). first draw the saw gently backwards, guiding it by the thumb, with as little pressure on the wood as possible until you see that the cut is started right, then push it gently forward, and after a few easy strokes in this way to get the cut started right, keep on with long, steady strokes, but not long enough so that the end of the saw enters the kerf, lest it catch and the saw buckle. the saw should cut most on the downward motion, not on the up stroke. [illustration fig. 659.] with a sharp saw, there is nothing gained by bearing down heavily on the teeth, which may spring the saw and make crooked work. rather let the saw run of itself with an easy, _light_ stroke, guiding it carefully, and not letting it press on the wood on the up stroke. the more hastily and furiously you saw the poorer the result will probably be. when you _begin_ to run off the line, as you will be pretty sure to do, twist the saw a little with the wrist as you go on, which will bring it back to the line, because of the kerf being wider than the thickness of the saw-blade. [illustration fig. 660.] beginners are apt to bend the saw over to one side. you can tell whether it is cutting at right angles with the face of the board by testing with the try-square as shown in fig. 660. such a test as this is, however, too inconvenient for ordinary practical work and you should learn as quickly as you can to hold the saw-blade correctly. at the end of the cut, as at the beginning, saw gently with quick, light strokes, and hold the piece which is being cut off with the left hand, lest it break off and splinter one of the two pieces. if the saw "binds" or does not work easily, you can for your _rougher_ work put a little tallow, butter, lard, or lubricating oil on the blade, but beware of doing this for your _nice_ work, or it will deface it when done. if the binding is caused by the springing together of the wood (fig. 695) the crack should be wedged open. do not get into the habit of sawing a little way outside of the line and then trimming off the superfluous wood with your knife or a chisel. that is not a good way to learn to saw by a line. try your best to make the cut where it should be (even if you do make mistakes for a good while) and thus get into the habit of doing it right without having to rely on any other tool than the saw. many pieces of wood can better be screwed in the vise for sawing instead of being laid on the horses, and this position is often preferable. in this case you grasp the wood with the left hand and use the saw as already described. (see _sharpening_). =saw-filing.=--see _sharpening_. =sawing.=--see _saw_. =saw-set.=--various contrivances can be bought for setting saw teeth. when you get to the point of needing one you can easily find a variety from which to select. =scraper.=--the scraper is made of saw-blade steel (frequently from an old saw) and may be of any shape or size to suit the work required of it. a common form for scraping flat surfaces is rectangular like a postal-card, and a good size is from 2" ã� 4" to 3" ã� 5". a piece of glass makes a good scraper for almost every purpose except where a flat, true surface is required. it is good to smooth the handle of a paddle, for instance, but not good for scraping the top of a nice table. for many rounded surfaces glass is fully as good as a steel scraper, but for general use the latter is much better. the following directions may be of use when you wish to break glass to use for a scraper: "take the back of a knife, or the smooth, straight edge of any piece of iron fixed with tolerable firmness for a moment, then, taking the piece of glass in both hands, rest its edge midway between them on the edge of the iron; let the upper edge of the glass lean from you, and push it gently along the iron, so as slightly to indent the edge of the glass; then, reversing its position so as to make it lean towards you, draw it smartly along the iron, and you will find it separated by a clean fracture directly across, forming a line more or less curved, and leaving one edge of the glass much sharper than the other. by a little practice, and by pressing a little more with one hand than the other, almost any curvature that the work to be done may require may be achieved" (lord and baines, _shifts and expedients of camp life_). the edge of the scraper is turned over so as to form a sort of hooked edge or angle (fig. 661), which when pushed over the surface scrapes off thin shavings. to smooth a flat surface the scraper can be held with both hands, between the fingers and thumb (fig. 662), and pushed along in the direction towards which it is inclined. sometimes one end of the scraper is held between the thumb and fingers of the left hand and the palm of the right hand applied below to push the tool along. as a rule scrape with the grain, and it is often advantageous to hold the scraper obliquely to the grain when pushing it forward. in case of some crooked and twisted grain you will find it best to scrape in any and in all directions. [illustration fig. 661.] [illustration fig. 662.] you can make scrapers yourself by filing and grinding pieces of old saw-blades. it is very convenient to have a number of them with edges of various degrees of curvature (both convex and concave), but these you can make as you need them. a scraper is sometimes set in a stock and guided by handles like those of a spoke-shave, and sometimes set in a stock like a plane and used in the same manner. a scraper of the latter sort is often useful to assist in keeping the surface true when scraping, as its flat sole prevents its following all the undulations of the surface as readily as the hand-scraper, with which one is apt to make depressions by scraping too much in some particular spot. but so far as smoothing the surface goes there is nothing better than the common hand-scraper or so easily taken care of. for sharpening the scraper, see _sharpening_. in many large places you can get your wood for nice work scraped to a satin-like finish by a machine made for the purpose, but this is hardly worth while for ordinary work. you can also have it smoothed very nicely by sandpapering machines, but this is not advisable if there is to be any cutting of the wood afterwards, as the grit left in the pores of the wood will quickly take the keen edge from your tools. the best test for smoothness alone is to run the fingers over the surface with a light touch. great acuteness of touch can be acquired in this way. any experienced wood-worker can at once detect inequalities with his fingers that he could not possibly see. irregularities in curves can be detected in the same way. _bead cutters_ or _scrapers_ and _reed scrapers_ and _fluters_ can be bought of various patterns. you will hardly need to buy anything of the sort for some time, as you can make one when required. see _beading_. =scratch-awl.=--see _awl_. =screw-driver.=--the screw-driver is too familiar to need description, but in buying one see that the end is shaped like either of those shown in fig. 663 and not as shown in fig. 664. cheap screw-drivers are often made in the latter way. if ground with a short bevel (fig. 664) it will bear only on the top of the slot in the screw and will be all the time slipping out, on the principle of the inclined plane, while if the sides are parallel or concaved slightly the end will remain at the bottom of the nick of the screw. this is also a help in extracting screws, as it saves the need of pressing against the screw so hard to keep the screw-driver from slipping out of the slot. it is well to have screw-drivers of different sizes, as it is difficult and often impossible to use a screw-driver with an edge much too large or too small. [illustration fig. 663.] [illustration fig. 664.] remember that a long screw-driver is always preferable to a short one, except where lack of space makes a short one necessary. the reason for this is in the fact that in using the screw-driver you do not, as a practical matter, keep it exactly in the line of the screw, but keep wobbling it round more or less, which gives a leverage in the form of a crank-like action as you turn the handle. the longer the screw-driver the larger the circle or wobbling curve you describe with your hand and the greater the leverage (fig. 665). [illustration fig. 665.] a screw-driver to be turned by the bit-brace is very useful for driving screws rapidly and with force, on account of the greater leverage gained by using the brace instead of the common handle. this is particularly useful where they need to be driven in very hard or when tight screws have to be loosened. it also saves much time when many screws are to be used. it is not advisable to buy automatic screw-drivers. they work satisfactorily for light work, but are not suitable for such wrenching and straining as your screw-drivers are liable to be subjected to. you want screw-drivers to which you can apply all your strength. see _screws_. =screws.=--there are many kinds of screws. you will use the common wood-screws for most of your work. these are either flat-headed or round-headed, and of steel (either bright or blue or bronzed or nickled) or of brass. when others are required they will be mentioned. it is doubtful economy to buy second-hand or waste screws, but a pound or two of "mixed" screws, which you can get at any hardware store, will be very useful when you want some odd screw for some special purpose. many of the screws in the "mixed" lots, which are sold very cheap, are defective, but you can often find among them just the peculiar screw you need, and so save time and money. nails are often used where it would be better to use screws, which will, as a rule, hold the pieces more securely. when work becomes loose, screws can be tightened, while nails usually have to be redriven. to make a screw drive easily, rub the point on a piece of common soap. oil is objectionable for nice work on account of the spot made by it. if screws are to be used in places where they may rust, it is a good plan to warm them slightly and then dip them in melted tallow or lard. they can also be inserted and removed more easily for this treatment. try to keep the screw-driver from slipping from the slot of the screw (see _screw-driver_). [illustration fig. 666.] in boring holes for screws, considerable discretion must be used. the hole in the outer piece (the one nearer the head of the screw) should be large enough to allow the screw to slip through freely--that is, you should not screw it into both pieces, but only the inner one, the screw acting somewhat in the nature of a clamp to bind the outer piece to the inner by pinching it tight between the screw-head and the inner piece (fig. 666). how much of a hole to bore in the piece into which the point of the screw enters depends on circumstances. the stouter the screw the less hole required. the softer and larger the piece and the farther from the edge the less hole required. if the piece is small or liable to split, the hole must be carefully made--the more carefully in proportion to the slenderness of the screw, as a slim screw is liable to twist off in hard wood unless a sufficient hole is provided. brass screws are very apt to do this, and much care must be used, particularly with slender ones in hard wood. if the hole is a bit too large, they will not hold. if a trifle too small, they will twist off, which is very annoying, especially in such cases as hinge-screws, for instance, where the place for the screws cannot well be changed. the hole should be somewhat smaller than the diameter of the screw. in good-sized pieces of soft wood there is frequently no need of any hole. in rough work, especially in soft wood, the screws may be pounded part way with the hammer, driving them home with the screw-driver. some theoretical workman will be quite sure to tell you never to do such a thing as that, so be sure to understand what is meant. theoretically there may be some loss of holding power by that process, but practically the screws will hold just as well for the cases in which you are advised to do that way. judgment must be used about all such things and theories are only of value when used by the light of common-sense. for example, if you are screwing the top on a mahogany table or framing a nice boat _never_ think of using a hammer to start your screws, but if you are putting cleats on an old shed door or screwing up a packing-case do not spend an hour and a lot of strength driving screws all the way with a screw-driver when you can do the work in half an hour by driving the screws three quarters of the way in with the hammer. good practical workmen are just as certain to use the hammer in such cases as they are careful _not_ to use it for nice work or where the full holding power of the screw is needed. flat-headed screws almost always should be countersunk (see _countersink_), for neatness if for no other reason, and in hard wood you should cut the depression for the head of the screw with the regular countersink made for the purpose. this should be done for nice work in soft wood where a good surface is required, but for _common_ work in soft wood there is no need, as a rule, for the head of the screw will sink itself easily until flush with the surface. if a screw hole requires to be moved a little, but not far enough so that a new hole can be bored without the bit slipping into the old hole, plug the old hole with a wooden pin dipped in glue, and when dry bore the new hole where required. see _screw-driver_. =scribing.=--compasses are often used for scribing a line parallel to another line or surface, whether regular or irregular, in places where the gauge cannot be used. suppose, for instance, you wish to cut the edge of a board to fit the undulating surface shown in fig. 667. run the compasses along with one point on the surface and the other making a mark on the board, and the line on the board will be parallel with the surface. [illustration fig. 667.] [illustration fig. 668.] [illustration fig. 669.] another example is that of making a table, bench, chair, horse, or any four-legged object stand evenly. if it stands on three legs, which is a common fault and likely to occur in your first attempts, do not hastily saw one leg shorter by guess, and, making it too short, saw another and so on until it stands firmly, when the top will probably be all out of level. if there is any true surface on which you can stand the article (right side up), you can level the top by wedging under the legs until the corners of the top are equally distant from the surface on which the object stands. then setting the compasses at a distance equal to that at which the end of the shortest leg is raised (fig. 668), scribe around the other legs, which can then be cut off.[50] see also _winding-sticks_ and _marking_. =setting saws.=--see _sharpening_. =sharpening.=--before attempting to sharpen your tools yourself it would be well to read the advice given on page 22 under _care of tools_. the general process of sharpening edged tools is first to grind them to as keen an edge as possible on the grindstone, or the emery-wheel, then to smooth down the coarse edge left by the grindstone by rubbing on a fine stone with oil or water, and finally stropping on leather. the grindstone must be kept wet while grinding or the heat caused by the friction of the tool on the dry stone will ruin the temper of the steel. besides, the water carries off the waste particles of stone and steel. stand on the side towards which the top of the stone turns. the tool can be ground with the stone turning from you, and, in fact, this usually seems the natural way to a novice, but it is usually more difficult to grind uniformly in that way and too thin an edge (a "wire-edge," ragged but not sharp) is apt to be produced, the removal of which is difficult without further damaging the edge and delaying the final sharpening. to grind the point of a knife, it can be moved back and forth lengthways with a curving motion, while resting flat on the grindstone, and to grind the straight part of the blade, it can be allowed to bear very slightly harder near the edge of the stone than elsewhere, as it is passed back and forth. to grind a chisel, grasp the handle with the right hand, hold the blade in the left hand with the fingers uppermost and near the cutting-edge. the arms and wrists should be kept as rigid as possible, the former at the sides of the body, so that the tool may be held firmly against the motion of the stone. lay the chisel with slight pressure quite flatly on the stone and then raise the handle until the bevel touches the stone. as you grind keep moving the tool slowly back and forth across the stone, which helps keep the edge of the tool straight and prevents the stone being worn away too much in one place. use plenty of water. the common way of holding the tool on the stone is the one just described, but it can also be held at right angles to this position, so that, in the case of a chisel, for instance, the grinding action of the stone instead of being from the edge toward the handle is from side to side of the blade. the tool is ground quicker and easier by this means, and it is a good way to reduce the edge to shape, finishing the grinding by the regular method. you will see that the curvature of the stone will tend to give the bevel a slight curve, in whatever position the tool is held, which is advantageous in the common way of grinding. when held so that the stone grinds from side to side of the blade the tool must be continually turned a little in the hand so that each part of the edge will bear in turn on the stone, as, the tool edge being flat, and the surface of the stone rounding, the tool would otherwise be ground hollowing. it is harder to hold the tool in this way, however, without its slipping or making nicks or grooves in the stone, and you had best learn to grind in the ordinary manner. try to grind squarely across the chisel--that is, to have the cutting-edge at right angles to the lengthways edge of the tool. apply the square at intervals to test the accuracy of the grinding. the angle for grinding the bevel of such tools as the chisel is about twenty-five degrees, but when used for very hard wood the angle should be slightly greater, or the edge may be broken. do all the grinding on the bevel. do not apply the flat side of the tool to the grindstone. any slight burr or turning over of the edge on the flat side should be taken off by the oil-stone. if the edge is badly nicked or broken, you can first straighten or grind it down roughly on the side of the stone or by holding it nearly at right angles to the stone--but with the latter turning the other way--before grinding in the regular way. to tell when the tool is ground sufficiently, hold the edge in front of you toward the light. if the edge can be seen as a bright shining line it is a sign that the tool is dull. it will not be sharp until this bright line has been removed, and the edge has become invisible, for a really keen edge cannot be seen by the naked eye. bear this in mind, as it is the final test and the simplest way to tell when to stop grinding. in grinding on a grindstone and in rubbing on an oil-stone, the great difficulty is to keep the same angle between the tool and the stone, as the natural tendency in moving the tool is to rock it back and forth and thus alter the angle between the blade and the stone. an arrangement can be bought which preserves the desired angle without effort on the part of the grinder. a little ingenuity will enable you to rig up a guide or gauge with a piece of board which will enable you to replace the tool on the grindstone at the same angle. the plane-iron is sharpened in the same way as the chisel, only, being wider than most of the chisels you are likely to use, it requires more care to sharpen. the plane-irons can be ground to a somewhat more acute angle than the chisels, although the jack-plane, which is used for rough work, may require more strength at the edge. in rubbing the edge upon the _oil-stone_, do not attempt to smooth down the whole bevel made by the grindstone, but first lay the tool lightly on the stone as shown in fig. 670_a_, then raise the handle until the upper part of the bevel is very slightly raised,--barely enough to clear the stone (fig. 670_b_),--and then proceed with the whetting, thus making a second or little bevel at the edge (fig. 671). the tool must be moved back and forth very steadily or instead of a second bevel the whole edge will be rounded (fig. 672) and will not have the requisite keenness. the angle of this second bevel is usually about ten degrees greater than the long bevel, or thirty-five degrees, although the angles of sharpening should be varied slightly according to the hardness of the wood and the kind of work to be done; but where you have only few tools and must use them for all kinds of work you cannot always, as a practical matter, pay much regard to such variations, as of course you cannot keep regrinding your tools every time you begin on a new piece of wood. just how acute to make the edge you must learn by experience, according to the conditions of your work. an edge suitable for delicate work in white-pine would be immediately ruined if used upon lignum-vitã¦. [illustration fig. 670.] [illustration fig. 671.] [illustration fig. 672.] any little wire edge which is produced on the flat side by the process of rubbing on the oil-stone can be removed by drawing the flat side of the iron over the stone once, but be sure that you do not raise the handle at all, as the slightest bevel on the flat side of the edge will spoil it. after the tool has been sharpened a good many times on the oil-stone this smaller bevel (the oil-stone bevel, so to speak) will become so wide that it is a waste of time and strength to rub it down. the chisel must then be reground and a new bevel made on the oil-stone. it is a good plan to have a separate stone or "slip" for the outside bevel of gouges, because it is so hard to avoid rubbing hollows in the stone, which injures it for the other tools. care must be taken also with very narrow or pointed tools lest the stone be grooved or nicked. gouges can be rubbed at right angles with the stone, rolling the tool with the left hand, or by the use of a slip they can be rubbed as described below. for rubbing gouges on the inside, _i.e._, on the concave surface, rounded pieces of stone, called "slips," are used. these can be bought of various sizes and shapes to fit the various curves. do not think, however, that you must try to find a slip that will fit each gouge as exactly as if it had been shaped by the gouge itself. the curve of the slip may be a little "quicker" or sharper than that of the tool, but must not be flatter or of course it cannot be made to bear on all parts of the curve. in rubbing with the slip, hold the tool upright in the hand and rub the slip up and down, moving the slip and not the tool. if you rest the tool against the bench, it will steady it and also avoid any probability of your finger slipping on to the edge. the more common "outside" gouges are not rubbed on the inside, except the merest touch of the slip to remove any wire edge or burr. the draw-knife is also rubbed with a flat slip, in the same manner, resting it on the bench. in rubbing the knife on the oil-stone give it a circular motion rather than simply back and forth, particularly for the point. the straight part can be allowed to bear a little more heavily near the edge of the stone as it is passed back and forth. it is much the best way to sharpen tools frequently, as soon as they begin to get dull, when they will require but little rubbing on the stone, rather than to let them get into such condition that it is a long and hard job to whet them; and of course the more careful you are to _keep_ them sharp, the better work you will do. to test the sharpness of your tools, cut across the grain of a piece of soft pine wood. if the cut is clean and smooth, the tools are sharp, but if the cut is rough or the wood torn, further sharpening is needed. the reason for using soft wood, which at first thought might not seem to require as keen an edge as hard wood, is because the fibrous structure of the soft wood, being more yielding, offers less resistance to the tool and so is torn or crushed apart except by a very keen edge, while the firmer structure of the hard wood can be cut smoothly by a tool which would tear the soft wood. the difference is somewhat like that between cutting a fresh loaf of bread or cake and a stale one. the edge left by the oil-stone can be improved by _stropping_ on a piece of leather on which a little paste of lard and emery or some similar composition has been spread. this is better than to strop knives and other tools on your boots. any piece of leather such as barbers use, or even a piece from an old boot, will answer. for flat edges see that the strop rests on a flat surface, so as not to tend to round the edge, as it may do if held carelessly in the hand. see _oil-stone_ and _strop_. _saw filing_ is particularly hard for boys and amateurs to do satisfactorily and you are advised not to undertake it until you have become quite familiar with the use of tools, for it does not need to be done very often, costs but little, and there are very few places where you cannot get it done. it is not difficult to understand the _theory_ of setting and filing saw teeth, but to fix a saw in really good shape is hard for an amateur,--and for that matter you will find but a small proportion of good workmen who are experts in saw filing. even in very small villages there is almost always some mechanic who has the knack of putting saws in order better than anyone else and who therefore makes quite a business of such work and people bring their saws to him from all the country round, even though they may be able to fix them tolerably well themselves, so great is the advantage in the quality of the work and the saving of time in having a saw in perfect condition. you had best do the same, and have your saws fixed whenever they get dull. the expense is but slight, and there is nothing that will conduce more to good work, and to your own success and satisfaction, than to have your tools in first-rate working order. when you get to the point of filing and setting your saws you are advised to take a lesson from a good saw-filer. there are few persons so situated that they cannot do this, or at least watch someone go through the process, and thus learn much more readily than by reading about the process in a book. in fact, it is one of those things that it is so hard to learn from a book that merely a few remarks on the subject are given here. the saw is firmly fastened in a saw-clamp, expressly for the purpose, so that it will not shake or rattle. the teeth are "jointed," or reduced to the same level, by lightly passing the flat side of a file over their points, lengthways of the saw. the saw can also be jointed along the sides after filing, but this is frequently omitted. for a cross-cutting saw the file (a triangular saw-file) is held at an angle with the blade depending upon the particular form of tooth adopted, as you will see by examination. the handle being grasped in the right hand, the point of the file should be held between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand (fig. 526). the file must be pushed across with an even, straight stroke, without any rocking or up and down motion, pressure being applied only on the forward or pushing stroke, the tool being drawn back very lightly or lifted entirely on the back stroke. the filing is begun at one end of the saw, filing only the teeth which bend away from you (_i.e._, every alternate tooth), carefully keeping the file at the proper angle, pressing only on the tooth you are filing, but keeping the tool lightly touching the adjacent tooth, and making allowance for the fact that when you file the alternate set the passing file will take off a little from the teeth first filed. the saw is then turned around and the process repeated with the other teeth. if you look lengthways along the edge of a panel-saw that has been properly filed and set, an angular trough or groove will be seen along the whole length, so that you can slide a needle along in it from one end of the saw to the other. the ripping-saw is usually filed squarely across the saw (at right-angles to the blade), as you will see at once on examination of the teeth (figs. 654 and 655), but sometimes at a more acute angle. the teeth are set by bending every other tooth outward, first setting those on one side and then those on the other. you should do this with some one of the various adjustable tooth-setting contrivances sold for the purpose, as it requires a skilled workman to set teeth in any other way, and any attempt on your part to do so without some instrument adjusted to the purpose will probably result in damaging the saw. for soft and loose-fibred wood more set is needed than for hard wood, because the fibres, which are quite cleanly cut or broken in the hard wood, in the more yielding soft wood are bent aside by the teeth to close in upon the blade with considerable binding force; and less set is required by fine work than for coarse. the angles and points of saw teeth can be more acute for soft than for hard wood. to sharpen the scraper you must have a sharpener or burnisher. the edge of a chisel or any piece of very hard steel can be used after a fashion, but it is better to have a regular tool for the purpose, which can be made easily from an old three-cornered file, such as is used for filing saws, by grinding off the teeth and slightly rounding the angles on the grindstone until the whole tool is smooth. two opposite edges of the scraper are ground or filed and the edge then turned over by the burnisher. some workmen grind the edges with an obtuse bevel and use only one angle of each edge. others grind the edges square and use both angles of each edge. the bevel gives a slightly keener scraping edge than to grind the steel square, but it requires more frequent sharpening and the squared edge turned over on both sides is likely to be more satisfactory. [illustration fig. 673.] first grind or file the two opposite edges squarely across and slightly round each corner to prevent scratching the wood. if there is a burr at the edge it can be removed by rubbing the scraper lightly on the oil-stone, but this is advisable only for final scraping of very fine work. having thus got the edge at right angles and smooth, lay the scraper flat on its side near the edge of the bench and rub the burnisher back and forth a few times in the position shown in fig. 673, which is almost flat on the scraper. this rubbing bends a little of the steel over the edge. do this on each opposite edge of the two sides, giving four edges thus curled over. next, holding the scraper as shown in fig. 674, draw the burnisher with a firm, even stroke, once or twice, lengthways of the edge, as shown. the scraper can be laid flat on the bench, if preferred, slightly projecting over the edge. notice that the tool should be drawn with a slightly end to end motion, as shown, which helps turn the edge. this turns a fine scraping edge, which will take off shavings. all four edges are treated in the same way. after one edge gets dull, use another. when all four are dull, resharpen with the burnisher as before, without grinding or filing the edge. this can be done a few times, but soon the edges will get worn off and rounded, and the scraper then needs refiling. [illustration fig. 674.] =shellac.=--see _finishing_. =shell-bit=.--see _bits_. =shelves.=--examples of shelves fitted permanently into place are given in chapter x. (on furniture). removable shelves can most easily be fitted to rest on cleats screwed to the sides of the space, but this arrangement does not always look very well and the position of the shelves cannot be changed so readily as by using screw-eyes driven into the sides under the shelves (fig. 675), recesses of the right shape being cut on the under side of the shelves so that the screw-eyes will be sunk and not be conspicuous. the position of the shelves can quickly be changed by screwing the supports higher or lower as may be required. pins and other contrivances to fit in a series of holes can be bought for this purpose. a common way to adjust shelves is shown in fig. 676. the construction is obvious. the vertical strips can be laid on edge side by side, clamped together, and the notches laid out and cut as if there were but one piece. where a circular saw is available the notches are cut on the side of a narrow piece of board which is then sawed into the desired strips or "ratchets." [illustration fig. 675.] [illustration fig. 676.] =shooting-board.=--the shooting-board is very useful for jointing edges, particularly for short, thin stock. the carpenter or cabinet-maker will make you one for a moderate price, or you can make one yourself as soon as you become a good enough workman (see page 93). [illustration fig. 677.] to use it, the board to be jointed is laid flat on the raised part of the shooting-board, where it is firmly held with the left hand, with the end of the board pressing against the stop of the shooting-board, and the edge to be jointed lapping over the edge of the raised part. the planing is done with the plane lying on its side on the lower part of the shooting-board (fig. 677). the cutting-edge of the plane thus being at right angles with the surface of the board, the edge will be planed squarely across. the shooting-board should be fastened on the bench in some way, to prevent it from slipping around. attachments to keep the sole of the plane at right angles to the surface of the piece can be had at any hardware store, and serve the same purpose as a shooting-board for thick stock, but not equally well for thin pieces. you can reverse the sides of two pieces to be jointed for gluing, as described on page 406, giving a joint like that shown in fig. 678 (which is exaggerated). the iron of the plane is sometimes purposely set to project unevenly beyond the sole. [illustration fig. 678.] if you have many joints to make, you can have the edges jointed at slight expense at any wood-working mill on a planer made for the purpose. see _jointing_. =smoothing-plane.=--see _plane_. =smoothing surfaces.=--see _plane_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_. =splices.=--see _joints and splices_. =spline.=--a flexible strip, used as a ruler, for drawing curves. see _marking_. =splitting-saw.=--see _saw_. =splitting wood.=--we have seen how a log in drying cracks along the radial lines (page 31), thus showing the natural lines of cleavage or separation in the direction of the medullary rays, that is, radiating from the centre. from this we see that the wood will, of course, split most easily and smoothly on the radial lines. like all wood-choppers you can often make practical use of this fact in splitting wood with a knife or chisel, or in splitting fuel with an axe. the next easiest way to split wood is as nearly as may be on the line of the annual rings, or tangential to the line of the medullary rays, in the same direction as when the layers separate in forming "cup shakes" (see appendix). this way is sometimes easier than to rive a stout log through the centre. =spokeshave.=--the spoke-shave is very useful for smoothing small curved and irregular surfaces. metal spoke-shaves of various patterns can be bought with various adjustments for different curves, etc. also a "universal" spoke-shave can be had, with movable handles and detachable bottoms which can be adapted for curved or straight work, and a width gauge by means of which it can be used for rabbeting. the spoke-shave is a very useful tool and works upon the same general principle as the plane, but lacking the long flat sole of the plane is used only for irregular surfaces, which its short and sometimes curved face enables it to smooth with great ease. it also acts on the same principle as a draw-knife with the addition of a guiding stock. it bears somewhat the same relation to the draw-knife that the plane does to the chisel. [illustration fig. 679.] grasp the tool firmly, bearing downward with both hands and pressing forward with the thumbs, pushing the tool from you so as to cut like a plane (fig. 679). of course it can also be drawn towards you when the circumstances of the work render it advisable. see _paring_ and _sharpening_. =spoon-bit.=--see _bits_. =square.=--this tool is one of the most useful in the list, for the importance of having your work "square" can hardly be over-estimated. the _try-square_ should have a metal strip on the inside edge of the wooden arm, head, or beam, or the handle can be wholly of metal. get a medium-sized try-square (9or 10-inch blade is good) rather than a very small one, as it is much more useful; and a graduated scale, like a rule, on the blade is sometimes serviceable. [illustration fig. 680.] the primary use of this tool is to test or "try" the accuracy of right-angled work--hence the name. the one special point to bear in mind in using it for this purpose is to be sure that the head or beam is pressed _firmly_ against the edge or side to which it is applied, determining the accuracy of the angle by the position of the blade (fig. 680). you will also use the try-square continually for marking straight lines across boards or timbers at right angles to one side or one edge (fig. 681). in using it for this purpose be sure not merely to press the head of the square firmly against the edge of the board, but to _keep_ it securely in the same position. when the blade is placed correctly on the given point do the marking as by any straight-edge. another way is to place the point of the pencil or knife directly on the given point and slide the square along until it bears on the pencil or knife. then, keeping the head of the square firmly against the edge, the line can be drawn along the blade. [illustration fig. 681.] [illustration fig. 682.] the try-square sometimes is made with the end of the head or beam next the blade cut on a bevel. by placing this bevel against the edge a try-square of this construction can also be used as a mitre-square (fig. 682). if you buy a second-hand square, or if a square has been wrenched, you can test its accuracy by marking a line with it across a surface from a straight edge, then turning the square over and repeating the operation; the two lines should coincide. but the edge from which you rule must be perfectly straight, or the test will be of no value. if, however, you buy new squares made by the best makers they will be as accurate as any test you can apply to them. beginners, particularly young beginners, are very apt to be so engrossed in making the line along the blade that they forget to keep the head in position, or let it slip, when the blade will of course cease to be at right angles with the edge or side (fig. 683). [illustration fig. 683.] the _framing-square_, "_steel-square_," or large two-foot carpenter's square, is a very useful and important tool; not merely for framing and large, heavy work but also for small work, and it is of great value in many mechanical operations. even an iron square is very useful, but a nickel-plated steel-square is the best, as the figures are more distinct and it is less likely to rust. the long arm makes a good straight-edge. see also page 181. =staining.=--when you stain wood, do it for the sake of the colour, preserving the beauty of the grain, and not to try to imitate a more expensive wood. it is better, as a rule, to use good wood of a handsome colour and leave it as it is to mellow with age than to stain or colour it, but there are times when you will wish to stain wood. the main point to bear in mind for successful staining is to colour the wood itself, not to put on a superficial coat of coloured varnish. for instance, the fumes of ammonia (or the liquid itself) will give oak in a very short time the same dark colour which the ammonia in the air will produce after years of exposure. this is a natural process--merely anticipating the change caused by time. there are a number of ways of staining dependent upon such chemical processes carried on in the wood itself. these ways are the best, as you can readily see. having got the right colour, the wood can be oiled, shellacked, varnished, or waxed in the usual way. by this method the natural grain of the wood is not obscured. in fact, the figure of the grain is sometimes made more conspicuous. another way is to wash the wood with some thin stain of the desired colour, after which you can finish in the usual way. this is a good method, for the wood itself is coloured to some distance below the surface, and after it is finished it will take considerable bruising to expose its original colour. this method also sometimes enhances the beauty of the grain. the poorest way to stain, but a very common one with amateurs and in cheap work, is, instead of staining the wood itself, to cover the surface with coloured varnish or shellac. this is often the cheapest and quickest way of getting a desired colour, but it is decidedly the poorest way. of course, no coating of colour put on outside can be as durable as colour imbedded in the substance of the wood itself, and scarring or injury to the coating exposes the original colour beneath. besides this, the grain and character of the wood are necessarily obscured by a coloured coating. wood finished in this way almost always has a cheap, artificial look, and you can usually detect the fraud at a glance. there are many cheap "varnish stains" or coloured varnishes, but you will do well to avoid them, unless for the cheapest and poorest work. there are two things you will wish to do in staining. one is simply to darken or enrich the natural colour of the wood, so as to give it at once the rich, deep, mellow tone produced by age. this is always the best way to do when it will give the colour you want. but if you want to change the colour entirely--to make pine wood red or green, or cherry black, you must use some chemical process that will develop a new colour in the wood, or must apply a regular stain. raw linseed oil alone, well rubbed in and allowed to stand before applying shellac or varnish, will deepen and bring out the natural colouring in time as well as anything else, but it takes a good while. repeated applications, each thoroughly rubbed in and the excess rubbed off, and after standing some days or weeks, given a light rubbing down with fine sandpaper, then another oiling, and so on, will in time give a surface of beautiful colour, as well as a soft and attractive lustre. but to carry out this process may take months, so that you will not be very likely to practise it; but you see the result sometimes on old wooden tool-handles and plane-stocks which have been so treated. if you do not care about deepening the colour greatly, one or two applications, allowed to stand a week or two before finishing, will often be sufficient and will make a great difference in the looks of your work, and take off that raw, fresh look peculiar to recently cut wood. if your work is such that you can defer the shellacing for a year or so, as in the case of some pretty piece of furniture to remain in the house, there is no way you can develop the richness of the wood better than to oil it and let it stand to mellow, with occasional applications of oil and rubbing down. then finally rub down with fine sandpaper and shellac in the usual way. to hasten the process we must apply something stronger than oil. if the work is of oak, shut it up in a box or _tight_ closet, with a dish of _strong_ ammonia on the floor. do not stay in the box or closet yourself, as it is dangerous. a simpler way is to wash the work with the ammonia, more than once if necessary. have the room well ventilated when you do this, and do not inhale more of the fumes than necessary. wetting the wood is sometimes a disadvantage, however, in glued-up work, and it "raises the grain," which must be rubbed down with fine sandpaper before finishing. to deepen the colour of mahogany or cherry, simply wash it with lime-water (a simple solution of common lime in water) as many times as may be necessary, which is cheap and effective. after this process, thoroughly clean out all cracks and corners before sandpapering, for particles of the lime which may be deposited will spoil the appearance of the work when finished. this process preserves the natural appearance of the wood. the only drawback is the necessity of getting the work so wet. some days should be allowed for the water to evaporate before shellacking. to get a darker shade, apply in the same way a solution of bichromate of potash in water. whitewood takes stains finely--much better than pine. oak will stain almost any colour, but the individuality of the wood--the character of its grain and structure--is so strongly marked that it is poor taste to attempt to stain it to imitate other woods. if you stain it, stain it just as you would paint it, simply for the colour. a good way for indoor work, such as a piece of furniture or anything of the sort you may wish to colour, is to mix dry pigments with japan and then thin the mixture with turpentine, or turpentine alone can be used. after the work is coloured in this way put on a couple of coats of varnish. for outside work you can use oil. this is a cheap way and wears well. it applies only to the cheaper woods which you do not care to leave of the natural colour. for black inside work you can use ivory-black, ground in japan and thinned with turpentine. ivory-black or bone-black are superior to lampblack, but the latter will do very well for most purposes. dragon's blood in alcohol is used to give a colour similar to mahogany. alkanet root in raw linseed oil will give a warm and mellow hue to mahogany or cherry. there is an almost endless number of recipes for staining, but such others as you need you can learn from some finisher or painter, for the limits of this book do not allow fuller treatment of so extensive a subject. =steel-square.=--see _square_. =steel-wool.=--long, fine steel shavings done up in bundles can be used instead of sandpaper for some purposes. there are various degrees of fineness. this is good for cleaning off paint and for smoothing curved surfaces, but should not be used until all work with the edge-tools is done, because of the particles of the metal. it can be used for "rubbing down" in finishing. =straight-bent chisel.=--see _chisel_. =straight-edge.=--there are no definite dimensions for a straight-edge. any piece of wood that is straight and convenient to use can be so called; the size and the length depending on the work for which it is to be used, from a common ruler to a long board. the edge of a large carpenter's square is handy for short work. clear white pine or straight-grained mahogany is good for straight-edges, but a straight-edge is not the easiest thing for a beginner to make, and you will do well to find something straight to use for a while until you acquire the skill to make one--or get the carpenter to make you one, which he will do for a very small sum or for nothing. [illustration fig. 684.] to test a straight-edge, mark a line by it, then turn the straight-edge over and see if it still coincides with the line, or mark another line and see if it coincides with the first one. try your straight-edges by this test once in a while, as they are liable to become crooked. in turning the edge over, however, do not reverse the ends, as in case of an undulating curvature the curves may agree and give you the impression that the edge is straight when it is not. in the first case shown in fig. 684 (exaggerated) this would not happen, but in the second case (also exaggerated) it might. see _marking_. =strop.=--a piece of hard, smooth leather on which to strop your tools you can easily procure. it can be fastened on a piece of wood (see page 85). spread on it a paste of sweet oil and emery, lard oil and crocus powder, or some similar preparation. a pine board on which "air-dust" has accumulated can even be used. see remarks under _sharpening_. =tacks.=--tacks are sold as one-ounce, two-ounce, and so on according to size. do not use tacks for fastening wood to wood, but only for fastening leather or cloth or the like to wood. the pointed wedge-shape of the tack tends to split thin wood, and is not at all suitable to fasten two pieces of wood together, particularly in thin wood or near the edge. possibly you may have seen some disastrous results from the attempt to tack pieces of wood together. =tape-measure.=--this article (preferably of steel) is often useful, though not nearly as important for an amateur to buy as many other things. =tenon.=--see _mortising_. =tenon-saw.=--see _saw_ (_back-saw_). =tool-racks.=--see page 83. =toothed-plane.=--see _plane_. [illustration fig. 685.] [illustration fig. 686.] =truing surfaces.=--to true a curved or warped surface, as of a board, lay it on the bench with the rounded side down and wedge it firmly underneath to make it as nearly level as possible. then scribe a line with the compasses across each end of the board at the height of the lowest point of the surface (fig. 685). cut a depression or kind of rabbet at each end down to this line (fig. 686). next, by the use of winding-sticks placed on each of these rabbets you can easily see whether they are in line (see _winding-sticks_). alter the rabbets if necessary to get them in line. draw lines on each edge connecting the bottoms of the rabbets, and plane away the superfluous wood down to these lines. when this is done the top of the board will be true or in the same plane. test it by placing the straight-edges in different positions on the surface and sighting as before, correcting any errors. one side of the board being made true in this way, the other can be made parallel by gauging a line all around the edge, measuring by the thinnest point of the board, and planing off the superfluous wood in the same manner as the first side. you can sometimes facilitate the process of planing off the superfluous wood by making cuts with the saw and removing part of it with the chisel, or by planing across the grain (the jack-plane is good for this purpose), or paring across the grain with the chisel, or any such method, always being careful not to cut quite as deep as the intended surface, so that all the marks and cuts can be removed by the final planing. see _plane_, and also page 179. =try-square.=--see _square_. =turning-saw.=--see _saw_. =turpentine.=--see _finishing_ and _painting_. =twist-drill.=--the twist-drill is much better than the gimlet-bit. it makes a good hole, bores easily, is not easily dulled, can be used upon metal, and one kind in common use can be easily kept in order by simply sharpening the ends. there are various patterns. a little care is necessary, however, particularly in hard wood, as they are liable to be snapped by bending. see _bits_. =varnish.=--see _finishing_. =veining-tool.=--see _carving-tools_. =vise.=--see page 65. for vise for metal-work, see page 70. =warping, to remove.=--of course the simplest way to straighten a warped board is to put a weight on it, but the difficulty here is that it usually will stay straight only while the weight is on it, unless you leave it longer than the patience of the average amateur lasts. to do this (or to warp a straight board either) with some chance of success, (1) heat one side, or (2) wet one side, or (3) wet one side and heat the other, or (4) wet both sides and expose one to the fire (fig. 687). but do not be too sure that the result will be lasting. sometimes it will and sometimes not. another way is to thoroughly soak the board, press it into shape between clamps or under a weight, and leave it until dry; a week or more is none too long, and boiling water is better than cold. simply laying a board down on a flat surface will often cause it to warp, because the two sides of the board will be unequally exposed to the action of the atmosphere. planing off one side only, or planing one side more than the other, often produces the same effect. see pages 50-53 and appendix. [illustration fig. 687.] =wedges.=--wedges are in constant use for lifting or separating heavy bodies, as doubtless you know, and the principle of the wedge comes in in using the axe, hatchet, chisel, knife, and the other edge-tools (see page 25). besides this use of the wedge you will often find it valuable to tighten or clamp objects of various kinds, or to hold them firmly in place. if you wish to split objects or tear them apart, use a _single_ wedge, for the increasing thickness of the wedge applied at one point tears or splits the wood apart. but if you merely wish to squeeze, or press, or hold firmly, or move, _without damaging the shape of the wood_, use _double_ wedges,--that is, two wedges having the same inclination or taper and pointing opposite ways. you will see that the sides of the double wedge (that is, the outsides of the wedges) will be parallel no matter how hard you drive the separate wedges, so that the pressure will be exerted without injuring or jamming the surfaces against which the wedge bears (see fig. 333). short, flaring wedges do the work more quickly, but require harder blows to drive, and are more liable to slip. long, tapering wedges work more slowly, more easily, and are not liable to slip. you will also use wedging to secure tenons and dowels (see _mortising_, etc.). =whittling.=--see _knife_. =winding-sticks.=--two straight-edges, each of equal width throughout, can be laid on edge, one across each end of the surface to be tested. stand back a little and look across the top edge of one to the top edge of the other, and if these edges agree you may know at once that there is no winding where you have placed the straight-edges (fig. 688). by putting them in different positions you can finally determine whether the whole surface is true or not. [illustration fig. 688.] [illustration fig. 689.] it is more accurate to use winding-sticks considerably longer than the width of the piece to be tested, as then any warping or winding will be exaggerated and more easily seen (fig. 689). if the upper edges of the sticks are thin, or "feather-edged," it is easier to tell exactly when they are in line, but this does not ordinarily matter, except in work requiring extreme accuracy. to find, for example, when the legs of a table, chair, or the like are cut so that the article will stand evenly, turn it over with the legs sticking up, put straight-edges on the ends of the legs, sight across these (fig. 690), and trim one or two legs until the edges are in line. see _scribing_ for other methods. [illustration fig. 690.] warping or winding of short pieces can be detected by simply laying one straight-edge diagonally from corner to corner (fig. 691). this will show at once which parts require to be planed to make the surface true. [illustration fig. 691.] =withdrawing nails.=--when withdrawing nails place a block under the hammer-head as shown (fig. 692), using more blocks, if necessary, as the nail is withdrawn. to draw the nails from boxes, pry up a board, together with the nails, a short distance--perhaps 1/4"--and then with a _sharp_, _quick_ blow of the hammer pound the board back into place, not striking the nails but the board between them. this will usually leave the nail-heads projecting a little above the surface, so that you can draw them as shown in fig. 692, and thus save splitting or defacing the boards and bending the nails, as usually results from smashing or wrenching boxes apart. the quick blow drives the board back before the motion has time to communicate itself to the nails, on somewhat the same principle that a bullet makes a round hole in a window pane without smashing the glass. [illustration fig. 692.] =wood-filler.=--see _finishing_. =wrench.=--a strong wrench is often very serviceable in wood-working operations. footnotes: [41] _mortise-chisels_ with great thickness of blade (fig. 486) are not likely to break, and the width of the sides bearing against the sides of the mortise tends to make the cutting more accurate. [42] you may be told that perfect joints do not require much clamping, but a perfect joint is impossible, and as a practical matter, only the skilled workman or the most accurate machinery can make even a _good_ joint of much length, so great is the difficulty of avoiding little inaccuracies. besides this, there is always the liability to more or less springing or change of shape on the part of the pieces. the joint which was good when you stopped planing may not be as good by the time the glue has set, particularly if the gluing does not immediately follow the jointing. in addition to this, the pressure from clamping at only one or two points, or at points too far apart, may force the joint to open elsewhere. do not infer from this that even the beginner should be content with a poor joint, with the idea that it can be squeezed and jammed to a sufficiently good fit by applying muscle to the clamps. of course this jamming or mashing of the fibres to fit occurs, to a microscopic degree, in even the best joint, and it can sometimes be done to a perceptible extent with soft wood, but to do this intentionally is very unworkmanlike, and the greatest care should be taken to make as good a joint as possible before gluing and applying the clamps. do not, however, flatter yourself that you can make so accurate a joint that you can afford to neglect proper clamping, unless, in such cases as that shown in fig. 488, you adopt the old-fashioned way of rubbing the two edges together and then leaving the rest to the glue, but this is not so good a process for the beginner, except with small pieces, such as corner-blocks (see _corner-blocks_). see _jointing_. [43] shellac is, strictly speaking, a kind of varnish, but it is so different from many kinds of varnish in common use that it is quite commonly spoken of as shellac, in contradistinction from what is popularly known as varnish, and the term is so used here. [44] in shellacing doors or panel work, first shellac the panels, then the rails, and finally the styles (see fig. 505), because daubs or runs can be wiped off and covered better when you thus follow the construction of the work. [45] as an extreme illustration, it may be interesting to note the way the best lacquer work (which is so durable) is made by the japanese, an article being given, as professor morse tells us, one coat a year, the finest work having twenty-one coats and the artist rowing out to sea for miles each time to make sure that all dust is avoided. [46] two pieces properly glued are often stronger than one solid piece--that is, the glued joint is stronger than the wood itself, as you will probably discover some day when you have occasion to break apart a piece of good gluing; but after a long time the glue is apt to deteriorate in adhesive or cohesive force, particularly if the joint has not been protected by paint or varnish, so do the best work you can if you wish it to last. nevertheless, in important work it is usually safest to take a whole piece when you can, rather than glue up two or more pieces, except in cases, perhaps, where the matter of warping, etc., is concerned, when it may be better to build up the desired shape of pieces selected for the purpose. [47] it may be useful to know, although not suitable work for the beginner, that there is no better way to joint edges (to make glued joints, as in fig. 552) than with a first-class circular saw, run by one who knows how to use it. the minute roughnesses left by the saw assist the glue to hold, and as inconspicuous and strong joints as possible can be quickly produced in this way by a good workman with a first-class saw, but do not expect a satisfactory result except under these conditions. [48] this seems to be the common opinion among experienced men. there are, however, many painters of experience who prefer the prepared liquid paint for outside work, and it certainly saves trouble. [49] it is not a good plan to wipe brushes on the sharp edge of a tin can, as it injures the bristles. [50] another method of doing this is to find a true surface to stand the legs on and measure the distance the free leg rises from the surface--1" for example. do nothing to that leg, of course, or to the one _diagonally_ opposite, but saw 1/2" from each of the two other legs. suppose, for example, the legs _a_, _b_, and _c_ touch (fig. 669), and _d_ rises 3/4" from the floor. make _a_ and _c_ each 3/8" shorter. of course you cannot hit it exactly by this method, but a few strokes of a tool will finish the work. appendix =collection of specimens of wood.=--waste pieces of all the common woods can easily be obtained at the wood working shops. have some system about the size and shape of the specimens. some kinds you may be able to get only in pieces of such shape as you can find among the odds and ends of the shops, and many rare foreign and tropical woods you can obtain only in quite small pieces, but even these will show the character of the wood and add value to the collection. waste scraps of veneers of rare woods can be glued on blocks of pine. the specimens will be most valuable if you can get them out so as to show a longitudinal section along the medullary rays (or through the heart), a longitudinal section at right angles to the medullary rays (or tangential to the annual rings), and a cross section (fig. 693). it will be an advantage also to show not only the heartwood but the sapwood and bark. if you cannot get such large pieces of even the common woods, a collection of small flat blocks will be well worth making. [illustration fig. 693.] the specimens will show to best advantage if polished (one half of each side can be polished) or finished with a dull lustre, and they will be good objects on which to practise finishing (see _finishing_ in part v.). all the information you can pick up about the strength, durability, toughness, elasticity, and uses of the various woods will be sure to come in play sooner or later. the gradations of hardness, density, weight, toughness, elasticity, etc., are almost endless. notice, therefore, the weight, colour, hardness, density, and characteristic odour of the specimens; the proportion of heart to sapwood, and the colour of each; the size and condition of the pith; the character of the grain, whether coarse or fine, close or open and porous; the number, arrangement, size, and colour of the medullary rays (when visible); the width and character of the annual rings (when visible), whether wide or narrow, with many or few ducts or resin canals. you will find many things to notice in some woods. use a magnifying-glass if you can. notice also about the bark. hunt up all the woody stems you can, compare the bark of the different specimens, noting its colour, taste, odour, surface, thickness, and the different ways it cracks and is cast off; and notice how easily you can learn to tell the common trees by the bark alone. sections of small stems or branches will often show the character of the wood well. note what you can about the character and habits of the trees themselves; the height, diameter, age, and the shape and peculiarities of the leaves. in this connection, a collection of leaves will also be interesting to make. you can soon learn to tell the common trees by their leaves. notice how, in some trees, as the pines, spruces, firs, the stem grows right straight up to the top, forming a spire-shaped tree. this is called an _excurrent_ trunk (lat., _excurrere_, to run out). notice how, in other trees, like the elm, oak, etc., the stem branches again and again until it is lost in the branches. this is called a _deliquescent_ stem (lat., _deliquescere_, to melt away). study the shape and arrangement of the different kinds of trees as shown in outline against the sky; best, perhaps, when the leaves are off. you can learn to tell the common trees by their outline. do they look stout, firm, strong, and rugged, or delicate, yielding, and graceful? to a certain extent you can thus form an idea of the character of the wood, as in comparing the pine, with its comparatively light top and slender leaves, with the heavy growth which the trunk of the oak has to sustain in wind and snow. =preservation of forests.=--forests are of great value from their effect upon the climate, making it more equable. they tend to cause abundant and needed rainfall and to preserve the moisture when fallen, releasing it to the rivers gradually, and thus preventing abnormal freshets and extreme droughts. by absorbing and parting with heat slowly they cause the changes of temperature to be less sudden than in the open country. they temper the heat, and they serve as a protection, or "wind-break," to adjacent land. trees, with other vegetation, are essential to the purification of the air. all this is in addition to the obvious uses of supplying fuel and wood for an almost endless variety of purposes, not to speak of the value of trees for shade and as features of the landscape. the reckless rate at which the forests of the united states are being destroyed is becoming a serious matter, not merely because of depriving wood-workers of the materials with which to work, but because of the influence of the forests upon the climate, the soil, etc., upon which so much of the welfare of mankind depends. at the present rate of destruction many generations cannot pass before the supply of wood will be practically exhausted. it is every year becoming more difficult to obtain native lumber of the best quality and large size. one of the most serious aspects of the matter, however, is in regard to the washing away of the soil, which owes not merely its origin but its preservation to the forest and other vegetable growths. professor shaler tells us that "it is in this action of the rain upon the bared surface of the ground that we find the principal danger which menaces man in his use of the earth." the individual wood-worker may not have control of any forest or wood-lot, but he can at least use his influence indirectly, when opportunity offers, toward needed legislation to restrict, or at least regulate, the improvident waste now going on, and he can in many cases take advantage of arbor day to plant at least one tree toward preserving the balance required by nature. =common woods and some of their characteristics.=--there are many things to be considered by the beginner when choosing his wood. many of these points have been treated in chapter iii. (to which the reader is referred), but a few additional remarks about the various kinds may be of use. one important thing, however, to be borne in mind before beginning, is to select straight-grained, plain, rather soft, and easily worked stock. with this and with _sharp_ tools you will have every chance of success, while with hard, crooked-grained wood and with _dull_ tools you will be well started on the road to discouragement and failure. it may be remarked, incidentally, that beginning with soft woods, such as white pine, calls for even keener-edged tools than can be got along with for harder woods, like oak. this, however, though it may seem a disadvantage, is really a good thing, for it _compels_ one to keep his tools sharp. you will soon find that it is impossible to do even passable work in the softer woods without sharp tools, while with harder wood you may succeed by brute force in mauling the work into tolerable shape without being sufficiently impressed by the fact that your tools are dull and require sharpening. besides the familiar fact that the heartwood is usually better than the sapwood,[51] it may be useful to remember that, as a rule, the wood from a young tree is tougher than that from an old one; the best, hardest, and strongest in the young tree usually being nearest the heart, while in an old tree the heart, having begun to deteriorate, is softer and not as good as the more recently formed growths nearer the sapwood. if the tree is in its prime the wood is more uniformly hard throughout. the sapwood, as a rule, is tougher than the heartwood, though usually inferior in other respects; and timber light in weight is sometimes tougher than heavy wood, though the latter is often stronger and more durable and preferable for some purposes. the application of these statements varies much according to the kind of wood and different circumstances, for the growth and structure of trees is a very complex matter, and the diversities almost infinite. it may be well to bear in mind, considering the great variety of purposes for which the amateur uses wood, the distinction between the _elasticity_ needed for such purposes as a bow or horizontal bar, and the _toughness_ required for the ribs of a canoe, or the wattles of a basket. in the former case the material must not merely bend without breaking, but must spring back (or nearly so) to its former shape when released, as with lancewood or white ash; while in the latter case it must bend without breaking, but is not required to spring back to its original form when released, as with many green sticks which can be easily bent, but have not much resilience. these two qualities are found combined in endlessly varying degrees in all woods. elastic wood must necessarily have toughness up to the breaking-point, but tough wood may have but little elasticity. earliest of all trees, historically, come the pines--the conifers--and then the broad-leaved trees. the conifers, or needle-leaved trees, include the pines, firs, spruces, cypresses, larches, and cedars. as a rule they contain turpentine, have a comparatively straight and regular fibre and simple structure, are usually light, flexible, and elastic, and the wood is more easily split or torn apart than that from the broad-leaved trees, and is easily worked. the wood of the broad-leaved trees is more complex in structure than that of the conifers and, as a rule, harder, and for many purposes stronger and more durable. besides the woods in general use there are many which have merely a local value where they grow, and a long list could be made of the woods which have but very limited uses, as well as of those which, from their scarcity, hardness, small size, or other peculiarities are practically out of the question for the beginner or the amateur, except on rare occasions. the following list makes no claim to completeness, but may be of some use to the beginner. =apple.=--this wood is used for turning, such as handles, etc., and for other small work. it is handsome, fine-grained, and somewhat hard. =ash.=--this is a valuable wood, of which there are a number of varieties. it is used for agricultural implements, carriage-building, floors, interior finish, cabinet-work, etc. ash is flexible, tough, and elastic. it is good to stand a quick and violent strain, as that put on a horizontal bar in the gymnasium, although in time it becomes brittle. _white ash_ is the variety best suited for such purposes. it is good for oars and the like. ash is of a rather coarse and usually straight-grained texture, and most varieties are not difficult to work. =basswood.=--the wood of the american linden, or basswood, is soft and light in substance, white or light brown in colour, is easily bent but not easily split, free from knots but prone to warp, and is used for cabinet-work, carriage-work, and for various minor articles. it can be obtained in boards of considerable width. =beech.=--this close-grained wood, hard, firm, strong, and taking a good polish, is extensively used for machine-frames, handles, plane-stocks, some kinds of furniture, and a variety of minor articles, but will not often be needed by the amateur. the medullary rays are noticeable. =birch.=--the birch, of which there are many species, is widely distributed in north america, and furnishes an important wood, which is used for a great variety of purposes,--for furniture, floors, interior finish, turning, and a long list of minor articles. it is close-grained, and most varieties are hard and strong, but not difficult to work, and are susceptible of being given a smooth satiny surface and a fine finish. the uses of the bark of the canoe birch are familiar to all. this tree is good not merely for canoes, but its wood is used for paddles, skis, and the like. the _black birch_ is especially esteemed for furniture and interior work. it is of a beautiful reddishor yellowish-brown colour, and much of it is beautifully figured with wavy and curly grain. it is frequently stained in imitation of mahogany, a deception much assisted by the resemblance in grain, and not easily detected if skilfully done. =black walnut.=--large black-walnut trees are practically almost as thoroughly exterminated in america as the bisons of the western prairies. the wood can be obtained, however, though it is not abundant in very wide boards. it is durable, usually straight-grained, moderately strong and hard, not difficult to work, holds glue well, and can be given a fine finish. it holds its shape well, and is an excellent wood for many purposes in interior finishing, cabinet-work, and for various minor articles. it has been very extensively used for gun-stocks. its sombre colour is not always admired, but it is an excellent wood for amateur work. when mottled or in the form of burl it is, of course, harder to smooth. the english and italian varieties of walnut have long been used. =boxwood.=--this wood is distinguished for its extremely compact and even grain. it is hard and heavy, is used in turning, wood-engraving, and the like, but is not likely to be required by the amateur. =butternut.=--this wood, found in north america, has a rather coarsely marked grain, is soft, light, of a yellowish-brown colour, and when finished makes a handsome wood for furniture and interior work. it is easily worked, but is not the easiest material for the amateur to smooth satisfactorily, because of the peculiar texture of the wood, which tends to "rough up" unless the tools are very keen. =buttonwood.=--see _sycamore_. =cedar.=--this tree, found quite abundantly in the united states, furnishes a wood which is exceedingly durable, particularly where exposed to the alternations of moisture and dryness, as when inserted in the ground or in situations near the ground, and is very valuable for fence-posts, foundation-posts for buildings, railroad ties, shingles, pails, and the like. some varieties of cedar are used for building purposes and interior fittings. the varieties of _white cedar_ are light, of good grain and easy to work, soft, and not particularly strong, but durable and admirably adapted to such purposes as boat-building, for which it is largely used. _red cedar_, which is in many respects similar to the other varieties, is distinguished by its colour and by its strong fragrance, which, being obnoxious to insects, makes it excellent for chests and closets. it is used for pencils. =cherry.=--this is a valuable wood for the amateur. it is found extensively in the united states. it is fine-grained, of moderate hardness, not difficult to work, and of a beautiful reddish-brown or yellowish-brown colour. it has a satin-like surface when smoothed, and can be given a beautiful finish. the _black cherry_ is especially esteemed. it can be obtained, so far as it has not been exterminated, in quite wide boards. cherry mellows and grows richer in colour with age. the varieties having a wavy texture are especially beautiful. it is much used for cabinet-work, interior finish, and for many purposes. the beginner should select only the softer and straight-grained varieties, as some of the harder and denser kinds are exceedingly hard to smooth. =chestnut.=--the value of this wood to the amateur lies chiefly in its durability. it lasts well in or near the ground or exposed to the weather. it can be used for framing, for posts for a fence or to support a building, and for similar purposes. it is soft, coarse-grained, not very strong, but is not difficult to work. =cottonwood.=--this is a soft, light, close-grained wood, used for woodenware, boxes, pulp, etc. =cypress.=--this wood is found in north america, mexico, parts of asia and europe. it is a valuable material, yellowish or yellowish-brown in colour, very durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the soil, light, soft, easily worked, and is used for general lumber purposes for which pine is used, but to which it is superior for withstanding exposure. it is used for interior finish, doors, clapboards, shingles, cabinet-work, boat-building, posts, and a great variety of purposes. it takes a fine finish. the cypress of the southern united states is of large size, and the wood is of beautiful figure and colouring. valuable varieties are found upon the pacific coast. =deal.=--see _pine_ and _spruce_. =ebony.=--the excessive hardness of ebony renders it unsuited for amateur work. it is also expensive. it is very hard and solid, with black heartwood and white sapwood, and is used for furniture, turning, and small articles. =elm.=--this useful wood, strong, tough, and durable, usually flexible, heavy and hard, is extensively used in some of its varieties for boat-building, the frames of agricultural implements, yokes, wheel-hubs, chairs, cooperage, and many other purposes. some species are very good for continued exposure to wet. the _rock elm_ is a valuable variety, esteemed for flexibility and toughness as well as durability and strength. =fir.=--see _pine_ and _spruce_. =hemlock.=--this wood, valuable for its bark, is cheap, coarse-grained and subject to shakes, brittle and easily split, and somewhat soft, but not easy to work. it is unfit for nice work, but can be used for rough framing and rough boarding, for which its holding nails well renders it suitable. =hickory.=--this wood, found in the eastern parts of north america, is highly esteemed for its strength and great elasticity. it is hard, tough, heavy, and close-grained. it is largely used for carriage-work, agricultural implements, hoops, axe-helves, and the like. it is hard to work. the _shagbark_ is especially valued for timber. =holly.=--this wood is quite hard, close-grained, and very white, though it does not retain the purity of its colour. it is used for small articles of cabinet-work and for turning. =lancewood.=--the use of this wood for bows, fishing-rods, and such purposes has been extensive. it is distinguished for its elasticity. =lignum vitã¦.=--the extreme hardness, solidity, and durability of lignum vitã¦ make it of great value for pulley-sheaves, balls for bowling, mallets, small handles, and turned objects. it is too excessively hard for the beginner to use. =locust.=--the wood of the locust of north america is hard, strong, heavy, exceedingly durable, and of yellowish or brownish colour. it is a valuable wood, and is used extensively for posts for fences and for the support of buildings, for ship-building, and for other work to be subjected to exposure or to contact with the ground. it is used in turning, but not extensively for interior work. =mahogany.=--this highly valuable wood, which did not come into general use until the eighteenth century, is found in the west indies, mexico, central america, and some other regions. it is very durable. the colour is found in a great variety of shades from golden-brown to deep reddish-brown. some varieties are light and quite soft, even spongy, while others (the best) are very hard and heavy, close-grained, and strong. in some kinds the grain is quite straight, in others curved and twisted into an endless variety of crooked shapes, the latter being the most beautiful for ornamental work, but more liable to change of shape than the straight-grained varieties. the straight-grained varieties change their shape but little,--less than most woods,--and are therefore excellently suited for the framework or structural parts of cabinet-work, for pattern-making, and the like. the so-called _baywood_ holds its shape well and is easily worked, but is not especially beautiful. the better grades of mahogany grow darker and richer in colour with age, but some varieties become bleached and lustreless with exposure. it is of the greatest value for interior finishing, for furniture, and for cabinet-work generally, and is also used for many other purposes. the term mahogany is used in commerce in a rather comprehensive way. mahogany from san domingo has long been highly esteemed, but is now difficult or impossible to obtain. the light-coloured variety known as _white mahogany_ is much valued for its beauty. mahogany is excellent for holding glue. it can be obtained in wide pieces, thus often saving the necessity of gluing. it can be given a beautiful dull finish or a high polish, as may be desired. the beginner should only attempt the plain, softer, straight-grained kinds of mahogany at first. the other varieties require much skill to smooth and, in case of the harder pieces, even to work at all; and these, however beautiful they may be, should be deferred until considerable proficiency has been attained. =maple.=--the maple grows freely in the united states, and is much used for a great variety of purposes, the _sugar_ or _rock maple_ being especially esteemed. it is close-grained, hard, strong, heavy, and of a light yellowish-, reddish-, or brownish-white colour (sometimes almost white, though found in varying shades), and can be smoothed to a satin-like surface and be given a good finish. it can be stained satisfactorily. the curly or wavy varieties furnish wood of much beauty, the peculiar contortion of the grain known as "bird's-eye" being much admired. maple is extensively used for cabinet-work and interior finishing, floors, machine-frames, work-benches, turning, and a great variety of miscellaneous articles. there are a number of varieties of the maple. the beginner should confine himself at first to the softer and straight-grained specimens, as the other kinds are hard to work and to smooth. =oak.=--of all the broad-leaved trees the oak is probably the most valuable, and has for ages stood as a type of strength. it is widely scattered in various parts of the world, and nearly three hundred varieties have been noted. oak is distinguished for its combination of useful qualities. it is hard, tough, elastic, heavy, durable, stiff (except after steaming, when it readily bends), and durable when exposed to the weather or to the soil. oak is more or less subject to checking. it is strongly impregnated with tannic acid, which tends to destroy iron fastenings. _american white oak._ this important variety is found in north america, and from it is obtained most excellent timber. it is used for a variety of purposes too great to be specified, from the construction of buildings and ships to furniture and agricultural implements, carriages, etc. it is an invaluable wood. _british oak_ has long been held in the highest regard for its combination of valuable qualities, and has been used for more purposes than can be here mentioned. the _live oak_, found in southern parts of north america, may be mentioned as a valuable wood, very strong, tough, and durable, which, before the introduction of iron and steel in ship-building, was extensively used in that business; but it is excessively hard and unsuited to amateur work. varieties of _red oak_ are extensively used, but, though valuable, are of inferior quality to the white oak. other varieties largely used in england and on the continent are seldom marketed in the united states. =pear.=--the wood of the pear tree is somewhat like that of the apple tree. it can be readily carved. =pine.=--first and foremost among the needle-leaved trees comes the pine, of which about seventy species are known. the _white pine_, known in england as yellow pine and also as weymouth pine, is widely distributed in america, and is, or has been, our most valuable timber tree, but seems to be doomed to rapid extinction, at least so far as the wide, clear boards and planks of old-growth timber are concerned, which are now exceedingly hard to obtain. there is no better wood for the beginner than clear white pine for all purposes to which it is suited. it is light, stiff, straight-grained and of close fibre, easily worked, can be easily nailed, and takes a good finish. when allowed to grow it has reached a large size (as in the so-called "pumpkin" pine), furnishing very wide, clear boards, of beautiful texture and with a fine, satiny surface. it is of a light yellowish-brown colour, growing darker with time. it is soft, resinous, and of moderate strength. pine is cut into lumber of many forms, and is used for inside finishing of houses, for many purposes of carpentry and cabinet-making, for masts and spars, for clapboards, shingles, and laths, doors, sashes, blinds, patterns for castings, and a long list of different purposes. it holds glue exceedingly well and takes paint well. other varieties, as the _sugar pine_, the _canadian red pine_, the _yellow pine_, etc., grow in america. white pine is also found in europe. the _scotch pine_ or _norway pine_, known also as _red_, _scotch_, or _yellow fir_, and as _yellow deal_ and _red deal_,[52] is the common pine of the north of europe, hence its name, _pinus sylvestris_, pine of the forest. it is hard, strong, not very resinous, and is extensively used. _southern or hard pine._ this very important timber is found on the southern atlantic and gulf coasts of the united states. it is very hard, heavy, and resinous, with coarse and strongly marked grain. it is durable, strong, and not easily worked by the beginner, and is hard to nail after seasoning. it is extensively used for girders, floor-timbers, joists, and many kinds of heavy timber work, including trestles, bridges, and roofs, for masts and spars, for general carpentry, floors, decks, and interior finish, railway cars, railway ties, and many other purposes, and, in addition, for the manufacture of turpentine. other varieties of hard pine are sold and used successfully for the same purposes, all under the common name of hard pine, southern pine, georgia pine, yellow hard pine, etc. another variety of hard "pitch" pine (_pinus rigida_), often confused with the southern pine, is heavy, resinous, and durable, but not suited for the better class of work. =plum.=--this is a fine-grained, hard wood, used for turning, engraving, etc. =redwood.=--the two varieties of the giant _sequoia_ of the pacific coast are the _sequoia sempervirens_ and the _sequoia gigantea_ or _wellingtonia_. the former, the most important tree of the pacific coast, is of immense size (supposed to reach a height of even four hundred feet), red in colour, rather soft, light, and moderately strong, easily worked and finished, and very durable when exposed to the soil. it is used for general lumber purposes, carpentry, interior finish, posts, tanks, shingles, and a great variety of uses. the _s. gigantea_ or _wellingtonia_, which has the largest trunk in the world, is also red in colour, coarse-grained, rather weak, soft and light in texture, and of great durability when exposed to the soil. it is used for lumber and general building purposes, posts, shingles, etc. these are the "big trees," thought in some instances to be even five thousand years old, and of which the familiar stories are told about a stage-coach having been driven through a hollow tree, and about twenty-five people having danced at one time upon a stump. =rosewood.=--this wood, of handsome grain and colouring, has been much admired and extensively used for veneering. it is hard and heavy and of a peculiar texture, which seems oily to the touch. it is not well suited to amateur work, and is expensive. =satinwood.=--this handsome yellowish-brown wood is hardly to be considered by the amateur except for the occasional use of a small piece. =spruce.=--the wood of the spruce, of which there are a number of varieties, is quite abundant, is light and straight-grained, and comparatively free from large knots. it is largely used for many of the same purposes as white pine, to which it is inferior for interior finish and fine work, but superior in strength, hardness, and toughness. both white and black spruce are extensively used for carpentry, interior finish, flooring, fencing, and inferior wood-work generally. it has the great disadvantage of curling and twisting and springing badly, and is not as nice to work as white pine. spruce of good quality makes good paddles, spars, and the like, and is valuable for such work. the wood of the norway spruce is known in england as _white deal_. =sycamore.=--this handsome wood, found in various parts of the world, and of a light yellowish or reddish-brown colour, is esteemed for interior work. the medullary rays are noticeable. it is rather hard, but not very difficult to work. it is not durable for outside work exposed to the weather. known also as _buttonwood_. =walnut.=--see _black walnut_. =whitewood.=--like white pine, whitewood is an excellent wood for the early attempts of the beginner. whitewood, which is by no means white, but greenishor brownish-yellow, is the name applied to the wood of the tulip tree. this tree attains a large size, thus furnishing wide boards, which are of such straight and even grain and so free from knots as to be of great use for many purposes. it is brittle and soft, but light and very easily worked. it is not, for most purposes, as reliable a wood as white pine, but is extensively used in the wood-working arts. it is more liable to warp and twist than pine. it takes a stain exceedingly well. =willow.=--an important use of this wood is for baskets. it will not often be required by the beginner, except for whistles. =yew.=--this wood, like lancewood, is distinguished for its elasticity, and is highly esteemed for bows and the like. * * * * * many other woods can be alluded to, as catalpa (for posts and the like), elder (for various small articles), dogwood (for turning and the like), gum (for various common articles), hornbeam or ironwood (for mallets, handles, wheel-cogs, etc.), poplar (for pulp), sassafras (for posts, hoops, etc.), teak (from the east, strong and valuable), tupelo (hubs of wheels, etc.), and a great variety of others which cannot be specified, as they are but seldom required by the amateur and never needed by the beginner. =felling and seasoning.=--a tree should usually be cut for timber at or near its maturity, as a young tree has too much sapwood and will not be as strong and dense or durable, while an old one is likely to get brittle and inelastic and the centre of the heartwood is liable to decay, being the oldest portion. a young tree, though softer and not so durable, furnishes a tougher and more elastic wood, and sometimes has a finer grain. trees differ so much, and the uses to which the wood is to be put are so various, that no exact ages can be set for cutting--probably from fifty to one hundred years for good timber, to make a rough statement. some trees furnish excellent timber at a much greater age than one hundred years. pine is thought to be ripe for cutting at about seventy-five or one hundred years of age, oak at from sixty to one hundred years or more, and the various other woods mature at different ages. midwinter, or the dry season in tropical regions, is usually preferred for felling, because the sap is quiet. decay sets in more rapidly in the sapwood and between the wood and the bark during the period of active growth, because of the perishable nature of the substances involved in the growth. midsummer is considered equally good by some. the various methods of cutting the log into the lumber of commerce have been treated in chapter iii., to which the reader is referred. in this connection it will be noticed that, although boards cut through or near the middle are, as a rule, the best, when they contain the pith they are sometimes valueless in the centre, as well as when, in the case of an old tree, decay has begun at that point. as the water evaporates gradually from green wood exposed to the air but protected from the weather, one might infer that in time it would evaporate entirely, leaving the wood absolutely dry, just as the water will entirely disappear from a tumbler or a tea-kettle. this is not so, however. the drying goes on until there is only about ten to twenty per cent. of moisture left, but no amount of open-air seasoning will entirely remove this small per cent. of moisture, the amount varying with the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere. it can be got rid of only by applying heat, kiln-drying, baking, currents of hot air, vacuum process, or some artificial method of seasoning. after having completely dried the wood by any of these methods, if it is again exposed to the atmosphere, it absorbs moisture quite rapidly until it has taken up perhaps fifteen per cent., more or less, of its own weight. so you see that, though you may by artificial means make wood entirely dry, it will not stay in this unnatural condition unless in some way entirely protected from the atmosphere _at once_, but will reabsorb the moisture it has lost until it reaches a condition in harmony with the atmosphere. recent investigations show that the very fibre or substance of the wood itself imbibes and holds moisture tenaciously, this being additional to the water popularly understood to be contained in the pores or cavities of the wood. there are various other methods besides kiln-drying (referred to in chapter iii.) of seasoning and of hastening the drying process. wood is sometimes soaked in water before being seasoned. this assists in removing the soluble elements of the sap, but it is doubtful whether the process improves the quality of the wood. smoking and steaming are also resorted to. small pieces can readily be smoked, which hardens the wood and adds to its durability,--a method which has been known for centuries,--but care must be taken not to burn, scorch, or crack the wood. =decay and preservation.=--timber decays fastest when alternately wet and dry, as in the piles of a wharf, fence-posts, and the like, or when subjected to a hot, moist, close atmosphere, as the sills and floor-timbers situated over some damp and unventilated cellar. fig. 694 shows the decay caused by alternate wetness and dryness, while the parts above and below are still sound. [illustration fig. 694.] wood lasts the best when kept dry and well ventilated. when kept constantly wet it is somewhat softened, and will not resist so much, but it does not decay. recently, upon cutting a slab from the outside of a large log taken from the bed of a river, where it had lain for one hundred years or more, the interior proved as sound and clear as could be found in any lumber-yard. undoubtedly, however, such long submersion lessens the elastic strength of timber after it is dried. that is not, however, an extreme example of durability. wood has been taken from bogs and ancient lake-dwellings after being preserved for ages. piles were taken from the old london bridge after about 650 years of service. piles placed in the rhine about 2000 years ago have been found quite sound during the present century; and piles are now regularly used, as you doubtless know, for the support of the most massive stone buildings and piers, but only where they are driven deep in the ground or below the low-water line. many examples of the durability of wood kept dry are found in european structures. timbers put into the roof of westminster abbey in the reign of richard ii. are still in place, and the roof-timbers of some of the older italian churches remain in good condition. thorough seasoning, protection from the sun and rain, and the free circulation of air are the essentials to the preservation of timber. many preparations and chemical processes have been tried for the _preservation of wood_. creosote is one of the best preservatives known. insects and fungi are repelled by its odour. the modern so-called "creosote stains" are excellent, not very expensive, and easily applied. they are only suitable for outside work, however, on account of the odour. coal-tar and wood-tar or pitch, applied hot in thin coats, are also good and cheap preservatives for exposed wood-work. charring the ends of fence-posts by holding them for a short time over a fire and forming a protecting coating of charcoal is another method which has been extensively used. oil paint will protect wood from moisture from without, and is the method most commonly in use. in the case of any external coating, however, which interferes with the process of evaporation, as tar or paint, the wood must be _thoroughly dry_ when it is applied, or the moisture within will be unable to escape, and will cause decay. lumber as well as the living tree has enemies in the form of insects and worms, but the conditions best for the preservation of the wood, as referred to above, are also the least favourable for the attacks of animal life and of fungi. as soon as the tree has been felled and dies, decomposition begins, as in all organic bodies, and sooner or later will totally destroy the wood. the woody fibre itself will last for ages, but some of the substances involved in the growth soon decay. the sap is liable to fermentation, shown by a bluish tint, and decay sets in. fungi are liable to fasten upon the wood. worms and insects also attack it, preferring that which is richest in sap. thus we see that the danger of decay originates chiefly in the decomposition of the sap (although in living trees past their prime decay begins in the heartwood while the sapwood is sound), so the more the sap can be got rid of the better. there are, however, some substances found in various trees, aside from those elements especially required for their growth, which render the wood more durable, like tannic acid, which abounds in oak and a number of trees, particularly in the bark. there is no advantage in getting rid of the turpentine and other volatile oils and the resinous deposits found in needle-leaved trees, particularly in the case of those woods in which they abound. care should be taken, however, not to use a piece of pine badly streaked or spotted with resinous deposits in a place where it will be exposed, as the turpentine or resinous matter will be apt to ooze out and blister the paint. _wet rot_ is a decay of the unseasoned wood, which may also be caused in seasoned wood by moisture with a temperate degree of warmth. it occurs in wood alternately exposed to dryness and moisture. _dry rot_, which is due to fungi, does not attack _dry_ wood, but is found where there is dampness and lack of free circulation of air, as in warm, damp, and unventilated situations, like cellars and the more confined parts of ships, and in time results in the entire crumbling away of the wood. there are several forms of dry rot. one of the most common and worst of dry-rot fungi attacks pine and fir. fungi also attack oak. creosote is used as a preventive, to the extent to which it saturates the wood. =effects of expansion and contraction.=--cracks, curling, warping, winding, or twisting are due to nothing but irregular and uneven swelling and shrinking. some kinds of wood shrink much in drying, others but little. some, after seasoning, swell or shrink and curl and warp to a marked degree with every change in temperature and dryness. others, once thoroughly air-seasoned, alter much less in shape or size under ordinary circumstances. we have already seen that the heart side of a board tends to become convex in seasoning, owing to the shrinkage of the other side, and that if one part swells much more than another the wood becomes out of shape,--warped, curled, or twisted. if one part shrinks much faster than another, cracks usually result in the quicker shrinking portion. if you stick one end of a green board into the hot oven of the kitchen stove, the heated end will crack and split before the rest of the board has fairly begun to dry. we have seen illustrations of this in the seasoning process, as shown in chapter iii. exposure of one side of a seasoned piece to either dampness or heat will thus cause the piece to curl. the dampness swells the side affected or the heat shrinks it so that the convexity will be on the dampened side, or the concavity on the heated side, as the case may be. if lumber were of perfectly uniform texture, hung up where it would be entirely unconfined and free to swell or shrink in all directions, and equally exposed all over the surface to exactly the same degrees and changes of heat and cold, dryness and moisture, it would simply grow larger or smaller without changing its form or shape. there would then be no curling, warping or winding. as a matter of fact, however, wood is not uniform in texture, but exceedingly varied, some pieces being extremely complex in structure; neither is it always free to expand and contract in every direction, nor equally exposed on all sides to the alternations of heat and cold, moisture and dryness. to come to the practical application of these facts, we have seen (in chapter iii.) that boards for nice work should be planed down equally, as nearly as may be, from both sides; that the mere dressing off of the surface by hand will sometimes cause a board to warp badly; and that it is better to buy stock of as nearly the required thickness as possible, than to plane it down or split it. it should also be noted that when a board is being sawed in two or split lengthwise with a saw it sometimes springs together behind the saw with so much force that the crack has to be wedged open in order to continue sawing (fig. 695). sometimes the crack opens wider instead of closing (fig. 696). you see from this that you cannot always be sure when you split a board that the parts will retain the shape they had in the original board. in working up large pieces into smaller ones, unexpected twists and crooks will often be found in the smaller pieces which did not exist in the original stock. sometimes mahogany, for instance, will act in this way very markedly. strips sawed off from a board, for example, will sometimes immediately spring into very crooked forms, as shown in fig. 697 (which would not be exaggerated if the pieces were drawn of greater proportionate length). [illustration fig. 695.] [illustration fig. 696.] [illustration fig. 697.] [illustration fig. 698.] in splitting stock flatwise, _i.e._, making two thinner boards out of a thick board or plank, a similar result often follows. the latent power set free, so to speak, by suddenly exposing the middle of a board, plank, or other timber to the atmosphere sometimes causes curious developments. it being necessary one day to split for a picture frame a large mahogany board, 1" thick by 2' square, with a circular hole already sawed from the centre, the pieces warped and twisted as the sawing went on (fig. 698), until, just as they were nearly separated, the whole thing "went off" with a report like a toy pistol, breaking into a dozen pieces and scattering them around the shop. in very crooked-grained wood you will frequently find uneven and undulating forms of warping and twisting that you do not find in straight-grained pieces, but such wood is often of the most beautiful figure for indoor work. where the grain is crooked, cropping up to the surface as in fig. 701, the cut-off ends of the fibrous structure, so to speak, are exposed in places to the atmosphere. these open ends, "end wood," thus brought to the surface are more susceptible to moisture and dryness than the sides of the bundles of fibrous tissue, which tends to produce unequal swelling, shrinking, and warping. you will see if you look at the ends of logs and stumps that the heart is frequently not in the centre, in some cases taking such a devious course throughout the stem as to make the grain so crooked that no method of sawing will remove the tendency to warp or twist, just shown. such trees may show a beautiful grain. even in straight trees the pith is not usually quite straight, and is apt to take a somewhat zigzag course, due to the crooked way the tree grew when young (fig. 699). [illustration fig. 699.] imagine, for an exaggerated illustration, that you could see with x-rays the pith as crooked as fig. 699. that shown in fig. 700. imagine that from this tree you could saw out the board indicated, keeping with it the whole pith or heart as if it were a wire rope woven in and out of the board, so that the appearance would be somewhat like that shown in fig. 701. bear in mind that the annual rings are layers of wood, so to speak, which may vary in thickness, growing around the heart. you will see that these layers, or rings, as they dip below or rise above the surface of the board, will cause the grain to form various patterns, perhaps somewhat as shown in fig. 701, which makes no claim to accurately showing the grain in this case. in fact, all such variations of grain in lumber are due to the surface of the piece being at an angle with the layers. [illustration fig. 700.] [illustration fig. 701.] in addition, the knots caused by branches, the twisting of the stems screw-fashion (as is seen in cedar), wounds, and other causes, often produce very crooked and tangled grain, and the wood of many broad-leaved trees is sometimes extremely complicated in texture, especially when all these irregularities occur in the same piece. it is the nature of some kinds of mahogany, from whatever cause, to have the fibres strangely interlaced or running in very different directions in layers which are quite near each other. the warping, twisting, and cracking is obviated in many cases where it is objectionable (as in the wooden frames of machines, the tops of benches) by building up with a number of smaller pieces, of which you will often see illustrations. to do this to the best advantage, the pieces should be selected and put together so that, though the grain will run in the same direction lengthways, the annual rings at the ends will not run together as in a whole beam, but will be reversed or arranged in various combinations, so that the tendencies of the different parts to warp or twist will counteract each other. instead of a single board, which would naturally become warped in one large curve, a number of strips can be glued up with the grain of the strips arranged in alternate fashion (fig. 559), so that in place of one large curve the warping will merely result in a slightly wavy line. where but one side of a board is seen or used and where the full strength is not needed, warping and twisting can be largely prevented by lengthways saw-cuts on the back or under surface, as in a drawing-board, the crossways strength required being secured by the cleats. doors and most forms of panelled work also illustrate these matters of swelling and shrinking (see _doors and panels_). _shakes._--_heart-shakes_ are cracks radiating from the centre in the line of the medullary rays, widest at the pith and narrowing toward the outside, and supposed to be chiefly caused by the shrinkage of the older wood due to the beginning of decay while the tree is standing (fig. 702). slight heart-shakes are common, but if large and numerous or twisting in the length of the log, they injure the timber seriously for cutting up. [illustration fig. 702.] _star-shakes_ are also radiating cracks, but, unlike the heart-shakes, the cracks are widest at the outside, narrowing toward the centre (fig. 703), and are often caused by the shrinkage of the outer part due to the outside of the tree drying faster than the inside, as it naturally does from being more exposed after being felled; but they are sometimes owing to the beginning of decay and other causes. [illustration fig. 703.] _cup-shakes_ are cracks between some of the annual rings, separating the layers more or less (fig. 704), sometimes reaching entirely around, separating the centre from the outer portion, and are supposed to be caused by the swaying of the tree in the wind (hence sometimes known as _wind-shakes_), or to some shock or extreme changes of temperature, or other causes. [illustration fig. 704.] combinations of the various shakes may be found in the same log. =a few suggestions about working-drawings.=--drawing is far too extensive a subject to be even briefly treated in a manual on wood-working, but a few general remarks on matters connected with working-drawings may be of help to some. while an ordinary picture gives a correct idea of how an object looks, we cannot take accurate measurements from it. when we need dimensions, as in practical work, we must have some drawings which will show us at once the exact shapes, sizes, and positions of the various parts. in addition to the picture to give us the general idea, we have for working purposes what are called _elevations_, _plans_, _sections_, etc. in such a case as that of the little house shown on page 242, the picture (fig. 363) shows us the appearance of the building, but for purposes of construction, working-drawings should also be made. the view of what you would see if you stood directly in front of this house, with only the front visible, is shown in fig. 364, and is called the _front elevation_. stand opposite either side or end, and the view seen is represented in fig. 364 as the _side elevation_. in the same manner the _rear elevation_ is given. next imagine yourself in the air directly above the house. this view is called the _plan_.[53] in this case, as the view of the interior is desired, the view is shown as if the roof were removed. if the sides or ends are not alike, as is sometimes the case, two side or end views may be needed. in the case illustrated, inside elevations are also given, to show the construction. elevations, whether one or several, must always be taken at right angles to the plan. although commonly, in simple work, confined to representations of each side or end, they can be taken from any point of view that may be at right angles to the plan. they may be taken from the corners or at any angles that may best show any complicated details of the object. if the object is quite simple, one elevation and the plan, or two elevations without the plan, may be quite sufficient, as the elevation or plan omitted can in such cases be understood at once. always make your drawings full-sized when the object to be made is not too large. you are much less likely to make mistakes in taking your dimensions and measurements from a drawing the actual size of the object than where you have to take them from a smaller drawing, and you also can get a better idea from a full-sized drawing just how the object will look. it is a safe-guard, with a drawing which is symmetrical, to lay it out from a centre line, measuring to the right and left. if you make a drawing of which each line is one half the length of the same line in the real object, it is called a "half-size" drawing, and is said to be drawn on a scale of 6" to the foot. if "one fourth size," the scale is 3" to the foot. the scale is often expressed as an equation, viz.: 2 in. = 1 ft., or 1/4" = 1'. if the drawing is not made with accuracy, it is necessary to put the dimensions upon it, and this is often done for convenience and quickness of execution in the case of drawings which are accurate. details inside of an object, that is, such parts as cannot be seen or properly shown in the elevations or plan, are often shown by dotted lines, as in fig. 597. sometimes dotted lines are used in the same way to show the back of an object, to save making extra drawings. too many dotted lines, however, are confusing, so if the parts that do not show on the surface are not quite simple and cannot be clearly shown by dotted lines on the plan and elevations, it is usual to make another kind of drawing especially to show such details. this is called a "section" (lat., _sectio_, from _secare_, to cut), and represents what would be shown if the object were cut apart or sawed through at the place where the view of the details is wanted. the surface supposed to be cut is usually indicated by parallel lines crossing the surface, independent parts, as those of different pieces, frequently being shown by changing the direction of the parallel lines, as in fig. 504. when both sides of an object are alike, labour and space are often saved by making a drawing of one side or one half only, from a centre line. the same way is sometimes adopted in making sections, and an elevation and section can sometimes be combined in this way in one drawing. as soon as you become used to plans and elevations, you can by combining the plan and elevations in your mind quickly imagine the form of the object represented, and often, unless it is complicated, get fully as good a conception of it as from a picture, and a more accurate knowledge of its proportions and details, so that in many cases there is no need of having a picture at all in order to construct the object. it is often a convenience to have a picture, however, and frequently an assistance in forming a correct idea of something you have never seen. where the appearance of the object is of consequence, as in the case of a house or bookcase, for instance, the picture is of the first consequence, for you must have a correct representation of the general appearance of the object before you begin to make the working-drawings. you will soon find that merely having an idea in your mind is not always sufficient from which to make working-drawings, although the first step in the process. you will often find that when the idea in your mind is put into the form of a picture, it does not look at all as you thought it would, and that if you had started at once on the working-drawings without first making a sketch or picture, the result would have been unsatisfactory and sometimes entirely impracticable. even making a sketch or picture that just expresses your idea will not always result in the completed object being just what you wish. strange though it may seem, it is a fact, practically, that the completed object often looks quite different from what the sketch leads you to expect. that result, however, is something which cannot be helped, so you need not give it any attention, only do not be surprised if once in a while you find that what you have made is not just what you thought it would be. first make the best design you can, then accurate working-drawings, then work carefully by the drawings, and if the result is not always exactly what you expected, you can console yourself with the thought that your experience is only that of architects, designers, carpenters, and workmen in all lines, and that no one can foresee _all_ the conditions by which a piece of projected work will be affected. oblique or parallel projections are often used, from which measurements can be made. such projections are not true representations of the objects as they appear to the eye, but they are often used because readily understood and easily drawn. they often answer every purpose from a practical point of view. figs. 120 and 344 are examples. another way of representing objects for practical purposes is that shown in figs. 121 and 407, and known as "isometric[54] projection" or "isometric perspective." this method is incorrect so far as giving an accurate picture is concerned, for the object is always represented as being too large in the farther parts, because the inclined lines are drawn parallel instead of converging; but it is often very useful from a practical point of view, because by it all that is required can frequently be expressed in one drawing. isometric perspective will not readily give the correct dimensions except in the lines which are vertical or which slant either way at an angle of 30â° with the horizontal,--_i.e._, you cannot take the other dimensions right off with a rule as from a plan, and therefore, so far as obtaining correct dimensions is concerned, it is practically not useful for other than rectangular objects; but so far as merely showing the general shape or conveying the idea of the form it can often be advantageously used in representing many objects containing curved lines. isometric projection has the advantage of being easy of execution, and of being so pictorial that it is almost always easy to see what is meant. =a first-class bench.=--the construction of the bench shown on page 101 is not difficult to understand, but considerable skill is required to make a really good one. the arrangement of the vise is shown in fig. 705, which is an inverted view (as if looking up from underneath). the vise is kept parallel by the stout bars of hard wood, parallel to the screw, which slide through mortises cut in the front of the bench-top, and are further guided by the cleats screwed to the under side of the top, where it is thinner than at the front edge. in case of using such a vise where the bench-top is not so thick in front, the thickness can easily be made sufficient by screwing a stout cleat on the under side where the vise comes. in this cleat can be cut the mortises for the slide-bars. the end-vise or "tail-screw" shown in fig. 143 involves rather more work, but slides upon a similar principle. perhaps the best way for the amateur is to make the end-vise in the same way as the main vise, adding the movable stop. [illustration fig. 705.] there is no better way to make the front of this bench-top than to build it up of narrow boards on edge, planed true, and thoroughly glued and bolted together. the planing and truing can best be done by machine, however. if well put together, such a bench-top will defy changes of weather and will stand a great deal of hard usage. the back part of the top can be thinner, but can very well be built up if desired. an excellent way to fasten the frame of such a bench together is with bolts, by which the parts can be drawn to a firm bearing. it is impossible to make such a bench too rigid. if so stiffly framed that it cannot change its shape, and if the top is carefully trued, you will have something which will be a great help to good work. footnotes: [51] in elm, ash, and hickory the sapwood is sometimes considered better than the heart. [52] the term deal, though often loosely applied to the wood of the pine and fir, properly refers to planks of these woods cut more than 7" wide and 6' long--usually 3" thick and 9" wide. the term is common in great britain but not in the united states. [53] this definition of elevations and plan as being representations of what you would see if you stood opposite the sides or above the top of the object, is merely a rough explanation of the general meaning of the terms. as a matter of scientific accuracy the elevation is, strictly speaking, not the way the side would appear if you looked at it from one position, but the way it would appear if you could look at it from directly opposite every point of it--as if you could have an infinite number of eyes, one being opposite every point of the object. the elevation shows the front or side or end as it really is, not as it looks, either in the form of an exact copy if the object is small, or of a small copy made in the same proportion if the object is too large to be represented full size. [54] gr., equal measure. index adze, indian, 11 -japanese, 15 air-chambers, 318, 319 (footnote) -dried stock, 164. see _seasoning_. -drying, 36-40, 522-524 -pure, 277-279 -tanks, 318, 319 (footnote) alkanet root, 498 ammonia (for staining), 495, 497 angle-blocks. see _corner-blocks_, 365 angles, determining, with bevel, 350 angular bit-brace, 352 animals, houses for, 126-140 annual rings, 29 anvil, 77, 344 apparatus, athletic and gymnastic. see _gymnastic apparatus_ and _implements for outdoor sports_. apple (wood), 512 apron, 56 arbours, 291-293 arcs, describing circular, 364, 365 arkansas stone, 434 ash, 512 -sapwood, 42, 510 auger-bit, 352 awl, japanese, 15 awls, 344, 345 axe, 345 backbone, ice-boat, 334 back-saw, 469 backs for case work, 194 balcony, 295, 297 ball and block, 219 balloon frame, 280 bar, horizontal, 166-168, 173 bars, parallel, 164-166 bassoolah, 11, 12 basswood, 512 bath-house, 293, 294 batteau, 299-314 battening, 282 bayberry tallow, 378 baywood. see _mahogany_. beading, 198, 345, 346 --planes, 451 bead-scraper, 345, 346 beams. see _collar-beams_, _beams_, etc. beech, 512 bench, filing-, 75-77 -finishing-, 77 -hook, 86-88 -stop, 71-75 -top, 62, 63, 74, 536 -vise, 65-71, 74, 101, 536 -work-, 57-65, 101, 536, 537 bending wood, 40, 346-349 bevel, 349, 350 bevelling, 350, 351, 357 -edges of sides of boat, 305 big trees, 520 birch, 512, 513 -model (canoe), 325, 326 bird-houses. see _houses for animals_. bird's-eye maple, 517 bit-brace, 351, 352 -angular, 352 -maker, 22 -use of, 353-356 (_boring_) -where to keep, 83 bits, 352, 353 -arrangement, 83 -maker, 22 bit-stock. see _bit-brace_. black birch, 512, 513 -bone-, 498 -cherry, 514 -ivory-, 498 black, lamp-, 498 -walnut, 513 blind dovetailing, 373 -nailing, 432 block-form, 176, 240 --plane, 449 board, sprung, for pressure, 362 --measure, 47, 48 boarding, outside, 269 boards, definition of, 46 -matched-, 46, 47 -or planks, laying exposed, 353 -splitting, 527-529 boat-building, 298-343 -house-, 339-343 --houses, 294-297 -ice-, 332-339 boats, toy, hulls of, 227-237 -(windmill), 114, 115 bob-sled, 156-163 body plan, 229, 230 (footnote) boiled oil, 437 (_painting_) bone-black, 498 bookcase and lounge, 211 -dwarf, 196 -low, 196 -pinned ("knock-down"), 195 -wall, or hanging, 186, 187 -with cupboard, 197 -with desk, 198-200 bookcases, 193-200 book-rack, 183, 184 --shelf, hanging, 185 booths, play, 241-249 boring, 353-356 -japanese, 15 bow-gun, 154 --saw, 469, 470 boxes, 219, 227 box-making, 219-227 boxwood, 513 brace for bits. see _bit-brace_. --joint, 411 braced frame, 280 braces, corner, for house frames, 266 brad-awl, 344, 345 -holes made by, 430 brake for sleds, 160-163 british oak, 518 broad-leaved trees, 511 bruises and cuts, 86 bruises in wood, to take out, 356 brushes, 356 -care of, 440 buck. see _vaulting-horse_. "built-up" stock, 409, 410, 530, 531 bull-nosed-plane, 450 burnisher for scraper, 487 butternut, 513 butt-joint, 408 buttonwood. see _sycamore_. buying lumber, suggestions about, 36-45. see also _seasoning_. -tools, suggestions about, 15-22 cabinet-clamps. see _clamps_. -corner-, 190, 191 -for guns, fishing-rods, etc., 215, 216 -for tools and supplies, 96-101 -medicine, 191, 193 -music, 200, 201 -wall, or hanging, 186, 189, 190 --work. see _furniture_. cabins, 241-259 cages for animals, 126-140 calcined plaster, 403 calipers, 356 camping-houses. see _house-building for beginners_. canoe, "birch" model, 325, 326 -canvas-covered, 317-328 -flat-bottomed, 311-317 -" " (canvas-covered), 313, 314 canvas-covered canoe (flat-bottomed), 313, 314 -canoes, 317-328 canvas, covering canoe with, 322, 323 -deck, 317 -painting, 323 cap (plane-iron), 451, 452 care of stock, 44 -of tools, 22, 23 carlins, 325, 329 carpentry, japanese, 12-15 carving-tools, 20, 357 -makers of, 22 case, centre-board, 330, 331 -music, 200, 201 casing for doors, 269 -for doors and windows, 272 catalpa, 522 caulking, 302, 303, 330 cedar, 513, 514 centre-bit, 352 --board, 330, 331 --board trunk, 330, 331 --table, 206, 207 chain, wooden, 218, 219 chair, outdoor, 210 --table, 212-214 chalk, 416 --line, 416 chamfering, 350, 351, 357 charring wood, 263, 264, 525 checking of lumber, 31, 42, 526 cherry, 514 chestnut, 514 chests, 219-227 chimney. see _smoke-pipe_. chip (of plane), 453 chisels, 357-359 -arrangement of, 83 -makers of, 22 -sharpening. see _sharpening_. -use of, 358, 359, 421-423, 442-444 chopping-block, 86 -wood. see _splitting wood_. circles and arcs, describing, 364, 365 circular-plane, 450 clamping, 71, 359-363 (_clamps_), 395, 461 clamps, 71, 359-363, 395, 461. see also _hand-screws_. clapboarding, 273, 274 clapboards, 48, 274 cleaner for furniture, etc., 386 cleating, 53, 363, 364 cleats. see _cleating_. -for rowlocks, 301, 302, 306 clinching nails, 431 club-house, 296, 297 coal-tar, 525 coaming, 316, 320, 325, 331 collar-beams, 287 collection of specimens of wood, 44, 507, 508 colour of lumber, 40 "combination" articles (furniture), 198-200, 211-214 "combination" planes, 451 compartments (pigeon-holes), 200 -water-tight, 318, 319 (footnote) compasses, 364, 365. see also _scribing_. compass-plane. see _circular-plane_. --saw, 469, 470 concealed nailing. see _blind-_ and _sliver-nailing_, 432 conifers, 511 coop, 129 cord, twisted, for pressure, 362 corner-blocks, 365 -book-shelves and seat, 212 --braces for house frame, 266 --chisel, 358 --posts, 265, 266 --seat and shelves, 212 --shelves or cabinets, 190, 191 "cottage row," 271-276 cottages, simple summer, 271-290 cottonwood, 514 couch with bookcase, etc., 211 countersink, 365, 478 cracking of lumber, 31, 42, 526 cracks and holes, to fill, 384, 403, 404 -flashing, 273 creosote, 525 --stains, 270, 525 cricket, or footstool, 210 crooked grain, 529, 530 crossbow, 154 cross-cutting-saw, 466, 467 --grained stock, 40, 41, 529, 530 cupboard. see _cabinet_. cup-shakes, 531 curling of lumber, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 curves, sawing, 180 -trimming or paring, 443 cut-nails, 433 -best for shingling, 270 cuts and bruises, 86 cutting the log, 31-35 -the tree. see _felling_. cutting-edges, 25-28. see also _sharpening_. --pliers, 366 cutwater, 309-311 cypress, 514, 515 daggers, wooden, 106, 107 deal, 519, 521 decay and preservation, 41, 524-526 deck, 329 -canvas, 317 -for toy boats, 236 -timbers, 325, 329 deliquescent stem, 508 designing, 175-177, 239-241, 276, 534, 535 desk and bookcase, 198-200 --rack, 184, 185 dimension stock, 45 dividers. see _compasses_. dog-fish skin, 381 dog-houses, 133-136 dogwood, 522 dolls' house, 121-125 door, 247 -and window frames, space for, 266 --casings, 269, 272 doors and panels, 366-372 -and windows, sizes of, 276 -sliding, 132, 133 double-bladed paddle, 328 --ironed planes, 451 --runner, 156-163 dovetailing, 372, 373 dowelling, 374-376 dowel-plate, 376 dowels, 374 dragon's blood, 498 drainage, 278, 279 drawboring, 426 drawer, or lap, dovetailing, 373 drawers, 101, 376-378 drawing nails, 504, 505 drawings, working, 49, 50, 532-536 draw-knife or draw-shave, 378, 379 -use of, 442-444 draw-stroke, 26-28, 351, 378, 379, 443, 444, 456 drill, primitive, 10 --stock, 379 drills, 379 driving nails. see _nailing_. dry rot, 526 -situation, 277 dryer, 438 (_painting_) drying lumber, methods of, 36-40, 523, 524 duck's-bill-bit, 353 dwarf bookcase, 196 ebony, 48, 515 edges, cutting, 25-28. see also _sharpening_. elasticity, 40, 511 -loss of, 37, 524 elder, 522 elevations, 532-534 elm, 515 -sapwood, 42, 510 end-grain, 529 -planing, 457 essentials to successful work, 102 estimating, 54, 55 excurrent trunk, 508 expansion and contraction, 30-33, 50-53, 225, 526-531 -bit, 352 face (of plane), 445 -(of stock), 54 facing edges of case work, 198 farm school, 271 felling and seasoning, 522-524. see also _seasoning_. figured stock. see _grain of wood_. file-card, 381 files, 379-381 -maker of, 22 filing, 379-381 --bench, 75-77 -saw-, 485-487 (_sharpening_) filler, wood, 385 (_finishing_) finishing, 182, 183, 381-386 --bench, 77 fin-keel type, 229-236 fir. see _pine_ and _spruce_. firmer-chisel, 357, 359 fishing-lodges. see _house-building for beginners_. fish-plates, 411 flashing, 257, 258, 272, 273 flatboat, 299-308 flat-bottomed boats, 299-317 floor-beams, 254, 255, 266, 267, 287, 288, 296 flooring for canoe, 323 -rift-, 36 floors, 254, 255, 266-268, 287, 288, 296 flower-pot stands, 201, 202, 207 footstool or cricket, 210 fore-plane, 447, 448 forests, preservation of, 509 forms for bending. see _moulds_. foundation, 259, 260, 262-264, 279 frame for buildings, 249, 250, 254, 265-269, 272, 279, 280, 286, 287, 296. see also _houses for animals_. -balloon, 280 -braced and mortised, 280 -for boat. see _moulds_ and _boat-building for beginners_. frames, door and window, sizes of, 276; spaces for, 266 -picture-, 216, 217 framing-chisels, 358 framing (doors and panels). see _doors and panels_. -(house). see _frame for buildings_. --square, 495 french polishing, 385, 386 frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., tank for, 139, 140 front elevation, 532 fungi, 41, 43, and _decay and preservation_, 524-526 furniture, 175-217 -repairing, 460-462 gain, 288 (fig. 399) gauge, 386-390 -for bevels and chamfers, 351 -makers, 22 gauging. see _gauge_. georgia pine, 520 giant swing, 172, 173 gimlet, 390 --bit, 353 glass for scraper, 473, 474 -setting, 391 glazing, 391 glue. see _gluing_. glued-joints, 360 (footnote), 392, 393 (footnote). see also _gluing_, _clamps_, _hand-screws_, and _repairing furniture_. -clamping, 359-363 -rubbing, 365 (_corner-blocks_) glue-pot, 396 gluing, 391-396. see also _clamps_, _hand-screws_, and _repairing furniture_. -old work. see _repairing furniture_. glycerine, 434 gouge, 396-398 --bit, 353 gouges, arrangement of, 83 -makers of, 22 grain of wood, 30, 33-36, 40 -crooked or cross-grained, 35, 36, 40, 529, 530 grinding. see _sharpening_. grindstone, 398 -use of, 480-482 grooving, 185, 187, 398 gum (wood), 522 gun-cabinet, etc., 215, 216 guns and pistols (wooden), 152-154 gunwale strip, 306, 317, 320 gymnastic apparatus, 163-174 half-breadth plan, 229, 230 half-round file, 380 halving (halved-joints), 399, 400 hammer, 400 -use of. see _nailing_, 428-430, and also 504, 505 handles, etc., oiling, 23 hand-screws, 400-402 -use of, 71, 400-402, 461 hanging bookcase, 186, 187 -book-shelf, 185 "happy jack," 112-114 hard pine, 519, 520 -wood, 45 hatchet, 402 -use of, 441, 442 headledges, 330, 331 heart, crooked, 529, 530 -shakes, 531 -wood, 29, 42, 43, 510 hemlock, 515 hen-houses. see _houses for animals_ and _house-building for beginners_. hickory, 515 -sapwood, 510 hinges, 247, 402, 403 hip-rafters, 284 hip-roof, 284-286 holes and cracks, to fill, 384, 403, 404 hollow and round planes, 451 holly, 516 horizontal bar, 166-168, 173 hornbeam, 522 horse, vaulting-, 170-172 horses, or trestles, 88-90 house, bath-, 293, 294 --boats, 339-343 --building for beginners, 238-297 -designing, 239-241 -situation, 239. see also _houses_. housed joint, 424 and fig. 557 houses, boat-, 294-297 -club-, 296, 297 -dolls', 121-125 -for animals, 126-140 -play-, 241-259 -portable, 247, 248 -summer-, 291-293. see also _house_. housing (housed joint). 424 and fig. 557 hunting-lodges. see _house-building for beginners_. hutch, rabbit, 132, 133 ice-boat, small, 332-339 indian turning, 10, 11 inside calipers, 356 iron (of plane), 445 -painting, 438 ironwood, 522 isometric projection or perspective, 535 ivory black, 498 jack-knife. see _knife_, 411, 412 --plane, 446, 447 --rafter, 284 japan, 438 (_painting_) -varnish, 438 japanese carpenter's vise, 13 -carpentry, 12-15 -lacquer, 383 (footnote) -tools, 14, 15 jointer, 448 jointing, 360 (footnote), 404-408, 491 (_shooting-board_) joints, 221, 222 joints and splices, 408-411 -for gluing, 360, 392, 393 (footnote). see _glued-joints_. -housed, 424 and fig. 557 -in exposed work, painting, 439, 440 -mitred. see _mitring_. -relished, 425 joists, definition, 47 keel, 316, 323, 324, 327 -built up, 237 -(skag), 307 keelson, 320 kennel, 133-136 kerfing. see _bending wood_, 346 keyhole-saw, 470 kiln-drying, 37-40. see _seasoning_. king-bolt, 158 knees, 314 knife, 411, 412 -makers, 22 -putty, 459 -sharpening, 480, 484 -use of, 442-444 knives, wooden, 106, 107 "knock-down" construction, 195 lacquer, japanese, 383 (footnote) ladders (gymnastic), 173 lampblack, 498 lancewood, 516 lap or drawer dovetailing, 373 lard oil, 434 lathe, primitive indian, 10, 11 laths, 48 lattice-work, 282, 291, 292 laying out the work, 50-54 lead (of plane-iron), 452 -over doorand window-casings, 272, 273 -red, 438 (_painting_) -white. see _painting_. lean-to, 241-250 -addition, 281, 282 -roof, frame for, 250 ledger-board, 296 leg-of-mutton sail, 332 leopard wood, 48 level, 96, 412 -makers, 22 levelling tables, horses, chairs, etc., 479, 480, 504 lighthouse, 120 lignum-vitã¦, 516 lime-water, 497, 498 linden. see _basswood_. linseed oil. see _finishing_, _painting_ (437), and _staining_. lizards, frogs, turtles, etc., tank for, 139, 140 live oak, 518 load water-line, 230 (footnote) location of house, 277-279 locks, 412, 413 locust, 516 log, cutting the, 31-35 long jointer, 448 lounge with bookcase, etc., 211 lumber, characteristics. see chapter iii. (_wood_), and 510-522 -charring, 263, 264, 525 -checking and cracking, 31, 42, 526 -colour of, 40 -cross-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 -curling and warping, 32-34, 41, 409, 502, 526-531 -definition, 45 -dressed, 45, 46 -rift, 35, 36 -sawing, 31-35. see also _expansion and contraction_. -seasoning, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 -selection of, 33-45 -stacking, 39 -swelling and shrinking, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 -undressed, 45 -wany, 40 -warped, 41. see _warping_. -winding, 41. see _winding_. m, 47 mahogany, 516 -cracks in, 42 mallet, 414 maple, 517 marking, 414-416 --awl. see _awl_ and _marking_. -distances. see _rule_, 465 --gauge. see _gauge_. mason's square, 261 masts, 331 matched-boards, 46, 47 -striking, 245 matching-planes, 21, 47, 451 maxims, 102 measurements. see _rule_, and also 47, 48, 50, 59, 167(footnote), 244, 261 measuring. see _measurements_. measuring-rod, 53 medicine-cabinet, 191, 193 medullary rays, 29, 30 middle-boards, 34, 35, 523 mirror-plates, 416 mirrors, setting, 391 mitre. see _mitring_. --board, 92, 93 --box, 90-92 -dovetailing, 373 -shooting-board, 94 --square, 349 mitring, 221, 417-419 models, 240 mortise and tenon. see _mortising_. mortise-chisels, 358 --gauge, 387 -open, 400 mortised frame, 280 mortising, 419-428 mouldings, 48, 197, 198 (footnote) moulds (for bending), 348, 349 -(for boat), 304, 307, 309, 310, 315, 316, 319, 320 mouth (of plane), 445, 452, 453 music-case, 200, 201 nailing, 428-433 nails, 433 -copper and galvanised, 300 -for shingling, 270 -how to keep, 85 -use of, 430-433 (_nailing_) -withdrawing, 504, 505 nail-set, 433, 434 needle-leaved trees, 511 nippers, 434, 445 norway pine, 519 -spruce, 521 notch-boards, 289 oak, 517, 518 oak, quartered, 34 oblique projections, 535 odd-jobs, 434 oil, 434 --finish, 381 -linseed, see _finishing_, _painting_, and _staining_. oiling handles, etc., 23 oil-stone, 434, 435 -box for, 85 -use of, see _sharpening_. open mortise and tenon, 400 operations, some every-day, 344-505 outdoor seat, 210 outside calipers, 356 overshot water-wheels, 117, 118 packing-cases, 225 paddles, 327, 328 paint, see _painting_. painting, 435-441 -canvas, 323 -shingles, 270 panels, 366-372 (_doors and panels_) panel-saw, 466 parallel bars, 164-166 -projection, 535 paring, 441-444 --chisel, see _chisel_ 357, 358 parting tool, see _carving tools_. patterns for bending, see _moulds_. pear (wood), 518 pencil, see _marking_, 414 perspective, isometric, 535 piazza, 283, 287-289 picture-frames, 216, 217 pigeon-holes, 200 --houses. see _houses for animals_. piers, 259, 260, 279 piles, 524 pincers, 445 pine, 518-520 pinning mortise and tenon, 425 pins for mortise and tenon, 426 pipe-rack, 188, 189 pistols and guns (wooden), 152-154 pitch, 525 -pine, 520 pith, crooked, 529, 530 plan, 532-534 -(boat), 229, 230 plane, 445-458 -how to hold, 446, 447 --iron, adjusting, 453, 454 -sharpening, see _sharpening_. -wooden jackor fore-, holding, 446 see _planes_. planer-marks, 458 planes, japanese, 13, 14 -makers, 22 -where to keep, 82 -wooden, oiling, 23. see _plane_. planing down stock, 44 planks, definition, 47 -laying, see _boards, laying_. -splitting, see _boards, splitting_. plans, see _working drawings_. plant-stands, 201, 202, 207 plaster of paris, 403 plates, 266 play-houses, -booths, or -stores, 241-259 -"cottage row," 271, 276 --village, 118-121, 271, 276 pliers, 445 -cutting-, 366 plough, 21, 451. see _plane_. plum (wood), 520 plumb, 96, 458 pod-bit, 353 pole, sprung, for pressure, 362 -for skis, 148 poles (for gymnastics), 173 polishing, 385, 386 poplar, 522 posts, corner-, 265, 266 -foundation, 262-264 -setting, 262, 263 potash, bichromate of, 498 poultry-houses, see _house-building for beginners_ and _houses for animals_. preservation of wood, decay and, 524-526 -of forests, 509 pressure, means of applying, see _clamps_ and _hand-screws_. projections, oblique or parallel, and isometric, 535 proportions of structures, 176, 240 punch (for nails), see _nail-set_, 433, 434 punts and scows, 299-308 purlins, 268 putty, 459 --knife, 459 -use of, 403, 439 quartered oak, 34, 179 queen-bolts, 159 quill-bit, 353 rabbet, 185, 187, 459 --hutch, 132, 133 --plane. see _plane_ 450, 451 rack, for books, 183, 184 -for pipes, 188, 189 -for table or desk, 184, 185 -for tools, 83, 84 rafters, 282 -arrangement of, 287 -hip-, 284 -jack-, 284 -laying out, 268 rails (of door or panel work), 370 -(of table), 204 rasp, 460 rasping. see _filing_. ratchet-brace, 351 ratchets (for shelves), 489 rat-tailed file, 380 raw oil. see _painting_, 437 rays, medullary, 29, 30 reamers, 353 rear elevation, 532 red cedar, 514 -deal, 519 -fir, 519 -lead, 438 (_painting_) -oak, 518 -pine, canadian, 519 redwood, 520 relishing (relished joint), 425 repairing furniture, 460-462 ribbands, 320 ribs, 314, 321, 324, 325 -bending. see _bending wood_. ridge-board, 268 rift-flooring, 36 -stock, 35, 36 rings, annual, 29 -swinging (gymnastic), 173 ripping-saw, 468, 469 (_saw_) risers, 289 rivets, 462 rock elm, 515 -maple, 517 rod, measuring, 53 roof-boards, 268 --timbers, 268 -durability of, 525 roofing-paper, 246, 258 roofs, 128, 268-270 -for house-boat, 341, 342 -hip-, 284-286 -lean-to, shed, or single-pitched, 241, 250 -overhang of, 282 rope twisted for pressure, 362 rosewood, 520 rot, wet and dry, 526 rounding sticks, 462-465 -form for, 95, 96 router, see _plane_, 451 rowboat, small, 308-311 rowboats, 299-317 rowlocks, 302, 306, 313 rubbing down, 384 rule, 465 -makers, 22 ruler, marking by, 415 runner-board, ice-boat, 334 runners, ice-boat, 335-338 running foot, 48, 244 runway for animals, 128, 276 rust, preventing, 23 rustic summer houses and arbours, 292, 293 saddle-boards, 269 sail-boat, small, 311, 328-332 sail, leg-of-mutton, 332 -sprit-, 332 san domingo mahogany, 517 sandpaper, 465, 466 -block, 466 sandpapering. see _sandpaper_. sanitary precautions, 277-279 sap, 30 sapwood, 29, 42, 43, 510 sassafras, 522 satinwood, 521 saw, 466-473 --filing, 485-487 (_sharpening_) saw-set, 473 sawing. see _saw_. -curves, 180 -joints to fit, 410 -log, ways of, 30-35 -lumber, 31-35 saws, japanese, 14, 15 -makers, 22 -where to keep, 82 scale (for drawings), 533 scarfing, bevelled, or splaying, 410, 411 schedule of materials, 55 scoring with cuts. see _paring_. scotch fir, 519 -pine, 519 scows and punts, 299-308 scrap-boxes, 85 scraper, 473, 474 -for beading, 345, 346 -japanese, 13, 14 -sharpening, 487, 488 (_sharpening_) -where to keep, 85 scraping. see _scraper_. scratch-awl, 345 (_awl_) screw-drivers, 475, 476 -for bit-brace, 476 -long and short, 476 screws, and their use, 476-479 -how to keep, 85 scriber. see _marking_, 414 scribing. see _marking_, 414-416 and 479, 480 seams of boat. see _caulking_. seasoned stock, 164, 177, 178 -tests for, 39, 40. see _seasoning lumber_. seasoning lumber, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 seat for corner, with shelves, 212 -outdoor, 210 second story, framing at, 296, 297 secret dovetailing, 373 -nailing. see _blind-_ and _sliver-nailing_, 432 section, 533, 534 see-saw, tilt or, 142-145 _sequoia_, 520 set (for nails), 433, 434 -(of saw), 467 setting glass, 391 setting mirrors, 391 -nails, 433, 434 -posts, 262, 263 -saws. see _sharpening_. settle, corner, with shelves, 212 -with table, 212-214 sewerage, 278, 279 shacks, 241-259 shagbark (hickory), 515 shakes, 531 sharpening tools, 16, 22, 23, 25, 480-488 sharpie (sail-boat), 328-332 shave. see _draw-knife_ and _spokeshave_. sheathing, 46, 47, 245, 269 -for canvas canoe, 325, 326 -outside of house with paper, 273 --paper, 246 -striking, 245 shed-roof. see _lean-to_. sheer plan, 229, 230 shelf for books, hanging, 185 shellac. see _finishing_. shell-bit, 353 (_bits_) shelves, corner, 190, 191 -ends of, 195 -for pipes, etc., 188, 189 -for wall, 187-189 -movable, 489 -or pigeon-holes, 200 shingles, 48, 269 shingling, 269, 270 -hips, 285, 286 shooting-board, 93, 94 -use of, 490, 491 shrinkage, 30-35 -effects of swelling and shrinking, 526-531. see _expansion and contraction_. shutter, 247, 258 side elevation, 532 --plates, 287 sills, 265 silver-grain or rays. see _medullary rays_ and _quartered oak_. single-pitched roof. see _lean-to_. site, selection of, 277-279 sizing of floor-beams, 267 skag, 307 skew-chisel, 357, 358 skiffs, 308-314 skis, 145-148 slab-sided file, 380 sleds, 155-163 slips, 435, 484 sliver nailing, 432 sloid knife. see _knife_, 411, 412 -work-bench, 57 smoke-pipe, 257-259 smoking wood, 524 smoothing, 179, 180, 450, 453, 457, 458. see _plane_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_. --plane, 448, 449 snake, wooden, 108, 109 sofa with bookcase, etc., 211 soft wood, 45 sole (of plane), 445 southern pine, 519, 520 specimens of wood, 44, 507, 508 sperm oil, 434 splaying (splice), 410, 411 splices. see _joints and splices_. spline, 491 split stock. see _rift_. splitting stock, 44, 527-529 -wood, 28, 491 spokeshave, 491, 492 -makers, 22 spoon-bit, 353 sporting-cabinet, 215, 216 spring-board, 170 spritsail, 332 spruce, 521 square, 492-495 --foot, 47, 244 (note) -makers, 22 -mitre, 349 -where to keep, 84, 85, and _frontispiece_ squaring work, 181 -with clamps, 360, 361 squirrel-house, 136-139 stacking lumber, 39, 44 -result of careless, 42 staining, 495-498 -shingles, 270 stains, creosote-, 270, 525 stairs, 289 -(for little houses), 123 staking out, 260-262 stands, for plants, 201, 202, 207 stands, small, 202, 207-209 star-shakes, 531 steam-chest, 347 steaming wood, 347 (_bending_) steel square, 495 --wool, 498, 499 steering (sleds), 159, 160, 163 stem-posts, 309, 310, 320-323 steps, 289 stern-post, 327. see _stem-posts_. "sticking" lumber. see _stacking_. stile (of door or panel work), 370 stilts, 141 stock (of plane), 445 -"built up," 409, 410, 530, 531 -care of, 44 -crossor crooked-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 -planing down, 44 -splitting, 527-529 -rift or split, 35, 36. see _lumber_. stop, bench-, 71-75 --chamfer, 357 -for drawers, 378 stove-pipe. see _smoke-pipe_. stores or houses, play-, 241-259 straight-bent chisel, 358 straight-edge, 86, 499 -marking by, 415 -to detect warping or winding. see _winding-sticks_. striking circles and arcs, 364, 365 stringers or strings (stairs), 289 strop, 85, 499, 500 stropping, 485 studding, 266, 287 -second-story, 296 sugar maple, 517 -pine, 519 summer cottages, simple, 271-290 --houses, 291-293 sunlight, 277, 278 swelling and shrinking, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 swing, giant, 172, 173 swords, wooden, 106, 107 sycamore, 521 table, and settle, or chair, 212-214 --top, putting on, 203, 205, 206, 209 tables, 203-209 tacks, 500 -for canvas canoes, 323 tallow, bayberry, 378 tamping, 263 tank, water-, for frogs, etc., 139, 140 tannic acid, 526 tape, 500 tar, coaland wood-, 525 teak, 522 templates, 231 tennis rackets, 104 tenon. see _mortising_. --saw. see _saw_ (_back-saw_). tenons (in repairing), 462 thole-pins, 302 thompson's island, 271 three-cornered file. see _file_. throat (of plane), 445 tilt, or see-saw, 142-145 timber, definition, 45 -durability of. see _lumber_. toboggan, 148-152 toe-nailing, 431, 432 toggle-joint, application of, 267 tool-cabinets, 96-101 --chest, 96, 97, 223, 224 --handles, oiling, 23 --rack, 83, 84 tools, 9-28 -and supplies, arrangement, 80-86, 96 -cabinet for, 96-101 -care of, 22, 23 -common, and their use, 344-505 -edge-, 25-28 -japanese, 14, 15 -lists of, 18-20 -makers, 22 -primitive, 9-15 -sharpening, 16, 22, 23, 25, 480-488 -"universal," 18 -use of, 23-25 toothed-plane, 449, 450 toothing, 449, 450 totlet town, 118-121 toughness, 40, 511 toy boats, hulls of, 227-237 -village, 118-121 toys, 106-125 trapeze, 173 travelling-cage, 140 traverse (sled), 156-163 traversing, 446 treads, 289 trees. see _felling and seasoning_ and _preservation of forests_. -big, 520 -broad-leaved, 511 -conifers or needle-leaved, 511 trestles, 88-90 triangular file, 380 trigger, 153 trimming. see _paring_. truing, grindstone, 398 -oil-stone, 435 -stock (surfaces), 179, 500, 501 trunk for centre-board, 330, 331 trying-plane, 447, 448 (_plane_) try-square. see _square_ (492). tulip wood, 48 tupelo, 522 turning, indian, 10, 11 --saw, 469, 470 turpentine. see _finishing_ and _painting_, 437, 438, 498, 526 turtles, frogs, lizards, etc., tank for, 139, 140 twist-drill, 501 "twister" (rope), 362 twisting. see _winding_. two-foot square, 495 undercutting, 195, 410 underpinning, 259, 260, 262-264, 279 undershot water-wheel, 116, 117 "universal" planes, 451 -tools, 18 varnish. see _finishing_. -japan, 438 --stains, 496 vaulting apparatus, 169 -board, 170 --horse, 170, 172 veining-tool. see _carving-tools_. village, play, "cottage row," 271-276 -totlet town, 118-121 vise, bench-, 65-71, 536 -for metal, 75, 76 vise, japanese carpenter's, 13 -parallelism of jaws, 67, 68 v tool, 357 wale-strips. see _gunwale strips_. wall-cabinet, 186, 189, 190 --shelves, 187-189 walnut. see _black walnut_, 513 warping of lumber, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 washboard. see _coaming_. washita stone, 434 water-line, 230 (footnote) -pure, 277-279 --table, 273 --tank for frogs, turtles, etc., 139, 140 --tight compartments, 318, 319 (footnote) --wheels, 116-118 wax finish, 381 weather-drying, 36, 40. see _seasoning_. weather-vane (steamboat), 115. see _windmills_. wedge for splitting, 28 wedges, 502, 503 wedging. see _wedges_. -tenons, 427, 428 wet rot, 526 weymouth pine. see _pine_. wheel, steering(for sled), 160 whetstone. see _oil-stone_. whetting. see _sharpening_. white ash, 512 -cedar, 514 -deal, 521 -lead. see _painting_. -mahogany, 517 -oak, 518 -pine, 518, 519 whitewood, 521 whittling, 4, 218, 219. see _knife_. willow, 522 winding, 41, 360, 526-531 --sticks, 503, 504 windmills, 109-116 window-casings, 272 --shutter, 258 -sliding, 248 windows and doors, sizes of, 276 wind-shakes, 531 wing compasses, 364 wire-edge, 480 withdrawing nails, 504, 505 wood, 29-48 (chapter iii.), 510-522. see _lumber_. -charring, 263, 264, 525 -checking and cracking, 31, 42, 526 -collection of specimens, 44, 507, 508 -colour of, 40 -cross-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 -curling and warping, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 -durability of. see _decay and preservation_. --filler, 385 -hard, 45 -methods of drying, 36-40, 522-524 -quality of, 33-35, 510, 511, 522 -seasoning of, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 -selection of, 33-45, 510, 511, 522 -shrinkage and swelling, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 -soft, 45 --tar, 525 -warped, 41. see _warping_. -winding, 41. see _winding_. wooden chain, 218, 219 -guns and pistols, 152-154 woods and some of their characteristics, 510-522 work-bench, 57-65 -first-class, 101, 536, 537 -makeshifts, 77-80 -position and care of, 74, 75 -sloid, 57 -top, 74, 536 working drawings, 49, 50, 532-536 -edge or surface, 54 workshop, 56-101, 259-270 wrench, 505 wrought nails, 433 yellow deal, 519 (_pine_) -fir, 519 -pine, 519 yew, 522 zinc, 438 (_painting_) the boy with an idea series. =i. the young mechanic.= practical carpentry. containing directions for the use of all kinds of tools, and for the construction of steam-engines and mechanical models, including the art of turning in wood and metal. by the author of "the lathe and its uses," etc. authorized reprint from english edition, with corrections, etc. illustrated, small 4to, cloth extra $1 75 "a valuable book, eminently useful to beginners, and suggestive even to the experienced and skilful."--_albany journal._ =ii. amongst machines.= by the author of "the young mechanic." embracing descriptions of the various mechanical appliances used in the manufacture of wood, metal, and other substances. profusely illustrated. 8vo, cloth $1 75 "a book of wondrous fascination, written in a clear, bright, pointed style. a volume to be commended above a dozen stories."--_boston traveler._ =iii. the boy engineers.= what they did and how they did it. by the author of "the young mechanic." 8vo, with 30 plates, cloth extra $1 75 "an eminently useful and timely book. we heartily commend this volume."--_national journal of education._ "a book of a class that can only be praised; the style is simple and easy, but manly and thoughtful."--_literary world._ =iv. the boy with an idea.= by mrs. eiloart. a vivid narration of the feats and freaks of a boy of an active turn of mind, who "wanted to know," and not content with knowing, wanted always to do. 8vo, cloth extra, illustrated $1 50 "an exceptionally attractive and wholesome book, that will fascinate all the bright boys, and stir up the dull ones."--_boston journal._ =v. learning to draw=; or, the story of a young designer. by viollet le duc. translated by virginia champlin. 8vo, with 130 illustrations $2 00 a work full of practical suggestions, not only for the student of art or of decorative designing, but for students and teachers in other departments. the author's theories of the art of teaching are both original and practical. g. p. putnam's sons, publishers, new york. books for the country =our insect friends and foes.= how to collect, preserve and study them. by belle s. cragin. with over 250 illustrations. 8^o, $1.75 miss cragin sets forth the pleasure to be derived from a systematic study of the habits of insects, and gives many points which will be of practical value to the beginner. she gives comprehensive descriptions of all the more important species to be found in the united states, together with illustrations of the same. =among the moths and butterflies.= by julia p. ballard. illustrated. 8^o, $1.50. "the book, which is handsomely illustrated, is designed for young readers, relating some of the most curious facts of natural history in a singularly pleasant and instructive manner."--_n. y. tribune_ =bird studies.= an account of the land birds of eastern north america. by william e. d. scott. with 166 illustrations from original photographs. quarto, leather back, gilt top, in a box, _net_, $5.00. "a book of first class importance.... mr. scott has been a field naturalist for upwards of thirty years, and few persons have a more intimate acquaintance than he with bird life. his work will take high rank for scientific accuracy and we trust it may prove successful."--_london speaker._ =wild flowers of the northeastern states.= drawn and carefully described from life, without undue use of scientific nomenclature, by ellen miller and margaret c. whiting. with 308 illustrations the size of life. 8^o, _net_, $3.00. "anybody who can read english can use the work and make his identifications, and, in the case of some of the flowers, the drawings alone furnish all that is necessary.... the descriptions are as good of their kind as the drawings are of theirs."--_n. y. times._ =the shrubs of northeastern america.= by charles s. newhall. fully illustrated. 8^o, $1.75. "this volume is beautifully printed on beautiful paper, and has a list of 116 illustrations calculated to explain the text. it has a mine of precious information, such as is seldom gathered within the covers of such a volume."--_baltimore farmer._ =the vines of northeastern america.= by charles s. newhall. fully illustrated. 8^o, $1.75. "the work is that of the true scientist, artistically presented in a popular form to an appreciative class of readers."--_the churchman._ =the trees of northeastern america.= by charles s. newhall. with illustrations made from tracings of the leaves of the various trees. 8^o, $1.75. "we believe this is the most complete and handsome volume of its kind, and on account of its completeness and the readiness with which it imparts information that everybody needs and few possess, it is invaluable."--_binghamton republican._ g. p. putnam's sons, 27 & 29 west 23d st., new york * * * * * transcriber's notes obvious punctuation and spelling errors and inconsistent hyphenation have been corrected. in ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it appears in the original. in this text version, italic text is denoted by _underscores_, bold text by =equal signs=, and spaced (gesperrt) text by +plus signs+. superscripts are represented with the caret character, e.g. 8^o. the word "bassoolah" is written without the diacritical marks used in the original. 